DATA ANALYSIS

AND PRESENTATION
Prepared by Dr. Rasha Mohammed
Hussien
Introduction

Term statistics are derived from the Latin word for “state.”

Statistics is a branch of knowledge used to summarize and present numerical data.

As a plural noun, statistics are numerical characteristics of samples.

Enables researchers to collect and analyze data.

Related terms
◦ANALYSIS: means ordering, manipulating, and summarizing data to obtain answers to research
questions. Its purpose is to reduce data into interpretable form so that the relations of research problems
can be studied and tested.
The purpose of data analysis
◦To answer the research questions and to help determine the trends and relationships among the
variables.
INTERPRETATION
◦Gives the analysis results, makes inferences pertinent to the research relations studied, and draws
conclusions about these relations.
Importance of statistical analysis

■To summarize data.

■To answer the research questions.

■To show basic patterns in the data.

■To interpret these patterns.

■To generalize the patterns to the population.

3/25/2024
Selecting statistical tests
Selecting the correct statistical test relies on
■Knowing the nature of your variables.
■The scale of measurement.
■Types of questions you want to ask.

3/25/2024
Steps in Data Analysis

Before Data Collection, the researcher After Data Collection:

should accomplish the following: Process the data.
Determine the method of data analysis. Prepare tables and graphs.
Determine how to process the data. Analyze and interpret findings.
Consult a statistician. Consult the statistician again.
Prepare dummy tables. Prepare for editing.
Prepare for presentation.

3/25/2024
Types of statistical analyses used in Nursing Research

Two main types of statistical analysis:

1. Descriptive analysis: used to describe the data set.

2. Inferential analysis: used to generate conclusions about the population’s

characteristics based on the sample data.

3/25/2024
Types of Statistical analyses used in nursing Research
Descriptive analysis

▪ Refers to the description of the data from a particular sample;

▪ Hence, the conclusion must refer only to the sample.
▪ In other words, these summarize the data and describe sample characteristics.
▪ Descriptive statistics are numerical values obtained from the sample that give meaning
to the data collected.

3/25/2024
Classification of descriptive data analysis
A. Classification of Descriptive Analysis

a. Frequency Distribution: A systematic arrangement of numeric values from the lowest

to the highest or highest to lowest.

3/25/2024
 Classification of descriptive data analysis
B. Measure of Central Tendency: A statistical index that describes the average of the
set values.
Kinds of Averages
1. Mode - a numeric value in a distribution that occurs most frequently.
2. Median - is the "middle" of a sorted list of numbers. To determine the median
value in a sequence of numbers, the numbers must first be sorted or arranged in
value order from lowest to highest or highest to lowest.
3. Mean - the point on the score scale that is equal to the sum of the scores divided
by the total number of scores. Where X = the mean
Σ = the sum of
Formula: X= Σ……………. X = each individual raw score
n = the number of cases
n 3/25/2024
3/25/2024
Classification of descriptive data analysis
◦ Measures of Variability
◦ Describes the spread of scores in a distribution
◦ Range
◦ Percentile
◦ Standard deviation
◦ Variance
◦ z-scores
 Classification of descriptive data analysis
C. Measure of Variability: Statistics concerning the degree to which the scores in a distribution are different from
or similar.

Two Commonly Used Measures of Variability

1. Range - the distance between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.

Example: The range for learning center A 500 (750 - 250) and the range for the learning center is
about 300 (650 - 350)

2. Standard Deviation –

• The most widely used measure of variability when interval or ratio data are obtained.

• The most commonly used measure of variability that indicates the average to which the scores
deviate from the mean.
3/25/2024
Classification of descriptive data analysis
Z-scores

◦Interpreted in relation to SD units above or below the mean

◦Allow you to compare the performance of someone on nonequivalent tests

Percentile

◦a term that describes how a score compares to other scores from the same set.

◦The median of a frequency distribution lies at the 50th percentile.

◦Common statistics used to compare performance with others.

3/25/2024
 2. Inferential Analysis
Inferential Analysis: the use of statistical tests, either to test for significant relationships among
variables or to find statistical support for the hypotheses.
Types of Inferential Statistics
Inferential statistics can be classified into hypothesis testing and regression analysis.
Inferential Statistics
Hypothesis testing Regression analysis
Z test Linear regression
F test Nominal regression
T test Logistic regression
ANOVA test Ordinal regression
Mann-whitney
U test
Uses of Inferential Analysis

Cited some statistical tests for inferential analysis.

1. t-test examines the difference between the means of two independent groups.

2. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) - is used to test the significance of differences between means of two or
more groups.

3. Chi-square is a statistical test used to examine the differences between categorical variables from a
random sample to judge the goodness of fit between expected and observed results.

To determine whether the association between two qualitative variables is statistically significant.

3/25/2024
Levels of Measurement
■ Nominal ■ Interval
■ Gender ■ Body Mass Index (BMI)
Male, Female
■ Ratio
■ Staff to students
Ordinal ■
(1:10)
Personal health status ■
Excellent, Very good, ■

Good, Fair, Poor

Coding Data
■Data coding refers to the identification of codes that pertain to
the possible responses for each question on the questionnaire.
■Data entry refers to the creation of a computer file that holds the
raw data taken from all of the questionnaires for analysis.
Coding Systems
■ Common coding systems (code and label) for variables:
■ 0=No 1=Yes

■ OR: 1=No 2=Yes

■When you assign a value you must also make it clear what that

value means.
SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences)
is a software package used for the analysis of statistical data. Although the name of SPSS reflects its original use in
the field of social sciences, its use has since expanded into other data markets.

Innovation Network, Inc. Slide

Innovation Network, Inc. Slide
Innovation Network, Inc. Slide
٢
 Coding-Ordinal Variables

■ Coding process is similar with other categorical variables

■ Example: variable EDUCATION, possible coding:

0= Did not graduate from high school
1= High school graduate
2= high school education-post
3= College graduate

■ Could be coded in reverse order (0=college graduate, 3=did not graduate high school)

■ For this ordinal categorical variable we want to be consistent with numbering

because the value of the code assigned has significance.

Coding – Ordinal Variables (cont.)

■Example of bad coding:

■ 0 = High school education

■1 = Post-high school graduate

■2 =College graduate

■3 =Did not graduate from high school

Data has an inherent order but coding does not follow that order—NOT appropriate
coding for an ordinal categorical variable
 Coding: Nominal variables

■ For coding nominal variables, order makes no difference

■ Example: variable RESIDE

■ 1=Northeast

■ 2=South

■ 3= Northwest

■ 4=Midwest

■ 5= Southwest

Order does not matter; no ordered value is

associated with each response.
Data cleaning

■ One of the first steps in analyzing data is to “clean” it of any obvious data
entry errors:
■ Outliers? (really high or low numbers)
■ Example: Age = 110 (really 10 or 11?)
■ Value entered that doesn’t exist for the variable?
■ Example: 2 entered where 1=male, 0=female
■ Missing values?
Did the person not answer?
Presentation of Findings of the Study

◦ Most research reports present findings in narrative form and tables.

◦ According to the APA publication manual, the table is unnecessary if the text discusses every item in the
table.
Findings of the Study
◦ The findings of a quantitative study are presented in the form of empirical data or facts.
◦ Findings come from the analysis of the data obtained in the study.
◦ Descriptive statistics are always used to describe the sample and to present the findings.
Presentation of Findings of the Study

Ethical Issues in Presenting Research Findings

◦ Researcher has the responsibility to ensure that no subjects can be identified.

◦ Generally, in quantitative studies, only group data are presented.

◦ In qualitative studies, narratives by individual participants are shared.

◦ Identities must be protected.

◦ Agencies should never be identified

Presentation of Findings of the Study

Narrative Presentation of Findings

◦ Clear and concise
◦ Qualitative studies
◦ Narrative predominates
◦ Direct quotes and discussion of patterns and themes from data

Quantitative studies
Present data that support or fail to support each hypothesis
Should include the statistical test used, test results, degrees of freedom, and probability
value
Presentation of Findings of the Study

◦ Tables
◦ Means of organizing data
◦ More easily understood and interpreted
◦ A footnote should include:
◦ Test
◦ Degrees of freedom
◦ Probability value
Presentation of Findings of the Study

◦ Tables
◦ Table composition
◦ Columns
◦ Rows
◦ Cells
◦ Boxes formed where rows and columns intersect
Presentation of Findings of the Study
◦ Figures
◦ Any type of visual presentation other than a table
◦ Includes graphs, diagrams, line drawings, and photographs
◦ Particularly useful in presenting demographic data about subjects
Charts and graphs

■ Bar chart: comparisons, categories of data.

■ Line graph: displays trends over time.

■ Pie chart: Show percentages or proportional share

Column chart: Comparing categories
6

4
Site 1
3
Site 2
2 Site 3

0
Quarter 1 Quarter 2 Quarter 3 Quarter 4
Stacked bar chart
Number of Months Female and Male Patients Have Been
Enrolled in HIV Care, by Age Group

Females 4 10

0-14 years
15+ years
Males 3 6

0 5 10 15

Number of months patients have been enrolled in HIV care

Line graph

Number of clinicians 5

4
Clinic 1
3
Clinic 2
2 Clinic 3

0 Y1 1995 Y2 1996 Y3 1997 Y4 1998

Year 1 Year 2 Year 3 Year 4
Innovation Network, Inc. Slide

Number of Clinicians Working in Each Clinic During Years 1-4*

Pie chart

Percentage of All Patients Enrolled by Quarter

8%

10%

1st Q tr
2nd Q tr
23% 59% 3rd Q tr
4th Q tr

Innovation Network, Inc. Slide