MODULE 1

DATA GATHERING
 After successfully defending the thesis proposal, students should then be able to validate their
questionnaire and their experimental methodologies and execute the data collection proper.
Students shall be able to float their questionnaires and conduct experiments in order to yield data
that will then be analyzed and be able to draw conclusions from thereon.
 Data which have been gathered, processed and organized in data matrices, when left un-analyzed
are as good as information gathered at all. Without analyzing the research data, whether presented
in tabular form or not, there is no way the researcher will ever attain his research objectives. And,
without interpreting the results of data analysis, he is deprived of the meaning and implications of
the knowledge implied by the data.
DATA ANALYSIS
 Data analysis is the examination of gathered an organized information so as to attain research
objectives. It involves unit and level, certain procedures and appropriate statistical tools. The data
may either be qualitative, quantitative, or a combination of both. The type of data and the specific
objectives of the study influence the kind of analysis to be made. The analysis of data involves
decision regarding the unit and level of analysis to use and the procedures and statistical tools to
employ.

UNIT AND LEVEL ANALYSIS

 In deciding what unit and level of analysis to use the often-asked question has to do with the basis
or bases of making the right decision. The answer go back and examine the hypothesis of the
study because they will tell what unit and level of analysis to use. It should be remembered that
the research objectives are the very reasons for the conduct of study. Unless the study objectives
are met, unless the hypothesis have been validated or rejected, the issues raised by the study will
remain unsettled and the study will stay unfinished.
 Unit of Analysis refers to the element of the study population or the specific variable being
used in data analysis. Depending on the study, unit of analysis may be individuals or
aggregate of individuals or of groups, organizations or communities. With regard to variable
as unit of analysis, the researcher may use any specific variable of study such as sex, civil
status, educational attainment, residence, knowledge, and attitude and so on. These
variables are specified in the objectives and hypothesis of study.
 Level of Analysis is not easy to define. But it can be understood when one thinks of layers,
as in the structure of the society where layers consists of individuals, and group of
individuals from the family to community, town, province, region and nation. Each societal
layer is equivalent to a level of which can be utilized in the analysis of research data.
THE USE OF STATISTICS IN ANALYSIS
 In the analysis of research data, particularly quantitative data, the use of statistics is inevitable.
Without statistics as a tool of measurement, the researcher will have difficulty in examining the
data he gathered and in interpreting their implications or meaning. This is particularly true for
studies which involve a sizable population or sample, big number of variables, and require
comparative and relational studies.
SELECTING APPROPRIATE STATISTICAL TEST IN DATA ANALYSIS
 The choice of a statistical test or tool is dictated by the questions for which the research is
designed and the level, distribution and dispersion of the data. The following are the most
commonly-used statistical tests used in analyzing research data:

STATISTICAL TEST
1. Z-test of one population mean
 USE: To determine whether or not obtained sample mean or average scores is a random sample
from a population with known parameters.
2. Z-test of independent proportions
 USE: To determine whether or not there is a significant difference between two
independent/different groups on situations that call for two types of responses (dichotomous)
3. Z-test of dependent proportions
 USE: To test whether or not there is a significant difference between pairs of observations from a
single group, or to determine if the responses of the members of the group on two situations are
correlated
4. T-test of independent/uncorrelated means
 USE: To determine whether or not ab observed difference between the averages of two
different/independent groups is statistically significant.
5. T-test of dependent/correlated means
 USE: To determine whether or not there is a significant difference between the scores in terms of
means of two dependent/correlated groups.
6. One-way Analysis of Variance
 USE: To determine whether or not there are significant differences among means of three or
more groups
7. Two-way Analysis of Variance
 USE: To determine the main and interaction effects of two independent variables of the interval
type
8. Chi-square Test of Goodness of Fit
 USE: To determine whether or not there is a significant difference between the observed
distribution and the expected distribution. Compared data are ether both nominal, both ordinal or
nominal and ordinal.
9. Chi-square Test of Independence
 USE: To determine whether or not there is a significant correlation/relationship association
variable of the nominal type. between two
10. Spearman-Rank Order Correlation
 USE: To determine whether or not there is a significant correlation/relationship between two
variables of the ordinal type.
11. Goodman-Kruskal's gamma/Gamma Coefficient
 USE: To determine whether or not there is a significant relationship between two ordinal
variables.
12. Pearson's r Correlation ratio
 USE: To determine whether or not there is a significant relation between two variables of the
interval or ratio type.
13. Point-biserial coefficient of correlation
 USE: To find out where or not there is a significant relationship/correlation between the interval
and the nominal data.
14. Regression analysis
 USE: To find out whether there is a correlation between the interval and the nominal data.
15. Lambda Coefficient Guttman Coefficient of Predictability
 USE: To predict the value of one dependent variable from the corresponding value of the
independent variable of the interval type.

ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE FOR QUALITATIVE DATA

 Qualitative data can be analyzed by way of classifying them into categories. Observations or
responses which are essentially similar are put together into a class or category, making possible
for the quantification of data and expediting the task of analysis. All individual responses or
observations are more meaningful to the study when left unclassified, Therefore, the researcher
should not feel compelled to classify all individual responses or observations into classes or
categories.
 One question often asked in making plans for analysis has to do with the number of categories.
One has to be reminded that the reason for assigning numerous responses or observations of wide
range to few classes or categories is to facilitate analysis. The more categories there will be, the
 more difficult the analyses will be. For marginal analysis, a number of less than seven categories
would be easier to handle than when one analyzes each answer with around hundred categories.

In classification of answers/observations into categories the following basic rules should be applied:
 The set of categories should be exhaustive, that is, it should be possible to place every response in
one of the categories of the set
 The categories within the set should be mutually exclusive, meaning one should not place a given
response in more than one category within the set.
 Each category is to be treated separately as each is a separate component and; categories in one
level should not be combined with those in another level
ANALYTICAL PROCEDURE FOR QUANTITATIVE DATA
 Basically, quantitative analysis is used when the researcher deals with numerical data, that is,
information which were assigned numerical values which facilitate counting, summarization,
comparison and generalization. The said analysis requires the use of statistical tools, the
appropriateness of which is determined by the type of data and the type of measurement scale
used.
TYPES OF DATA:
 Parametric Data - parametric data are measured as with ratios and interval data. Parametric
statistical tests assume that the data are normally or nearly normally distributed. Parametric tests
are applied to both interval- and ratio scaled data.
 Non-parametric Data - non-parametric data are those which are counted or ranked such as a
nominal or ordinal data. Non-parametric tests, sometimes known as distribution free tests, do not
rest upon the more stringent assumption of normally distributed populations.
SCALES OF MEASUREMENT:
 Nominal - Nominal scales are without numerical or quantitative properties. They are considered
to be the lowest level of measurement - the scales least matching to the number system. They
have no zero point and cannot be ordered low or high and make no assumptions about equal units
of measurement. Data measured on nominal scales are called nominal data, sometimes called
categorical data.
 Ordinal - Ordinal scales are higher than the nominal scales because they involve quantitative
distinctions. They have the property of magnitude which allows the ordering of members of a
group of people or objects into ranks. In using this scale, one can say that one member of a
groups is not only different or similar but is also greater or less than the others in a criterion used.
Data measured on ordinal scales are called ordered data.
 Interval- In an interval scale, the difference or distance between two categories is known, equal
and constant. An interval scale has all the characteristics of nominal and ordinal scales plus the
added characteristics of a constant unit of measurement between categories that are equally
spaced. An interval scale does not have a true zero point that would indicate an absence od
something like temperature, altitude, height that is being measured. Data measured on interval
scales are called score data
  Ratio - Ratio scales not only possess the characteristics of the three measurement scales given
above but their level of measurement is based on the natural origin, an absolute zero point that
indicates the absence of a variable being measured.

Feynman Technique:
Alright! Let's break this down in the simplest way possible, like I’m explaining it to a 5-year-old.

1. T-tests

 Independent T-test (Uncorrelated Means): Imagine you have two different groups of
kids. One group is taller than the other. We want to check if the difference in height is big
enough that it really matters. That's what this test helps us do.
 Dependent T-test (Correlated Means): Now, let’s say we measure the same group of
kids’ heights twice: once before a growth spurt and once after. We want to check if they
grew enough for it to be important. This test helps us do that!

2. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

 One-Way ANOVA: Imagine you have three groups of kids. Each group is eating a
different amount of candy. We want to know if the candy amount really changes how tall
the kids are. This test checks if one group is different from the others.
 Two-Way ANOVA: Now, what if the candy amount and the amount of sleep are both
changing? This test checks how both things affect the kids’ height, and whether they
work together to make a difference.

3. Chi-square Tests

 Chi-square Test of Goodness of Fit: Let’s say you expected a group of kids to pick red,
blue, or green toys in equal amounts. This test checks if the kids picked the toys the way
you expected or if something’s different.
 Chi-square Test of Independence: Now, you want to see if kids who pick red toys also
like to play outside more than others. This test helps us check if there’s a connection
between two things, like picking toys and playing outside.

4. Correlation and Regression Analysis

 Spearman Rank Correlation: If you want to see if taller kids are also older, this test
checks if the order of kids' ages and heights is the same. It’s like checking if bigger
numbers go together.
 Goodman-Kruskal’s Gamma: This test also checks if two things are connected, but it’s
a bit more specific for when you have rankings, like if you rank how much candy each
kid gets.
 Pearson’s r Correlation: Imagine you want to see if there’s a strong link between how
much candy kids eat and how tall they grow. This test checks how strongly two things,
like height and candy, are connected.
  Point-Biserial Correlation: This test is for when one thing is a yes/no question (like "Do
you like candy?" Yes or No) and the other thing is a number (like how tall you are). It
checks if there’s a connection between the two.
 Regression Analysis: This is like a magic trick that predicts how much candy a kid will
get based on how tall they are. It tries to figure out how one thing affects another.
 Lambda Coefficient/Guttman Coefficient: These are tools to predict how something
will happen (like how tall a kid will grow) based on another thing, like how much sleep
they get.

5. Qualitative Data Analysis

 Purpose: When you ask a bunch of kids what their favorite color is, you get lots of
answers. This method helps you sort all the answers into categories (like "blue" or "red")
to make sense of the data. You don’t want to put “blue” in “red,” so you keep them
separate!
 Basic Rules for Classification:
o Exhaustive: Make sure every answer fits into a category.
o Mutually Exclusive: Don’t mix up answers. “Blue” shouldn’t go in “red.”
o Treat Categories Separately: Keep each group of answers as its own thing!

6. Quantitative Data Analysis

 Parametric Data: Imagine you’re measuring the height of kids. You expect most of
them to be around the same height, but there will be some taller and shorter ones. If the
data fits this pattern, you use special tests like T-tests or ANOVA to check the
differences.
 Non-Parametric Data: Sometimes, the data doesn’t follow a normal pattern. It could be
rankings (like who is 1st, 2nd, or 3rd in a race) or categories (like favorite colors). In this
case, you use different tests, like the Chi-square test, to check if there’s a pattern.

7. Scales of Measurement

 Nominal Scale: This is when you have categories without any order, like sorting kids by
favorite colors (blue, red, green). There’s no "better" or "worse" color, just different ones!
 Ordinal Scale: This is like when you rank kids by height. You know who’s the tallest
and who’s the shortest, but the difference between their heights might not be the same.
 Interval Scale: This is like measuring temperature. The difference between 10°C and
20°C is the same as between 30°C and 40°C, but there’s no “zero” temperature where
there’s nothing.
 Ratio Scale: This is like measuring how much water is in a glass. If there’s “zero” water,
then there’s truly nothing. The difference between 10ml and 20ml is just as important as
the difference between 100ml and 110ml.
 MODULE 2
B. MAIN LESSON

 PRINCIPLES OF ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

 DATA
- These are research results from which inferences are drawn. Usually numerical results, like scores
of tests and statistics (e.g. means, percentages, and correlation coefficients)
- Data Information Facts Knowledge.
 ANALYSIS
- Refers to the categorizing, ordering, manipulating and summarizing of data to obtain answers to
research questions
 INTERPRETATION
- In this principle, results of analysis are taken to make the inferences pertinent to the research
studied to draw a conclusion.
- It is a device through which the factors observed by the researcher in the study can be better
understood
DATA INTERPRETATION
 Is the process of reviewing data through predefined processes which will help assign some
meaning to the data and arrive at a relevant conclusion.
 This contains a discussion on the broader meaning of research result. Its components include
establishing continuity in research, undertaking, and establishing explanatory concepts.
 Data Analysis Interpretation
METHODS OF DATA INTERPRETATION
 QUALITATIVE DATA INTERPRETATION
- A method used to analyze and interpret qualitative data, which is also known as categorical data
- This method uses texts, rather than numbers or patterns to describe data
- Qualitative data is usually gathered using a variety of person-to-person techniques, which may be
difficult to
- analyze and interpret compared to quantitative data
 QUANTITATIVE DATA INTERPRETATION
- A method used to analyze and interpret quantitative data, which is also known as numerical data.
- This type of data contains numbers and is therefore analyzed with the use of numbers and not
texts.
- These data are analyzed using statistical techniques such as
✔Mean
✔Standard Deviation
✔Frequency Distribution, and,
✔Cohort analysis, etc.
  TIPS FOR COLLECTING ACCURATE DATA FOR INTERPRETATION
1. Identify the required data type
✔Are the data required in your research nominal, ordinal, interval or ratio data?
2. Avoid biases
✔ Biases are capable of affecting the process of data interpretation
3. Use close ended surveys
✔Although open-ended surveys are capable of giving detailed information about the question and will
allow the respondent to fully express themselves, it is not the best kind of survey for data interpretation
since it will require a lot of coding to be analyzed.
✔ Close-ended surveys allow you to simultaneously eliminate irrelevant data

TIPS FOR INTERPRETATION OF DATA

1. Report the results of any statistical test you used to compare groups or assess relationships
between variables, stating whether or not your hypothesis was supported.
2. Write both the description and implication of your phytochemical analysis reposts (for
experimental studies).
3. Structure your quantitative results in a frame for each question or hypothesis.
4. Write a concise summary of each result including relevant descriptive statistics
5. Write a brief statement of how the result relates to the questions or whether your hypothesis
was supported.
6. Make sure you include all relevant results, both positive and negative.
7. Avoid presenting raw data in your chapter IV, you may include it in an appendix so that the
readers can check your results for themselves.

CHARTING & TABLES: DATA VISUALIZATION

 Data visualization is one of the best practices of data interpretation. Makes it easy for a layman to
understand the data, and also encourages people to view the data, as it provides a visually
appealing summary of the data
VISUALIZATION TECHNIQUES IN DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
• BAR GRAPHS
 Graphs that interpret the relationship between 2 or more variables using rectangular bars
(horizontal or vertical)
 Advantages include:
✔It helps summarize a large data
✔ Estimation of key values can be made at a glance
✔Can be easily understood.
 Disadvantages include:
X It may require additional explanation
X It can be easily manipulated
X It doesn't properly describe the dataset
 Types include:

Grouped Bar Graph -Used to show more information about variables that are subgroups of the same
group
Stacked Bar Graph- A grouped bar graph with its rectangular bars stacked on top of each other.
Segmented Bar Graph - Are stacked bar graphs where each rectangular bar shows 100% of the
dependent variable.

 PIE CHART
 Is a circular graph used to represent the percentage of occurrence of a variable using sectors.
 The size of each sector is dependent on the frequency or percentage of the corresponding
variable.
 Advantages include:
✔ It is visually appealing.
✔ Best for comparing small data samples.
 Disadvantages include:
x It can only compare small sample sizes.
x Unhelpful with observing trends over time.
  Types:

Simple Pie Chart -Most basic type of pie chart, which is used to depict the general representation of a
bar chart.
Doughnut Pie Chart -Most basic type of pie chart, which is used to depict the general representation of a
bar chart.
3D Pie Chart- Is used to give the chart a 3D look and is often used for aesthetic purposes

 TABLES
 Are used to represent statistical data by placing them in rows and columns.
 Most common visualization technique
 Advantages:
✔Can contain large data sets
✔Helpful in comparing 2 or more similar things.
 Disadvantages:
x They do not give detailed information
x Can be time-consuming.
 LINE GRAPH
 A type of graph that displays information as a series of points, which is usually connected by a
straight line.
 It is usually used to show the trend of data over time, or to compare categories
 Advantage:
✔ Great for visualizing trends and changes over time
✔It is simple to construct and read
 Disadvantage:
X It cannot compare different variables at a single place or time.

Feynman technique:

Alright! Let me explain the key concepts in simple terms like you're a 5-year-old, using the
Feynman technique:

What is Data?

Imagine you’re counting how many apples and oranges you have. If you say, "I have 5 apples
and 3 oranges," that’s data! It’s just numbers that help us understand something.
What is Analysis?

Analysis is like sorting your apples and oranges into different baskets—one for apples and one
for oranges. It helps you see things clearly, like how many apples or oranges you have, or how
they compare to each other.

What is Interpretation?

Interpretation is when you figure out what your apples and oranges mean. For example, you
might say, "I have more apples than oranges," or "I can make a fruit salad with these!" It’s about
understanding the numbers or facts in a way that makes sense.

Types of Data

1. Qualitative Data: This is when you describe things without numbers. For example, "I
have a red apple and a green apple." It’s more about describing things using words, like
colors or shapes.
2. Quantitative Data: This is when you use numbers to describe things. For example, "I
have 3 apples and 2 oranges." This is all about counting!

How to Analyze and Interpret Data:

 Collecting Data: If you want to know how many toys each of your friends has, you
might ask them and write it down. But it’s important to ask the right questions!
 Interpreting Data: After collecting, you can look at the answers and figure out what
they mean, like, "Most of my friends have more than 10 toys!"

Charts and Graphs:

Sometimes it’s hard to understand numbers just by looking at them, so we use pictures to make it
easier!

1. Bar Graphs: Imagine you stack blocks to show how many toys different friends have.
You can quickly see who has the most toys by looking at the tallest stack.
2. Pie Charts: Imagine cutting a cake into slices. Each slice shows how much each friend
has, like 1/4 of the cake is for one friend. You can easily see who has the biggest slice!
3. Tables: These are like a list. You write down each friend's name and how many toys they
have, so it’s easy to compare.
4. Line Graphs: Think of drawing dots on paper to show how your toy collection changes
over time. You connect the dots with a line to see if your toys are growing!
Why Charts Are Helpful:

 Bar Graphs help us compare things, like who has more toys.
 Pie Charts help us see percentages, like how much of the total toys each person has.
 Tables help organize a lot of information in one place.
 Line Graphs help us see how things change over time, like how your toy collection
grows each month!

So, in short:

1. Data is just numbers or information.

2. Analysis is when you organize and sort that data.
3. Interpretation is when you make sense of what it all means, like drawing conclusions!

And we use graphs and charts to help make the information easier to understand!

MODULE 3
B. MAIN LESSON

 RESEARCH DATA MANAGEMENT

Research data takes many forms, ranging from measurements, numbers and images to documents and
publications. Research Data Management is the care and maintenance of the data that is produced during
the course of a research cycle. An integral part of the research process that helps to ensure that the data
gathered is properly organized, described, preserved and shared.

 DATA QUALITY
Data quality is the measure of how well suited a data set is to serve its specific purpose. It is crucial in
research writing since it assesses whether the information can serve its purpose in a particular context
(such as data analysis and interpretation).
 Characteristics of data with good quality:

Characteristic How it is measured?

ACCURATE
Is the information correct in every detail?

Note: accuracy is crucial data quality because

inaccurate information can cause significant
problems and consequences
COMPLETE How comprehensive is the information?

RELEVANT Do you really need this information?

TIMELY How up-to-date is the information?

Can it be used for real-time reporting?

 RESEARCH-CHAPTER IV
 The Chapter IV of the thesis paper is also known as the "Results & Discussions" chapter.
 This is the part of a manuscript where the results from the conducted research is written
down and described to be understood by the readers.
 Results are then written in an honest and concise manner while making sure that the
problems posted in the beginning of the research are being answered.
 In this chapter, you will observe graphs, tables and other figures as visual interpretation of
the results.

 HOW DO WE WRITE CHAPTER IV?

 Once you've finished collecting and analyzing your data, you can begin writing up the
results. This is where you report the main findings of your research.
 All relevant results should be reported concisely and objectively in a logical order. You may
use tables and graphs to illustrate specific findings.
 Don't include subjective interpretations of why you found these results or what they mean
your evaluation should be saved for the discussion.
 If you're doing empirical research, it's important to report the results of your study before
you start discussing their meaning. This gives the reader a clear idea of exactly what you
found and keeps the data itself separate from your interpretation of it.
 The results should be written in the past tense. The length of this chapter depends on how
much data you collected and analyzed, but it should be written as concisely as possible.
Only include results that are relevant to answering your research questions.

MODULE 4
B. MAIN LESSON

CHAPTER 5-SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 Chapter 5 summarizes the conclusions and recommendations emanating from this study. It begins
by looking at a summary of the initial aims and objectives, its rationale, and a synopsis of the
literature findings.
 This chapter includes a brief discussion presented according to each of the main research
questions followed by the outcomes of this study. The lessons learned, the strengths, the
 weaknesses and the special contributions of this study are covered in this section. And finally, it
concludes with a list of recommendations.
 This chapter of research is where you delve into the meaning, importance and
 relevance of your results.
 It should focus on explaining and evaluating what you found, showing how it relates to your
literature review and research questions, and making an argument in support of your overall
conclusion.
 There are many different ways to write this section, but you can focus your discussion around
four key elements:
 Interpretations: what do the results mean?
 Implications: why do the results matter?
 Limitations what can't the results tell us?
 Recommendations: what practical actions or scientific studies should follow?
WRITING THE RESEARCH SUMMARY
1. Start this chapter by reiterating your research problem and concisely summarizing your major findings
2. Do not just repeat all the data you have already reported in the previous chapter, aim for a clear
statement of the overall result that directly answers your main research question.
3. Give your interpretation by identifying how the results answer your research question.

4. The form of your interpretations will depend on the type of research, but some typical approaches to
interpreting the data include:
 Identifying correlations, patterns and relationships among the data.
 Discussing whether the results met your expectations or supported your hypotheses
 Contextualizing your findings within previous research and theory
 Explaining unexpected results and evaluating their significance .
 Considering possible alternative explanations and making an argument for your position
5. You may organize your discussion around key themes, the hypotheses, or per research question.
Remember: The main goal of the research summary is to offer the reader a detailed overview of the
study with the key findings