Unit 3

Data - Data can be defined as a collection of related observations.

Information - Information can be defined as processed data.
Types of Data
In statistics, data can be categorized into two types:

1. Attribute data
2. Variable data.
1. Variable data - Data obtained by actual measurement are continuous (or variable) data or those
characteristics that can be quantified and measurable are known as variables. e.g., diameter of ball
bearings, length of refills, weight of cricket balls, etc
2. Attribute data - The data obtained by counting are discrete (or attribute) data or all qualitative
characteristics are known as attributes. which classify the items/units into one of the two classes:
conforming or non-conforming, defective or nondefective, good or bad.
Types of variation –
1. Assignable or special cause of variation –
• Assignable or special cause of variation are larger in magnitude and can be easily
traced and detected.
• The reasons for assignable causes of variation are due to:
(a) Differences among machines,
(b) Differences among materials,
(c) Differences among processes,
(d) Differences in each of these factors over time, and
(e) Differences in their relationship to one another.
• The prime objective of a control chart is detecting assignable causes of variation by
analysing data (say, in length, diameter, weight or a part).
• Once the assignable causes of variations are identified and eliminated through
remedial actions, the process becomes statistically control. Actions on the part of
both management and workers will reduce the occurrence of such causes
significantly.
2. Chance or Common or Random cause of variation –
• Chance causes of variations are inevitable in any process. These are difficult to
trace and control even under best conditions of production. All occur at random.
• Random variations cannot be avoided. They are caused by factors such as human
variability from one operation cycle to the next, minor variations in raw materials,
fluctuations in working conditions, and lack of adequate supervision skills.
• A process operating under stable system of common causes is said to be in statistical
control. Management alone is responsible for common causes.
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 Control chart –

• A control chart is a graphical presentation of the collected information.

• The information pertains to the measured or otherwise judged quality characteristics of
the items or the samples. Therefore, a control chart is a diagnostic technique.
• In other words, a control chart is a graph that displays data taken over time and the
variations of this data.
• It is a tool to distinguish between chance and assignable causes of variations in a
process.
• The control chart is used to check whether the process is controlled statically or not.
• Control chart makes possible the diagnosis and correction of the many production
troubles.
• With the help of a control chart, one can find out the natural capability of a production
process.
• A control chart detects variations in the processing and warns if there is any departure
from specified tolerance limits.
• The control chart is used to evaluate the process stability and to detect when to adjust
the process.

Purpose and Advantages

• A control chart indicates whether the process is in control or out of control.
• It detects variations taking place in the process
• It ensures about the product quality level.
• It warns in time about the defect. If the defect is rectified, then scrap or percentage rejection
can be reduced.)
• Control charts built-up the reputation of the organization through customer's satisfaction..

Type of control charts

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 Control
chart

Process Product
control control

Variable Attribute Variable Attribute

𝑋ത Chart R chart p chart np chart c- chart

1. Control Charts for Variables - In quality control, the term variable means the quality
characteristic which can be measured, e.g., diameter of ball bearings, length of refills,
weight of cricket balls, etc. The control charts based on measurements of quality
characteristics are called control charts for variables. The following charts are used to
control process variability:
a. Range chart (R-chart) - A range control chart, also known as an R-chart, is a
statistical tool used in quality control to monitor the variability of a process. It is
particularly useful when dealing with continuous data, such as measurements or
observations taken over time.
b. Mean or average chart (X-chart) - A mean control chart, also known as an X-bar
chart, is a statistical tool used in quality control to monitor the central tendency or
average of a process over time. It's particularly useful in manufacturing and other
industries where maintaining consistent quality is crucial.
2. Control Charts for Attributes -The term attributes in quality control refers to those
quality characteristics, which classify the items/units into one of the two classes:
conforming or non-conforming, defective or nondefective, good or bad. There are two
types of attributes:
i. Where numerical measurements of the quality characteristics are not possible, for
example, colour, scratches, damages, missing parts, etc.
ii. Where numerical measurements of the quality characteristics are possible and items
are classified as defective or non-defective on the basis of the inspection. For
example, the diameter of a cricket ball can be measured by the micrometer but
sometimes it may be more convenient to classify the balls as defective and non-
defective using a Go-No-Go gauge (read the margin remark). I
In inspection of attributes, actual measurements are not done, but the number of
defective items (defectives) or number of defects in the item is counted. The size
of defect and its location is not important. Items are inspected and either accepted
or rejected. There are different types of control charts for attributes are –

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 a. p-chart - Control chart for fraction defective (fraction of rejected as non-
conforming).
b. np-chart - Control chart for number of defectives (number of non-
conforming item)
c. c-chart Control chart for number of defects (number of non- conformities)
d. u- chart- Control chart for number of defects per unit (number of non-
conformities per unit).

Non-conformity Vs. Non-conforming Item (Defect Vs. Defective):

• An item is said to be a non-conforming item or defective if it fails to conform to the

specifications in any of the characteristics.
• Each characteristic that does not meet the specifications is a non-conformity or defect.
• A non-conformity refers to a quality characteristic. Since an item may have many quality
characteristics (say, length and diameter of a shaft), it may have many non-conformities.
Non-conforming refers to the entire item. Thus, a non-conforming item may have many
non-conformities.
• Examples: (i) If a casting contains undesirable hard spots, blow holes, the casting is non-
conforming item (defective) and the hard spots, blow holes, etc., are the non-conformities
(defects).
• (ii) A paint bubble on the surface of a newly manufactured car may be a non-conformity,
yet the car was shipped as conforming.

Control limits Vs Specification limits

• Control limits identify the variation that exists between samples, or subgroups of
measurements. They do not to individual units. In other words, control limits are derived
from actual process performance, and are designed to show whether the process is in
statistical control or not.
• Specification limits are usually derived from customer requirements. These limits are
placed on a product characteristic by designers and engineers to ensure adequate
functioning of the product
• Generally, there are two types of specification limits:
1. LSL (Lower Specification Limit)
2. USL (Upper Specification Limit).

These limits quantify the requirement of customer. If a product falls in the range of
USL/LSL, the product is said to be meeting our customer's expectation. If the product does
not fall in the range of USL/LSL, then the product is said to be not satisfying our customer
need.
• Specification limit are called the "specs" or the "tolerances" of the product.

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S.No. Control Limits Specification (or Tolerance)
Limits
1 Voice of the process Voice of the customer
2 Calculated from data Defined by the customer
3 Appear on control charts Appear on histograms
4 Apply to samples or Apply to items (Specification
subgroups (Control limits limits are for individual
are for averages) values)
5 Guide for process actions Separate good items from bad
6 What the process is doing What we want the process to
do

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