MODULE-3

Introduction to Polymers used for Additive Manufacturing

Additive Manufacturing processes are gradually increasing in their practical application,
and engineer is starting to figure out where, when and how they could be the most useful. Rather
than looking to completely replace all conventional manufacturing techniques, it is being used
selectively on projects where it can offer a real advantage such as complex structures, small
productions involved. Materials (Polymers, Metals etc.) plays a significant Part in determining
how and where the process to be used.
In AM Polymers, are amongst the cheapest materials and can be used widely for commercial 3D
printers. The word "Polymer" is derived from two Greek words, 'Poly' that means many
(numerous) and 'Mer which means units.
Common plastics can be used in 3D printing, including ABS and PC. The common structural
polymers can also be used, as well as a number of waxes and epoxy based resins. Mixing different
polymer powders can create a wide range of structural and aesthetic materials. The following
polymers can be used:
• ABS (Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene)
• PLA (polylactide), including soft PLA
• PC (polycarbonate)
• Polyamide (Nylon)
• Nylon 12 (Tensile strength 45 Mpa)
• Glass filled nylon (12.48 Mpa)
• Epoxy resin
• Wax
• Photopolymer resins
Polymers
Polymers are long chain molecules produced by linking small repeat units (monomers) together.
There are many ways to link different types of monomer to form polymers. Polymers exhibit very
different physical properties compared to the monomers, dependent on the length of the polymer
chains. The presence of small amounts of very long or very short chains can have drastic effects
on properties of the material
Polyamide:
A polyamide is a macromolecule with repeating units linked by amide bonds-CO-NH-, linkages.
Polyamides occur both naturally and artificially. Examples of naturally occurring polyamides are
proteins, such as wool and silk. Artificially made polyamides can be made through step-growth
polymerization or solid-phase synthesis yielding materials such as nylons, aramids, and sodium
poly (aspartate). Widely used Polyamide in field of AM is Nylon. Poly amides are represented as
shown below.

Advantages of using Polyamides in AM technique is

1. High mechanical strength
2. High toughness
3. High softening point
4. Good wear resistance
5. Self-lubrication
6. Long-term work at higher temperatures
7. It has excellent electrical insulation, low smoke and low toxicity characteristics.

Phenol formaldehyde resins (P1) or phenolic resins

PF Resins are synthetic polymers obtained by the reaction of phenol or substituted phenol
with formaldehyde which is used as the basis for Bakelite, PFs were the first commercial synthetic
resins (plastics) and have been widely used for the production of molded products including
billiard balls, laboratory countertops, and as coatings and adhesives

Polyformaldehyde
Polyformaldehyde is composed of —CH2-O— repeat units and can be obtained by the cationic
polymerisation of either formaldehyde or trioxane.

Polyester
Polyester is a category of polymers that contain the ester functional group in their main chain. As
a specific material, it most commonly refers to a type called polyethylene terephthalate (PET)
Classification of Polymers:
Polymer is a generic name given to a vast number of materials of high molecular weight. These
materials exist in countless forms and numbers because of a very large number and types of atoms
present in their molecules. Polymers can have different chemical structures, physical properties,
mechanical behaviour, thermal characteristics, etc. and can be classified in different ways.
a) Natural and Synthetic Polymers
Depending on their origin, polymers can be grouped as natural or synthetic. those isolated from
natural materials are called natural polymers. Typical examples are cotton, silk, wool and rubber,
Cellophane, cellulose rayon, leather and so on are, in fact, chemical modifications of a natural
polymers.
Polymers synthesized from low molecular weight compounds are synthetic polymers. Typical
examples are: Polythelene, PVC, nylon and terylene.
b) Organic and Inorganic Polymers
A polymer whose backbone chain is essentially made of carbon atoms in termed an organic
polymers. The atoms attached to the side valencies of the back bone carbon atoms are, however,
usually those hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen etc. The majority of synthetic polymers are organic and
they are very extensively studied. In fact, the number and variety of organic polymers are so large
that when we refer to 'polymers', we normally mean organic polymers. The molecules of inorganic
polymers, are the other hand, generally contain no carbon atom in their chain backbone. Glass and
silicon rubber are examples of inorganic polymers.
c) Thermoplastic and Thermosetting Polymers
Some polymers soften on heating and can be converted into any shape that they can retain for
cooling. The process of heating, reshaping and retaining the same on cooling can be repeated
several times. Such polymers, that soften on heating and stiffen on cooling, are termed
'thermoplastics'. Polyethylene, PVC, nylon and sealing wax are examples of thermoplastics
polymers. Some polymers on the other hand, undergo some chemical change on heating and
convert themselves into an infusible mass. They are like the yolk of the egg, which on heating sets
into a mass, and once set, cannot be reshaped. Such polymers, that become an infusible and
insoluble mass on heating, are, called as 'thermosetting' polymers.
d) Plastics, Elastomers, Fibres and Liquid Resins
Depending on its ultimate form and use, a polymer can be classified as plastic, elastomer, fibre or
liquid resin. When for instance, a polymer is shaped into hard and tough utility articles by the
application of heat and pressure, it is used as a 'plastic'. Typical examples are polystyrene, PVC
and polymethyl methacrylate. When vulcanized into rubbery products exhibiting good strength
and elongation polymers are used as 'elastomers'. Typical examples are natural rubber, synthetic
rubber, silicon rubber. If drawn into long filament like materials, whose length is atleast 100 times
its diameter, polymers are said to have been converted into 'fibres'. Typical examples are nylon
and terylene. Polymers used as adhesives, porting compounds, sealants, etc. In a liquid form are
described as liquid resins. Commercially available epoxy adhesives and polysulphide sealants are
typical examples.
 Concept of Functionality

• According-to IUPAC, the functionality of monomer is defined as number of bonds

that a monomers repeating unit forms in a polymer with other monomers.
• The polymerization is a process which is simple low molecular weight compounds
to combine and form a complex high molecular compound.
• Each molecule of the compound should have the capability to react with two other
molecules of the same or some other compound.
• In other words, they should have a functionality of atleast two that is
o The functionality of a compound depends on the number of sites it has.
o A compound assumes functionality because of the presence of reactive functional
group.

Molecular weight
The Molecular weight of a polymer is a way of describing how long the polymer chains are. Each
monomer has a molecular weight (often called the formula weight). Adding the monomers together
to make polymers increases the molecular weight. The longer the chains, the higher the molecular
weight.
Number average molecular weight (Mn)
The number average molecular weight is the statistical average molecular weight of all the polymer
chains in the sample, and is defined by:
Mn = Ni Mi / Ni
Where
Mi - is the molecular weight of a chain and
Ni - is the number of chains of that molecular weight.
Mn can be predicted by polymerization mechanisms and is measured by methods that determine
the number of molecules in a sample of a given weight
Weight average molecular weight (Mw)
The weight average molecular weight is defined by: Mw = Ni Mi2 / Ni Mi
Compared to Mn, Mw takes into account the molecular weight of a chain in determining
contributions to the molecular weight average.
The more massive the chain, the more the chain contributes to Mw. Mw is determined by methods
that are sensitive to the molecular size rather than just their number, such as light scattering
techniques.

Higher average molecular weights: Mz, Mz + 1

In general,a series of average molecular weights can be defined by the equation:

The higher averages are increasingly more sensitive to high molecular weight polymers and
accordingly are increasingly more difficult to measure with precision. They tend to be associated
with methods that measure the motion of polymer molecules, such as diffusion or sedimentation
techniques. Although the z-averages are not commonly quoted for polymers, several important
methods for measuring the dimensions of chains .that yield z-average molecular weights.

For all synthetic polydisperse polymers: Mn < Mw < Mz < Mz+1

The polydispersity index is used as a measure of the broadness of a molecular weight distribution
of a polymer, and is defined by:

Polydispersity index = Mw / Mn

Polydispersity and Molecular weight distribution in ploymers

In a simple chemical compound molecules, each has the same molecular weight (a 'monodispersed'
system), whereas a polymer contains molecules, each of which can have different molecular
weights (a 'polydispersed' system). Monodispersity and polydispersity can be represented as shown
in fig.

While the polydisperse nature of the polymer is the basis of the concept of 'average'
molecular weight, this 'average' by itself conveys nothing on the dispersity pattern in a given
polymer sample.
For example a polymer sample of, say, 40,000 average molecular weight. Now, this may
mean that the molecules have molecular weights ranging from 20,000 to 80,000 or from 500 to
100,000 the figure in uncertain. This is the reason why two polymer samples of the same 40,000
Mn can display similar properties in some respects but not in some other.
To know a polymer properly, we must have a knowledge of both the average molecular
weight as well as its dispersion pattern. This dispersity with respect to the lowest to the highest
molecular weight homologues is expressed by a simple molecular weight distribution curve. Such
a curve for a polymer sample is computed by plotting the number fraction (n) of molecules having
a particular molecular weight (M1) against the corresponding molecular weight. While the details
of computing a molecular weight distribution curve are given, we may observe here that such a
curve reveals the pattern of the different molecular species present in a polymer sample. The curve
shown in Fig. brings out the relative position of various average molecular weights in a
polydispersed polymer sample. It may be noted that Mw is greater than Mn and that My is closed
to Mw that to Mn. Figure shown molecular weight distribution in two samples having the same
number average molecular weight but

different polydispersities. Sample 1 obviously has a narrower dispersion pattern and, hence, a
lower polydispersity than sample 2.

Polydispersity is a very important parameter it gives an idea of the lowest and the highest
molecular weight species as well as the distribution pattern of the intermediate molecular weight
species. To quickly ascertain the degree of polydispersity, we can determine M w and Mn by two
different experimental methods and then compute Mw / Mn. This ratio is indicative of the extent of
polydispersity. For all synthetic polymers, this ratio . is higher than 1. As the molecular weight
distribution becomes broader (that is to say, as the dispersity increases), the value of Mw / Mn
increases. The three curves in Fig. show the dispersity ratio increasing for the three samples with
the same Mn but a different molecular weight distribution.

Polydispersity arises owing to a variation in the degree of polymerisation attained by

different molecules during the polymerisation process. Thus polymers obtained by different
polymerisation techniques shows different polydispersities,.
Fibre Spinning
Fibres are made from polymers by a process called 'spinning'. There are three principal
spinning methods. viz., melt spinning, dry spinning and wet spinning. In the melt spinning process,
the polymers is used in the molten state, while, in the other two cases, the polymer is used as a
solution in appropriate solvent. In all the three cases, however, the polymer (either in the molten
or solution form) is streamed through a spinner net which is a special kind of plate with extremely
holes for the fibres to emerge.

Melt Spinning
In its simplest form the melt spinning process may be described as follows. Polymer chips
are electrically heated and melted in a heating grid. This converts the solid polymer into a viscous
mobile liquid. Sometimes, during this heating process, cross-linking or thermal degradation of the
polymer may occur leading to formation of lumps. These lumps can be easily removed from the
hot molten polymer by using a filter pack, Furthermore, the hot molten polymer should be
protected from the surrounding oxygen to avoid oxidative degradation. This is effected mostly by
creating an inert environment around the molten polymer with nitrogen, carbon dioxide or steam.
The molten polymer then enters a constant rate pump (known as the metering pump) which in turn,
pumps the polymer melt through
the spinneret at a specified rate. The polymer melt is thus forced through the fine holes of the
spinneret from where continuous and very fine filaments emerge. The filament emerging from the
spinneret solidifies as it comes in contact with cold air. The cooling and solidification process may
be enhanced by 'a cold air blast. The solid filaments emerging from the spinneret are subsequently
wound upon spindles.
 Fig 3.5 Melt Spinning

One important point to remember in the melt-spinning process is the diameter of the filament
depends as much on the rate at which the molten polymer streams through the holes as on the rate
at which the filament is pulled and wound up as on the hole diameter.

Dry Spinning
Many common polymers such as polyacrylonitrile or polyvinyl chloride are converted to fibers on
a large scale by using the dry spinning process. The process is also shown Fig. The polymer is
dissolved in an appropriate solvent to get a solution of high concentration. The viscosity is
controlled by increasing the temperature of the solution. The hot viscous solution is pumped
through the spinneret when fine continuous jest of the solution come out of the solvent. Solvent
evaporation can be enhanced by passing dry nitrogen in a countercurrent manner. Filaments
formed from the polymer solution ultimately reach the spindle where they are wound. The rate at
which the fibers are spun could be as high as 1000 m/ min. Manufacture of cellulose acetate fibers
from 35% solution of the polymer in acetone at 40°C could be cited as a typical example of the
utility of the dry spinning process.
Wet spinning
Wet spinning, like dry spinning, employs a fairly concentrated polymer solution. The
increase in polymer solution viscosity is controlled by spinning the solution at an elevated
temperature. The process details for wet spinning are shown in Fig. Wet spinning also converts a
viscous polymer solution into fine jets through a spinner. These jets, however, are led into a
coagulation bath containing a large volume of a non-solvent which can precipitate the polymer
from its solution. When continuous jets of the polymer solution come in contact with a non-solvent,
they precipitate in the fine filaments. The filaments formed are gathered on a spindle after
undergoing washing, drying, etc. One important point to be borne in mind while carrying out wet
spinning is that sometimes droplets are formed instead of continuous filaments. This happens as a
result of the breaking of continuity in the jet as it emerges from the spinneret hole and is caused
by the forces of interfacial tension acting on the newly formed jet. This could be avoided by
increasing the viscosity of the polymer solution.
Coagulation, an essential step in wet spinning, is a rather slow process. Hence, compared
to the other two processes, the rate of wet spinning may be as low as 50m/min. The wet spinning
process is employed commercially to make fibers from cellulose, viscose rayon,
polyacrylonitrile, etc.

Biopolymers are polymers produced by living organisms; in other words, they are
polymeric biomolecules. Since they are polymers, biopolymers contain monomeric units that are
covalently bonded to form larger structures.
The input materials for the production of these polymers may be either renewable (based
on agricultural plant or animal products) or synthetic. There are four main types of biopolymer
based respectively on:
1. Starch:
Thermoplastic starch is unsuitable for packaging liquids. It can sustain only brief contact with
water. It has good oxygen barrier properties.
Sources
Starch is a natural polymer which occurs as granules in plant tissue, from which it can easily be
recovered in large quantities. It is obtained from potatoes, maize, wheat and tapioca and similar
sources. Starch can be modified in such a way that it can be melted and deformed
thermoplastically. The resulting material is thus suitable for conventional plastic forming
processes such as injection moulding and extruding.

2. Sugar
Polyalctides decompose harmlessly in the human body and have therefore long been used for
medical applications. Examples include surgical implants which do not require operative removal.
Until recently, it was not feasible to use polylactides for packaging because of their high price for
one kilogram.
Sources
The starting material for Polyhydroxibutyrate is made from sucrose or starch by a process of
bacterial fermentation. Varying the nutrient composition of the bacteria produces differences in
the end product. This makes it possible to, tune the properties of the material,
e.g. its moisture resistance. The polymer can be formed by injection, extrusion, blowing and
vacuum forming.
• Polylactides (lactic acid polymers)are made from lactic acid, which is in turn mace
from lactose (or milk sugar) obtained from sugar beet, potatoes, wheat, maize etc.
Polylactides are water resistant and can be formed by injection moulding, blowing and
vacuum forming.

3. Cellulose based biopolymers

Applications
Familiar applications of cellophane include packaging for CDS, confectionary and cigarettes. The
material is gradually falling out of favour, however, owing to its high price. Other cellulose
polymer materials (e.g. cellulose ilm) have also been commercially available for many years but
are losing market share to newer polymers such as polypropylene.
Sources
The use of cellulose for making packagin material such as cellophane is long established. The
material is transparent and has good folding properties. Whether in the form of pure cellulose or
of a nitrocellulose coating, the material is wholly biodegradable and can be composted by existing
waste processing plant.

4. Synthetic based biopolymers

Applications
The relatively high price of biodegradable polymers of synthetic substances, e.g. aliphatic aromatic
copolyesters has prevented them from reaching a large scale market. The best known application
is for making substrate mats.
Sources
Synthetic compounds derived from petroleum can also be a starting point for biodegradable
polymers, e.g. aliphatic aromatic copolyesters. These polymers have technical properties
resembling those of polyethylene (LDPE). Although these polymers are produced from synthetic
starting materials, they are fully biodegradable and compostable.
Powder Metallurgy: Introduction
Powder Metallurgy (P/M) has been defined as the art and science of producing metal powders and
making semifinished and finished objects from individual, mixed or alloyed powders with or
without the addition of nonmetallic constituents. Production of P/M parts involve mixing of
elemental or alloy powders with additives and lubricants, compacting the mixture in a suitable die
and heating the resulting green compacts in a controlled atmosphere furnace so as to bond the
particles metallurgical^. The resulting parts are solid bodies of material with sufficient strength
and density for use in diverse fields of applications. Highly-porous parts, precise high-performance
components and composite materials can be produced by P/M route. P/M offers compositional
flexibility, minimized segregation and the ability to produce graded microstructures with varying
physical and mechanical properties. P/M also offers advantages over ingot metallurgy in terms, of
quality, cost, precision, productivity as well as by its ability to conserve critical raw materials
through a high level of material utilization,

Historical Background
Powder Metallurgy, recognized today as one of the most important manufacturing processes for
making several industrial products, dates back to a long time in history. One of the earliest
examples of P/M techniques practiced in the ancient days was the reduction, iron ore with charcoal
to produce sponge iron powders. These powders were subsequently formed into useful shapes by
forging. Typical examples of ancient P/M artifacts include the Ashoka Pillar of Delhi and the even
older Inca articles. The importance of P/M as an important. manufacturing process became evident
as early as 19th century when tungsten powders were produced and strengthened with thoria for
use in electric lamp filaments. The development of tungsten carbide tools was another important
milestone in the growth of modern P/M industry. Production of porous bearings and bushes by
P/M further spurred its growth. Subsequently, ferrous and nonferrous parts, composites as well as
dispersion-strengthened alloys made by P/M came into use. Apart from finished products, P/M is
also employed in a number of useful applications in modern technology. Important examples in
this category include use of metal powders in printing, catalysts in chemical industries and in food
industry, Several important innovations that have taken place in material synthesis, material
processing and finishing in the last few decades have further enhanced the scope of P/M as one of
the most important. techniques not only for many commercial but also for several advanced
applications in aerospace, nuclear and defense components. In particular, the growth of P/M was
phenomenal during the last quarter of the 20th century with the development of novel material
processing techniques such as Atomization, Mechanical Alloying (MA), Rapid Solidification
Process (RSP) for powder production, Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP) and Hot Isostatic Pressing
(HIP) for component fabrication. A brief history of the development of powder metallurgy is given
in Table
P/M is used for the manufacture of finished or semifinished products (e.g. bar and sheet)
from metal powders. Powder metallurgy has also established its superiority by being the only route
for the production of several industrial components such as porous bearings, and filters and carbide
tools, In addition, P/M components are being increasingly used in a wide variety of industries as
the technology combines both unique technical features with economy and other additional
advantages such as environmental friendliness and energy efficiency,

Date Description Origin

 3000 BC "Sponge iron" for tools and other implements India, Egypt

1200 AD Cementing of noble metals (platinum) South America (Incas)

1781 Fusible platinum-arsenic alloy France. Germany

1790 Production of platinum-arsenic chemical vessels France

1822 Platinum ingot mating from powders France

1836 High-temperature sintering of platinum powder Russia

compacts on a commercial basis
1839 Wollaslon method of producing compact England
platinum from platinum sponge (basis of modem
P/M technique)
1830 Sintering of different metals and alloy powders Europe
Patent for bearing materials made from metal
1870 United Slates
powders
Incandescent lamp filaments
1878-1900 United States
_
Early Porous metals and metallic filters
United States
1900s.
Cemented carbides
1915-1930 Germany
1920s Commercial self-lubricating bearings United States
1940s Iron powder metallurgy Central Europe
P/M wrought and dispersion-strengthened
1950s and products, including P/M forgings, mechanical
United States
1960s alloying, oxide dispersion strengthened nickel
and iron base alloys
Hot Isostalic Pressing, P/M tool steels and
1970s United Stales
superplastic superalloys
Rapid solidification and powder injection
1980s United States
moulding
Inlermetallics, metal-matrix composites, United States and England
spray forming, nanoscale powders and warm
1990s
compaction

Steps in Powder Metallurgy

The main steps in P/M component production are:
(i) Powder production,
(ii) Compaction.
(iii) Sintering.
(iv) Secondary and other finishing operations.
Powder Production
The raw material for P/M components is the powder. These powders are engineered materials in
the sense they are manufactured to precise specifications to facilitate subsequent processing. The
powders used in P/M can be pure elements, elemental blends or prealloyed powders. The choice
of starting material is influenced by the product type and to a lesser extent by the fabrication
process to be used. Several production methods are available for making powders. Most common
method is the atamization, which produces nearly 80% of the total volume of powders; This
method produces powders of both ferrous and nonferrous metals; specialty powders like stainless
steel, superalloy (nickel base) as well as titanium alloy powders are also made by this technique.
Reduction of compounds is another widely used technique used for the production of iron, copper
as well as tungsten and molybdenum. Electrolysis is yet another important powder production
method used widely for making copper, iron and silver powders, Powders having the desired size
range, shape and other characteristics are chosen to obtain the properties required for the end use.
Powders along with additives, are mixed thoroughly using mixers. Lubricants (0.52% by weight
of the charge) may be added prior to mixing to facilitate easy ejection of the compact and to
minimize the wear of compaction tool. Typical lubricants include waxes or metallic stearates,
graphite, stearates. Powders are then tested for properties like size, flow, density and
compressibility before being compacted. Powder characterization is very important since powder
characteristics influence both the compaction behaviour as well as the properties of green and
sintered parts,

Compaction
Compaction of powder mixtures is generally carried out using dies machined to close tolerances.
Dies are made typically from die steels or cemented carbides. Equipment used for compaction
includes mechanical or hydraulic presses, the latter being more common due to their safe operation
and flexibility. Die design is important and must ensure easy ejection of compact. The powder type
and its characteristics influence the compaction pressure. The basic purpose of compaction is to
produce a green compact with sufficient strength to withstand further handling operations. The
pressed part, usually called the "green compact," is then taken for sintering. Consolidation of
powders may also be carried out at high temperature. Hot extrusion, hot pressing and Hot Isostatic
Pressing (HIP) are examples of this category. These methods are used for ciitical metallic and
ceramic components requiring near theoretical density.

Sintering
Sintering of the green compact is carried out in a furnace under a controlled atmosphere to bond
the particles metallurgical!}". Sintering is carried out at temperatures about 70% of the absolute
melting point of the material. Bonding occurs by diffusion of atoms, giving integrity to the
compact. In other words, sintering serves to consolidate the mechanically-bonded ponders into a
coherent body having the desired service properties. Shrinkage occurs during sintering resulting
in densification of the part. This densification enables significant improvements in the physical
and mechanical properties of the part. Sintering can be carried out in a variety of furnaces. Mesh
belt furnaces are the most common type and are used up to 1,200°C, Walking beam and pusher-
type furnaces can be used for still higher temperatures. Batch-type furnaces include bell-type or
box-type furnaces. Sintering is normally done under a protective atmosphere. Most commonly
used atmospheres include endothermic and dissociated ammonia. Nitrogen is also widely used
because of its lower cost.
Liquid phase sintering, involving the formation of a liquid phase to enhance sintering kinetics is
another type of sintering. This type of sintering requires the presence of a low melting constituent
in the compact, with healing being done above the melting point of this constituent. Other
variations such as spark sintering, microwave sintering and laser sintering are also adopted for
specific applications. Another important development is the Metal Injection Moulding (MIM),
which has expanded the scope of P/M products tremendously.

Secondary and Other Finishing Operations

A sintered part may be subjected to one or more secondary or filing operations, These are used to
ensure close dimensional tolerances, improve surface finish increase density and corrosion
resistance. Typical operations include repressing, grinding and plating. Sometimes resintering is
also done after repressing.

Advantages of Powder Metallurgy Process

The major advantages of P/M process include process, metallurgical, and commercial advantages.
Process Advantages
Powder metallurgy offers The following important process advantages:
(i) Eliminates or minimizes machining (little Dr no scrap).
(ii) Efficient material utilization—above 95% material utilization.
(iii) Enables close dimensional tolerances—near-net shapes possible.
(iv) Produces good surface finish.
(v) Provides option for beat-treatment, for increasing strength or enhanced wear
resistance and plating for improving corrosion resistance.
(vi) Facilitates manufacture of complex, shapes, which would be impractical with other
metal working processes.
(vii) Suited to moderate to high-volume component production requirements.
(viii)Components can be produced at reduced cost as compared to many other processes.
i.e. cost-effective.
(ix) Components of hard materials which are difficult to machine can be readily
manufactured, e.g. tungsten wires for incandescent lamps.
(x) It is possible to produce components in pure form. Purity of the starting materials
can be preserved throughout the process, a requirement for many critical applications.
(xi) Energy-efficient.
(xii) Environment-friendly.

Metallurgical Advantages
Powder Metallurgy enables the production of:
 (i) Powders with uniform chemical composition with the desired characteristics,
resulting from the absence of segregation during solidification. These characteristics will
be reflected in the finished pan.
(ii) Elemental and prealloyed powders.
(iii) Unique compositions including non-equilibrium compositions and micro structures
(crystalline, nanocrystalline and amorphous).
(iv) Wide variety of- materials—metals and alloys of miscible and immiscible systems,
refractory metals like tungsten and molybdenum, ceramics, polymers and composites.
(v) Parts with controlled porosity.
Commercial Advantages/Special Characteristic of Powder Metallurgy Parts
Important commercial advantages of P/M include:
(i) Ferrous and nonferrous powder metallurgy parts can be oil-impregnated to function
as self-lubricating bearings. Similarly, parts can be resin-impregnated to seal-
interconnected porosity to improve density or they can be infiltrated with a lower melting
point metal for greater strength and shock resistance, arid for making electrical contacts.
(ii) Parts can be heat-treated and plated if required. P/M parts are also amenable to
processing by conventional metal-forming processes. like rolling and forging.
(iii) Cost-effective production of simple and complex parts, very close to final
dimensions at production rates that can range from a few hundreds to several thousands
parts per hour.
(iv) Offers long-term performance reliability in critical applications.

3.15 Application of Powder Metallurgy

Powder Metallurgy has a wide range of applications ranging from automotive to advanced
aerospace components. P/M components have established themselves as an economic alternative
to components made from other manufacturing processes as well as the only means to produce
some components which cannot be made by other methods.
The engineering applications of P/M consist of three groups:
(i) Parts, which are impossible to manufacture by other methods, like porous bearings,
filters, bimetallic immiscible copper-lead alloys for use in bearings as well as hard and soft
magnetic parts.
(ii) Parts, which are difficult to make by other production methods as, for example.
parts made of tungsten and molybdenum which cannot be made efficiently by any other
process.
(iii) Components, where powder metallurgy is an effective alternative lo parts made by
casting and forging as, for example, small gears and connecting rods.
Table gives a summary of various powders used in preparing different components and special
applications.

Application Powder used

Abrasive finishing
Slot cleaning Iron, steel, stainless steel
Abrasive wheels Iron, steel, copper, Lin. nickel
Alloy production
Steels, electroslag steel, free Nickel, lead, fe not Lings ten, ferrosilicon
machining steel, cast iron, ductile feiromolybdenum, ferromanganese, iron, aluminium,
iron tungsten, molybdenum, selenium, tellurium
Agriculture

Animal feed Iron

Animal medication Cobalt
Chelate fertilizers Iron
Rami machinery Iron, steel, copper, bronye
Food enrichment Iron, copper, manganese
Fungicides Copper
Lawn and garden equipment Iron, steel, iron alloy, copper, bronze
Seed cleaning Iron
Seed coaling Aluminium
Soil condition Iron-copper
Aerospace
Brake linings Copper, lead. tin. high-nickel alloys.
giuphile, iron
Cures (electronic components) Iron, permalloy
Counter weights Tungsten, copper, nickel, iron
Filters for fuel, air, hydraulic fluids Bronze, stainless steel, nickel
Heal shields Beryllium, tungsten
Heat shield coaling Aluminium

Mechanical Powder Production Techniques:

Mechanical methods of powder production are:
i) Chopping or Cutting
ii) Abrasion methods
iii) Machining methods
iv) Milling
Chopping or Cutting
In this process, strands of hard steel wire, in diameter as small as 0.0313 inches are cut into small
pieces by means of a milling cutter. This technique is actually employed in the manufacturing of
cut wire shots which are used for peening or shot cleaning. Main disadvantage using this Method
is it is difficult and costly to make powders.

Rubbing or Abrasion Methods

In this type of method, a mass of metal might be attacked by some form of abrasion. Some of
Abrasion methods are,

a) Rubbing of Two Surfaces:

When we rub two surfaces against each other, hard surface removes the material from the surface
of soft material.
b) Filing:
Filing as a production method has been frequently employed, especially to alloy powders, when
supplies from conventional sources have been un obtainable. Such methods are also used for
manufacture of coarse powders of dental alloys. Filing can also be used to produce finer powder
if its teeth are smaller.
c) Scratching:
If a hard pin is rubbed on some soft metal the powder flakes are produced. Scratching is a technique
actually used on a large scale for the preparation of coarse magnesium powders.

Machining
A machining process, using for example a lathe or a milling cutter in which something more than
just scratching is involved, since the attacking tool actually digs under the surface of the metal and
tears it off. On lathe machine by applying small force we get fine chips. A large amount of
machining scrap is produced in machining operations. This scrap in the form of chips and turnings
can be further reduced in size by grinding.

Milling
The basic principal of milling process is the application of impact and shear forces between two
materials, a hard and a soft, causing soft material to be ground into fine particles. Milling
techniques are suitable for brittle materials. Most popular of milling is Ball Milling
Ball mills
This contains cylindrical vessel rotating horizontally along the axis. Length of the cylinder is more
or less equal to diameter. The vessel is charged with the grinding media. During rolling of vessel,
the grinding media & powder particles roll from some height. This process grinds the powder
materials by impact/collision &attrition.

Grinding
To grind a sintered sponge metal from reduction and electrolytic processes, jaw and hammer
crashers are used above all, Grinding in a jaw crasher is performed between a fixed jaw and a
moving one (Fig.) and represents the first stage of disintegration, where a coarse powder is
obtained. This is subsequently milled to a final product in some type of a mill, in a hammer grinder
the material is crushed using an impact of hammers attached on a rotor.

Chemical Powder production Techniques

Almost all metallic elements can be produced in the form of powders by suitable chemical
reactions or decomposition. Mostly chemical methods are based on the decomposition of a
compound into the elemental form with heating or with the help of some catalyst. The two main
chemical methods are chemical reduction and decomposition.

Reduction
Reduction of compounds, particularly oxides, by the use of reducing agents (solid or gaseous) is
one of the most widely used and the oldest method of producing metal powders. Other compounds
such as hydrides, oxalates and formats can also be used as starting material for reduction, This is
a convenient, economical and extremely flexible method to control the properties of the product
such as si/.c, shape and porosity over a wide range. It is widely employed for producing powders
of iron, copper, nickel, cobalt, tungsten; molybdenum, tantalum, thorium and titanium. Powders
produced by this route exhibit pores within each powder particle and hence arc called sponge
powders. This sponginess,
Controlled by amount and size of the pores, aids in improved compaction and sintering
characteristics. Gases such as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, disassociated ammonia, coal gas,
enriched furnace gas, natural gas; partially-combusted hydrocarbons, alkaline metal vapours,
carbons as well as metals arc used as reducing agents in gaseous reduction of compounds.
The general equations for reduction of metallic oxides by hydrogen or carbon monoxidt arc
respectively.

Thermal Decomposition
Metal carbonyls arc formed by passing carbon monoxide at high pressure over heated metal sponge
and condensing the vapour as liquid. These are volatile liquids and usually stored as liquid under
pressure. Decomposition of carbonyls of cobalt, iron, nickel, molybdenum and tungsten has been
used to produce fine powders with high purity. The liquid is purified by fractional distillation and
is then decomposed in the temperature range of 150 to 400°C at atmospheric pressure to produce
fine, high-purity metal. The carbon monoxide released during decomposition is recycled.

Atomisation of Powder
Atomization
In this process molten metal is broken up into small droplets and rapidly frozen before the drops
come into contact with each other or with a solid surface. The principal method is to disintegrate
a thin stream of molten metal by subjecting it to the impact of high energy jets of gas or liquid
(shown in figure).
Methods of metal-powder production by atomization:
(a) Gas atomization;
(b) Water atomization;
(c) Vacuum atomization
Water atomization: High pressure water jets disintegrates molten metal stream. Water jets are
used mainly because of their higher viscosity and quenching ability. This is an inexpensive process
and can be used for small or large scale production. But water should not chemically react with
metals or alloys used.

Gas atomization: Here instead of water, high velocity argon, nitrogen and helium gas jets are used.
The molten metal is disintegrated and collected as atomized powder in a water bath. Fluidized bed
cooling is used when certain powder characteristics are required.
Vacuum atomization: In this method, when a molten metal supersaturated with a gas under
pressure is suddenly exposed into vacuum, the gas coming from metal solution expands, causing
atomization of the metal stream. This process gives very high purity powder. Usually hydrogen is
used as gas.

3.19 Metal Powder Characterization

Metal powders arc characterized for their
(i) Chemical characteristics such as composition and purity.