Protection and

Disconnecting Devices

Prof. Dr. Mohamad Fawzi

Kotb 1
2
Power System Structure

3
 Overview of
Power Systems

A typical power
system
configuration
MV and LV distribution system
Control Equipment Functions

6
Control Equipment

7
Control Equipment

8
Control Equipment

9
National Load Dispatch Center
Regional Load Dispatch Center
Load Dispatch Center Room

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 Why protection is needed?

Faults CANNOT be prevented

Protection equipment cannot predict or
prevent a fault from happening.

11
 Consequences of sustained fault
✓ Damage to the equipment,

✓ Explosions in equipment,

✓ Overheating of system equipment,

✓ Causing undervoltages or overvoltages,

✓ Blocking power flow and Causing reduction in

stability margins,

✓ Causing improper operation of equipment due to

system unbalance,

✓ May lead to loss of production.

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 Principles Of Protection
✓ The affected part of the system should be
disconnected quickly before any avoidable damage
is done.

✓ The protection should not operate unnecessarily.

✓ Transient disturbances are liable to occur on most

systems for many reasons connected with
operation, and most electrical plant is capable of
operating safely with moderate over- loads for
short periods

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 Principles Of Protection

✓ The disconnected amount of equipment is to be kept

to the minimum necessary to clear the fault,

✓ The sensitivities of the various protection devices, be

so graded and related that only that device needed
to clear the fault actually operates “discrimination‘.

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 Protection philosophy
• Selectivity - Stability - Speed – Sensitivity

• Emphasis on Speed for the following

reasons:
– To minimize damage and repair costs.

– To reduce production downtime.

– To prevent undue thermal and magnetic overstressing of

healthy equipment on through fault.

– To keep voltage depressions as short as possible in the

interests of plant stability.

– Above all, to assist in protecting personnel from the effects

of Arcs and Sparks.
 Solution

It MUST trip when It must NOT trip

required when not required
 Overloads vs “Over-current”

Overload Overcurrent
No faults in the system. occurs during faults.
Currents slightly exceeding the Very large currents due to fault
rated current. in the system.
insulation failure and shorts to
Usually equipment can
earth.
withstand in terms of ‘minutes’.
Usually associated with motors Must be cleared very quickly to
limit let through energy and for
safety reasons.
Overload curve –
ideally just below equipment Overcurrent relay – not suitable
thermal withstand curve for protection against overloads
Overload relay – does NOT
provide overcurrent protection
Basic components of protection
Basic components of protection
 Sources of Short Circuits

▪ There are four basic sources of short-

circuit current: -
1. Generators

2. Synchronous Motors

3. Induction Motors

4. Electric Utility System

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Sources of Short Circuits

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Distinction between load and fault currents

22
 Power system protection
basic qualities
1. Selectivity: To detect and isolate the faulty item only.

2. Stability: To leave all healthy circuits intact to ensure continuity or

supply.

3. Sensitivity: To detect even the smallest values of fault current or

system abnormalities and operate correctly at its setting before the fault
causes irreparable damage.

4. Speed: To operate speedily when it is called upon to do so, thereby

minimizing damage to the surroundings and ensuring safety to
personnel.
 Reliability

▪Incorrect design.

▪Incorrect installation.

▪Deterioration

▪Dependable & secure.

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 Selectivity

▪Time graded systems

▪Current graded systems

▪Time and current graded systems

25
 Stability
▪ The ability of the system to remain inert

to all load conditions and faults external

to the relevant zone

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 Sensitivity

▪ the minimum operating current of a

complete protective system

▪ When the term is applied to an individual

relay, it refers to the volt-ampere

consumption at the minimum operating

current.
27
 Various forms of protection
• Need for dividing into zones and providing
unit protection
 Power system protection
introduction
• Customers always demand power on a continuous
basis without interruptions.
• Hence it is necessary to foresee the likely
interruptions that may occur in the distribution
system to detect failures and to isolate only the
faulty sections.
• Protective equipment or protective relay is used in a
power network to detect, discriminate and isolate
the faulty equipment in the network to ensure that
the rest of the system is fed with continuous power
and at the same time, damage to faulty section is
minimized.
 Power system protection
basic requirements

1. To safeguard the entire system to ensure

continuity of supply.

2. To minimize damage and repair costs.

3. To ensure safety of personnel.

 Electrical fault energy
Why is Speed Important?

Energy released into fault = I2 x R x t

Where:
I = Fault Current

R = Resistance of Fault Arc

t = Time in seconds when fault is ON.

So, the faster the fault clearing time, the less is the energy
released.
 The need for speed
• Fault Current = 4000 Amps

• Clearance Time = 350 milliseconds

• Assume ARC Resistance of 1 Ohm

• Fault Energy = I2 x R x t = 4000 x 4000 x 1 x 0.35

= 5.6 Mega Joules

• If clearance time is reduced to 100 milliseconds

• Fault Energy = 4000 x 4000 x 1 x 0.1

= 1.6 Mega Joules

• HENCE, A 70% REDUCTION!

If steps could be taken to also reduce level of fault current then major
strides would be made.
33
 Primary objectives

– Minimize outages when abnormal conditions

occur, so that continuity of service to

customers is maintained

– Minimize and contain damage

– Operate precisely and provide the correct

remedial action
• WHAT " is to be protected ?

– Plants and Machines. Distribution system

– Generators, Transformers, Motors

– Cables, Consumer installation and apparatus

• “WHY” and against “WHAT "?

– Excessive current will -

• quickly over heat conductors leading

to eventual failure,

• fire hazard to surroundings.

• severe mechanical forces are also set

up between current carrying
conductors.
• “WHY” and against “WHAT "?

– An example
• Consider a 50 kA fault current lasting 200 ms in a 415V
switch board.

• Heat produced = Elt joules

= 415x50000xO.2.= 4150000 joules

• Sufficient enough for a domestic kettle to boil one liter

water in less than15 ms.

• Mechanical forces developed per meter length of two

busbars 75mm apart is estimated to be 1.7 tons!

• “WHY” and against “WHAT "?

– Failure due to sustained operation outside the

designed ratings

– Fault conditions occurring very rapidly due to

sudden failure of components caused by

electrical, mechanical or other external reasons.

 Faults and Fault levels

• Level of fault currents

–Install the right type of switchgear

(withstand the expected thermal and mechanical

stresses)

–A proper system of protection worked out.

 Faults and Fault levels
• Types of faults
1. Single line to earth fault

2. Line to line fault

3. Double line to earth fault

4. Double line & third line to earth (at

same time) fault
5. Three phase fault

6. Simultaneous fault
 Faults and Fault levels
• Per unit resistance and reactance
–The use of per unit system simplifies the
fault calculations
– Rpu = I R/V,
– Similarly, Xpu = I X/V
– The % resistance will be Rp = (I R/V)x 100, and
– The % resistance will be Xp = (I X/V)x 100
–Fault MVA = Base X
MVA
PU
 Faults and Fault levels

• In the following example the symmetrical fault

is considered.
• The source reactance is neglected for
simplicity.
• Formulae used for calculations are

Base MVA
Fault MVA =
XPU

Fault MVA x 103

Fault Current =
3 x Base kV
 Faults and Fault levels

1 2 11kV/440v
11kV/440v
500 KVA 1 MVA
Z= 4.5%, Z= 5 %,

Fault MVA = Fault MVA =

0.5/0.045 = 11 1/0.05 =
MVA 20 MVA

ISC = [11000/(3x0.440)] ISC =

[20000/(3x0.440)]
= 14434 Amps
= 26243 Amps
M M
Faults and Fault levels

P
 Faults and Fault levels

Z=5% Z=5% Z=5% Z=2. 5%

P P
Fault MVA = P
Fault MVA =
1/0.05 = 20 MVA
1/0.025= 40 MVA
ISC =
ISC =
20000/(3x0.440)]
40000/(3x0.440)]
= 26243 Amps
= 52486 Amps
Impedance diagram Impedance diagram
With LV section With LV section
breaker open breaker closed
 Faults and Fault levels
• LV fault currents are in general higher than the HV in

some cases much higher indeed

• On many installations the LV fault level with the LV

section breaker closed (that is, with both transformers

feeding in parallel) exceeds the breaking capacity of

the largest LV circuit-breaker available. It is therefore

necessary to ensure that the switchgear fitted is not

subjected to such a possible fault.

 Classification of Faults
1- Faults are classified into two major groups
• Balanced
• Unbalanced
2- Balanced Faults are the most severe. They involve all three phases possibly
connecting the fault point directly to ground (arc-resistance neglected) they
cause extremely severe fault currents and system disturbances.

3- Unbalanced Faults include phase-to-phase, phase-to-ground, and phase-to

phase to- ground faults. They are not as severe as balanced faults because not
all phases are involved.

4- During unbalanced faults negative and zero-sequence currents will flow

through “earth”.
5- Negative sequence currents, if sustained will cause overheating to machines.
Note that all Generators are “protected” against prolonged zero sequence
currents, which would otherwise cause overheating.
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 Basic components of protection

1. Voltage Transformers and Current Transformers: to measure the

parameters of a system.

2. Relays: To convert the signals from the above devices and give instructions
to operate a switching device or to give alarms under fault conditions.

3. Fuses: To protect the downstream equipment being protected by self

destruction.

4. Circuit breakers: To make and break circuits carrying enormous currents.

5. DC Batteries and associated charger: To give uninterrupted power to the

relays and breakers independent of the main power source being protected.
(Some industries are using UPS systems as well or combinations thereof)
Current Transformer Voltage Transformer
CT VT
 Symbols

current transformer: one output at the secondary

two alternative symbols

two coils with the same core double core current transformer
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51
knee-point of excitation curve

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Typical Current Transformers

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 Instrument Transformers (IT)
Classifications

• Protective IT
– Used in association with relays trip
coils, pilot wires etc.

• Measuring IT
– Used in conjunction with ammeter,
wattmeter etc.

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Instrument Transformers: - IEC 60044
IEC 185 & 186
✓Current Transformer (CT).

✓Voltage Transformer (VT) = Potential

Transformer (PT).

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Standards Related

• IEC BS 60044

• IEC BS 60185

• IEC BS 60186

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 Discrimination & Backup

– Preferential or selective operation of protection

devices

– With relays set to achieve discrimination, each

breaker is automatically made to act as back up
for the next breaker down the network

– Fuses or MCCB are used as back up protection

often when the disconnecting device is a contactor
Fundamental principle of protective
relaying
Fundamental principle of protective
relaying
 Fundamental principle of protective
relaying
• Unit protection

– Unit protection relays causes the

disconnection of specific apparatus or circuits
for which it is intended

– For the protection of specific equipment such

as generators, transformers, and transmission
lines the discriminated setting of relays will
be too high to prevent damage in the event of
an internal fault
 Fundamental principle of protective
relaying

• Unit protection

– Restricted earth fault protection, Differential

current protection, Motor protection etc. fall in

to this category.
 Fundamental principle of protective
relaying

• Devices for the detection of faults

– Protection relays in conjunction with current

and voltage transformers are control devices

used to detect the abnormal situation and

initiate a command for the opening of circuit

breakers or contactors
 Fundamental principle of protective
relaying

• Logic pattern of the protection system

SETTINGS

INPUT MEASURE/ OUTPUT

DETECTION
(V, A, Hz, Temp., etc.) COMPARE (N/O, N/C Contacts)
Relays Classification

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 Relays
➢ Over current and earth fault
Widely used in All Power Systems
1-Non-Directional
2-Directional
➢ DIFFERENTIAL
For feeders, Bus-bars, Transformers,
Generators etc
1- High Impedance
2- Low Impedance
3- Restricted E/F
4- Biased
5- Pilot Wire
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➢ Distance
Relays
For transmission and sub-transmission lines and distribution
feeders, also used as back-up protection for transformers and
generators to provide unit protection e.g.:

1- Permissive under reach protection (PUP)

2- Permissive overreach protection (POP)

3- Unblocking overreach protection (UOP)

4- Blocking overreach protection (BOP)

5- Power swing blocking

6- Phase comparison for transmission lines

7- Directional comparison for transmission lines

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 Relays
➢ Miscellaneous:

1- Under and over voltage

2- Under and over frequency

3- A special relay for generators, transformers,

motors etc.

4- Control relays: auto-reclose, tap change

control, etc.

5- tripping and auxiliary relays

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 Fundamental principle of protective
relaying

• Disconnection of the faulty apparatus or circuits

– Switchgear is a general term used to cover

wide range of equipment concerned with
switching and protection

– Besides the function of switching , a device

also should be capable of making or breaking
circuit under fault or abnormal condition
 Fundamental principle of protective
relaying
• Circuit-breakers

– Electric device that can switch on or off circuits at

normal and up normal conditions

– Designed to interrupt current which may be over ten

times greater than normal full-load current.

– It achieves this by breaking the current flow in a

specially designed interrupter

Electrical Control and Disconnection
devices

C.B. TRIP VT

Closin
CT Tripping
g
POWER coil
(50) SUPPLY coil
RELAY
 Electrical Control and Disconnection
devices

• Contactors

– Contactors are rated to close onto the most

severe faults but have limited breaking capacity

– The main contacts of the contactors will be

normally open i.e., will open when its operating
solenoid loose supply by the operation of
protection relay
 Electrical Control and Disconnection
devices
• Devices that Detect and Disconnect as well

– Devices, which can detect the fault and

disconnect the faulty part of the system

themselves.

– The most common are the Fuses and Molded

Case Circuit Breakers (MCCB)

 Electrical Control and Disconnection
devices
• Devices that Detect and Disconnect as well

– Fuses

• An intentional 'weak link' in an electrical circuit

and, suitably, rated, is particularly apt for the
quick interruption of short-circuit currents.

• Economical protection

• Expendable and have to be replaced after they

have operated
 Electrical Control and Disconnection
devices
• Devices that Detect and Disconnect as well

– MCCB and MCB

• Compact devices having thermal and

magnetic trip built into a switch capable of
breaking high current compared to their
size

• Housed in a molded plastic case

• An MCB is a small version of MCCB having

smaller rating
 Comparison Between fuse And Circuit Breaker
Particular Fuse Circuit Breaker

Performs Both Detection and Performs Interruption Only. The

Function
Interruption detection made by relay

Inherently completely Requires elaborate equipment for

Operation
Automatic automatic action ( relay)
Breaking
Large Very Large
Capacity
Comparatively Large
Operating Time Very Small (0.005 Sec )
(0.1 to 0.2 sec.)

Replacement Require replacement No replacement

Maintenance Maintenanceless Need Maintenance

Zone Can not be used for zone

Can be used
Protection protection
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 Comparison between CB and Contactor

Item CB Contactor

Making Current Yes Yes

Breaking Current Yes No

Frequent Operation No Yes

Latching Usually Sometimes

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Types of Relay

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 Types of Relay
Electromechanical Relays Electronic Relays

✓ Overshooting Errors
✓ Need more maintenance and ✓Overshooting Errors-No
calibration. ✓Setting through dip-switches
✓Wide functions in same relay
✓ Limited functions
✓ Setting through dials & taps
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 Digital Relays

✓ Simple & Smaller Size

✓ Cheaper
✓ Less Maintenance
✓ Fault record & event logger,
✓ Relay data accessed remotely.

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The next generation of protective relays

✓Past – electromechanical

✓Present - static and µP

✓Future - Intelligent?
(ANN, ES based, GA, etc …)

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 Electromagnetic-Type Relays
A. Magnetic attracted armature relays
1. Attracted armature type (clapper type)
2. Plunger type
B. Magnetic induction relays
1- Watt-metric-type relay
• Induction relay
• Induction Type Relay with plug settings
2- Induction-Cup relay
3- Shaded-pole relay
C. Moving coil
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D. Thermal
Attracted Armature

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Attracted Armature

84
Plunger “Solenoid” type relay

85
 Attracted -Type Relays
Instantaneous Overcurrent Relay

86
 Plunger-Type Relays
– When the coil is energized by a current i, and
saturation phenomena are neglected, the
energy W(λ, i) and the co-energy W’ (i, x)
stored in the magnetic field.

– λ: Flux linkage of the coil

– L : Inductance of the coil

– Force that tries to pull the plunger

• K is a constant depending upon the constants

of the electromagnetic circuit and a is the
height of the pole-piece 87
 Plunger-Type Relays
– The plunger moves when magnetic force
Fm larger than spring force Fs at value of
current equal to or larger than pick up
current Ip

– For sinusoidal current , Fm is proportional to

I2

– x0 is the displacement of the plunger when

no current is flowing in the coil

– When plunger travels some distance, from

x0 to x1, before it closes its contacts and hits
a stop
- The dropout current can return plunger to its original 88
position
 Induction-Type Relays

Induction Disc Relay

induction relay with plug setting induction relay without plug setting

89
Induction-Type with shaded pole Relays

90
 Induction-Type Relays

Moving cup induction relay Induction Disc Relay

– It is based upon the principle of operation of a single-phase AC motor

– Induction-type relays require two sources of alternating magnetic flux in which the
moving element may turn.

– The two fluxes must have a phase difference between them; otherwise, no
operating torque is produced.

– Shading rings mounted on pole faces may be used to provide one of the two
91
fluxes to produce motor action
 Induction-Type Relays
Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

– Permanent magnets – may be used to provide special damping

characteristics.

– If Lm is the mutual inductance between each of the coils and the rotor, each
current produces a flux linkage with the rotor

– Each of these flux linkages in turn induces a voltage in the rotor

92
 Induction-Type Relays
Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

– Where rotor is a metallic structure with low self-inductance , it will have

current in phase with the induced voltages flows in the rotor.

– If rotor resistance is Rr, the induced rotor currents are given by

– Each of the rotor currents interacts with the flux produced by the other coil,
producing a force.

– The two forces are in opposite directions with respect to each other, and

the net force, or, what amounts to the same thing, the net torque τ ,

93
 Induction-Type Relays
Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

94
 Induction-Type Relays
Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

95
Inverse Over current Characteristic with different
TSM

96
Inverse Over current Characteristic with different TSM

97
Inverse Curves

98
Inverse Characteristic

99
Over Current Relay Characteristics
Standards

100
IEC-60255 Standard

101
Inverse time overcurrent relay with a definite
minimum time limit at high fault currents.

102
 Electromagnetic Relays

❑ Advantages
1)Simple design and operation.

2)Low cost.

3)Stable .

❑ Disadvantages
1)High energy levels required in the measuring circuits.

2)Executive Maintenance due to moving parts.

3)Large operating time.

4)Overshoot.

5)Conventional characteristic.

6)Slow reset action.

 Solid State Relays (SSRs)

❑ Parts of a solid-state relay

1) Input circuit section.
2) Electrical isolation.
3) Driver circuit.
4) Output section.
▪ Unlike electromechanical type, they do not posses any mechanically
moving parts.

▪ On the other hand, it consists of semiconductor and electronic components

within.

▪ In solid-state relays, the electromagnetic section is replaced by

optocoupler and required driver circuits and the output contact section is
replaced by a TRIAC or transistor plus snubber and driver circuits.
 Solid-State Relays

1. The AC input from the current transformer CT is rectified and converted to

DC voltage Vin through shunt resistance.
2. A delay time circuit (RC) is used to produce the required time delay.
3. If Vin < VR, the base – emitter of transistor TR1 is reversed bias forcing the
transistor to be in the cut off state.
4. When Vin > VR, transistor TR1 will be in the ON state and in turn will turn
on TR2 and the output relay is activated.
105
5. VR is set by R1 and R2.
Electronic Inverse Time Overcurrent Relay

106
 Solid-State instantaneous overcurrent Relays

1. The input current I is passed through the resistive shunt R, full-wave rectified by
the bridge rectifier B, filtered to remove the ripple by the R–C filter, and applied to
a high-gain summing amplifier A.

2. The other input of the summing amplifier is supplied with an adjustable reference
voltage er.

3. When the input on the positive input of the summing amplifier exceeds the
reference setting, the amplifier output goes high, and this step change is delayed
by a time-delay circuit, in order to provide immunity against spurious transient
107
signals in the input circuit.
 Solid-State Relays

1. It provides a similar function to an electromechanical relay but does

not have any moving components, increasing long-term reliability

2. Its design is based on the use of analogue electronic devices

instead of coils and magnets to create the relay characteristic.

3. Early versions used discrete devices such as transistors and

diodes in conjunction with resistors, capacitors, inductors, etc.,

4. Advanced electronics enabled the use of linear and digital

integrated circuits in later versions for signal processing and

implementation of logic functions

108
 Solid State Relays
❑Advantages
1) Low burden on current and voltage transformers.

2) Absence of mechanical parts.

3) Very fast operation and logic life.

4) Absence of overshoot.

5) More accurate.

6) Low energy levels required in the measuring circuits.

7) Low maintenance

8) Easy of providing amplification enable greater sensitivity.

 Solid State Relays

❑Disadvantages
1)Limited capability of temperature.

2)Complex in design.

3)Aging.

4)Sensitivity to voltage spikes.

5)Damage due to overloading.

 Computerized Relays
❑ The current and voltage signals from the power system are processed by signal

conditioners consisting of analog circuits, such as transducers, surge

suppression circuits, and antialiasing filters, before being sampled and

converted to digital form by the analog to-digital converter.

❑ The sampling clock provides pulses at sampling frequency.

❑ Typical sampling frequencies in use in modern digital relays vary between 8 and

32 times the fundamental power system frequency.

❑ The analog input signals are generally frozen by a sample-and-hold circuit, in

order to achieve simultaneous sampling of all signals regardless of the data

conversion speed of the analog-to-digital converter.

Computerized Relays
 Digital Relays
– Information from CT and PT and other systems is amplified and
sampled at several kHz.

– The sampled signals are digitized with A/D converter and fed to
registers in microprocessor system.

– The microprocessor may use some kind of counting technique,

or use the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) to compare the
information with preset limits for overcurrent , over/under
voltage…etc,

– Then command is sent through D/A converter to alarm or trip

signals to the circuit breakers.
 Advantages of Digital Relays

– Relays (integration, self-testing)

– Low Cost
– Protection system (supervised by
– Multifunctionality
the relays)
– Protection and control
– Sensitivity and Selectivity
– Measurement
– New Protection Principles
– Fault recording
– New Relay Operating Characteristics
– Communications capability
– Maintenance-Free
– Compatibility with Digital
– Reduced Burden on CTs and VTs
Integrated Systems
– Adaptive Protection
– High Reliability
– Time Synchronization with GPS
System (using PMU)
 Time Synchronization with GPS

• GPS: Geographical Positioning System

• It is a cluster of 24 satellites of Pentagon, USA, which give a

timing pulse every 1 microsecond for defense purposes.

• It is utilized for the benefit of power system monitoring, control

and protection by having synchronized phasor measurement
units based on GPS signals.

• Numerical relays have incorporated this feature.

• It allows us to capture the sequence of relay operations which

helps in the diagnosis of the exact cause of complex situations
like blackouts.
 Time Synchronization with GPS
• Moreover, by synchronizing the sampling processors for different signals
which may be hundreds of kilometers apart, it is possible to put their
phasors on the same phasor diagram.

• A Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU) is used for this purpose.

• When such PMUs are placed at multiple critical locations, the arrangement
is known as Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS).
Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU)
 Numerical Relays
• The distinction between digital and numerical relay rests on

points of fine technical detail, and is rarely found in areas other

than Protection.

• They can be viewed as natural developments of digital relays as

a result of advances in technology. Typically, they use a

specialized digital signal processor (DSP) as the computational

hardware, together with the associated software tools.

 Numerical Relays

Numerically the measurement value is converted into a

logical digit and then compared with another digit stored
in a memory
Numerical Relays
Organization of Numerical Relay
DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING
 Sample and Hold

• It is is an analog circuit which acts like a voltage memory device.

• The analog input voltage is acquired and stored on a high-quality capacitor with
low leakage and low dielectric absorption characteristics.
• An electronic switch is connected to the hold capacitor.
• OPAMP-1 is an input buffer amplifier with high input impedance.
• OPAMP-2 is the output amplifier; it buffers the voltage on the hold capacitor.
Simultaneous sampling scheme with single ADC
 Sampling Theorem (Nyquist Criterion)

• If the sampling frequency 𝛚s, defined as 2𝞹 /𝛚Ts (where Ts is

the sampling period) is greater than 2 𝛚1 or,
𝛚s > 2 𝛚1
• where, 𝛚1 is the highest-frequency component present in the
analog signal x(t) then the signal x(t) can be reconstructed
completely from the sampled signal x (t).
• This can be represented in frequency domain.
• If this is not done, i.e., 𝛚s < 2𝛚1 then three misleading or
problematic effects are observed in the sampled output.
• These effects are (1) Aliasing, (2) Same output, and (3) Folding.
 Aliasing

✓ Aliasing is an undesirable effect that is seen in sampled systems.

✓ When the input frequency is greater than half the sample
frequency, the sampled points do not adequately represent the
input signal.
✓ Inputs at these higher frequencies are observed at a lower,
aliased frequency.
✓ When a continuous-time band-limited signal is sampled at a rate
lower than Nyquist rate fs < 2fm , then the successive cycles of
the spectrum G(ω) of the sampled signal g(t) overlap with each
other as shown in fig.1
 Advantages of Numerical Relays
– Comprehensive information supply

– clear representation of the fault sequence

Fault sequence of event and disturbance recording indicate

– What actually happened ?

– What did the current and voltage signals look like (CT saturation) ?

– When did the protection issue a trip signal ?

– How long did the circuit breaker need to operate ?

– What was the magnitude of the interrupted current ?

– How did the system behave after the circuit breaker tripped ?
Comparison between Electromechanically and computerized Relays
Comparison between Electromechanically and computerized Relays
Over Current Protection

130
ANSI Code
 Overcurrent Relay setting

❑ Pick up current of relay is the minimum current for which the relay initiates
its operation.
✓ The number of active turns in the coil can be changed by inserting a plug in
different points in the bridge.

❑ Current Setting of relay is the ratio of relay pick up current to the rated
secondary current of CT percentage.

❑ The current setting is sometimes referred as plug setting.

 Overcurrent Relay setting

✓ Pick Up Current –

✓ Current Setting –

✓ Plug Setting Multiplier and

✓ Time Setting Multiplier of Relay

Overcurrent Relay setting
 Overcurrent Relay setting
❑ Plug setting multiplier “PSM” of relay is referred as ratio of fault current
in the relay (CT secondary) to its pick-up current.

Example,
❑ Suppose we have connected on protection CT of ratio 200/1 A and current
setting is 150%.
Hence, pick up current of the relay is, 1 × 150 % = 1.5 A
Now, suppose fault current in the CT primary is 1000 A. Hence, fault current in
the CT secondary, i.e., in the relay coil is, 1000 × 1/200 = 5A
Therefore, PSM of the relay is, 5 / 1.5 =3.33
 Time Setting Multiplier of Relay

❑ The operating time of an electrical relay mainly depends upon two factors :
1) How long distance to be traveled by the moving parts of the relay for closing relay
contacts.
2) How fast the moving parts of the relay cover this distance.
❑ The adjustment of traveling distance of an electromechanical relay is
commonly known as (time setting multiplier of relay ).
❑ But by adjusting only time setting multiplier, we cannot set the actual time of
operation of an electrical relay.
❑ the time of operation also depends upon the speed of operation
❑ The speed of moving parts of relay depends upon the force due to the current
in the relay coil.
❑ Hence, it is clear that the speed of operation of an electrical relay depends
upon the level of fault current.
❑ In other words, the time of operation of the relay depends upon plug setting
multiplier.
 Overcurrent Relay setting

❑ The relation between time of operation and plug setting multiplier

is plotted on a graph paper, and this is known as time/PSM graph.
Overcurrent Relay setting
 Examples
❑ Example1: Determine the PSM (plug setting multiplier) of a 5A,
2.2 sec over current relay having a plug setting PS=200%. The
supply CT is rated 400:5A and the fault current is 12000A.
Solution