Ecology

Ecology is the study of interrelation between living organism and their environment.
OR
Ecology is the branch of science that deals with the relationship between the abiotic and biotic
components of the environment as well as the interaction between or among the biotic
components.
The term ecology is made up of two Greek words - oikos means house or place to live and
logos mean study.
The term ecology was first coined by H. Reiter in 1865.
German biologist Earnest Haeckel proposed definition of ecology in 1886. According to him"
Ecology is the study of reciprocal relationship between living organism and their
environment.”
▪ E.P Odum (1970) defined ecology as the scientific study of the structure and function of
nature.
Warming is regarded as father of plant ecology.
Types of Ecology
⮚ Autoecology : The study of individual plants or the population of individual plant species in
relation to environment.
⮚ Synecology: It is the study of plant communities and their relationship with environment.
Ecological factors / Environmental factors
The term environment means surroundings. Thus environment is a complex of so many things
such as light, temperature, soil, water etc. which surrounds an organism.
Any external force, substance or condition which surrounds and affects the life of an organism
directly or indirectly is referred as ecological or environmental factors.
It includes biotic and abiotic factors.
I. Abiotic factors:
The non-living ecological factors are known as abiotic factor. An abiotic factor includes:
1. Climatic factors
The factors that influence the aerial environment are called climatic factors. It includes:
a. Light: The radiant energy coming from the sun in the form of visible spectrum is called
light. Light effects or regulates the plant activities in various ways and is responsible for
photochemical activities of the plants like photosynthesis, transpiration, movement,
germination, reproduction and geological distribution.
Following are the significance of light in organism.
➢ Photosynthesis: Sunlight is an essential material for photosynthesis. The rate of
photosynthesis depends upon the quality, intensity and duration (photoperiod) of light.
The rate of photosynthesis is more in intermittent light than in continuous light. Red
colored light is more effective for photosynthesis.
➢ Chlorophyll formation: Amount of chlorophyll formation is directly proportional to the
intensity of sunlight. It influences on the number and the position of chloroplast.

➢ Stomata movement and transpiration: Sunlight regulates the opening and closing of
stomata. Generally, stomata open in the presence of light (day) and close in the absence
of light (night or dark areas). Stomatal transpiration occurs only at the time of opening of
stomata. The rate of transpiration is directly proportional to the intensity of sunlight.
➢ Photoperiodism: Photoperiodism is the response of organism towards the duration of
light. It helps in growth and development of flowering of plants. Plants are classified in
following types on the basis of duration of light for flowering.
❖ Short day plants (SDP): These plants require short period (less than 12 hours) of light for
flowering. They mostly flower in winter e.g. soyabean, Dahlia, tobacco, etc.
❖ Long day plant (LDP): These plants require long period (more than 12hrs) of light for
flowering. They mostly flower in summer e.g. wheat, oat, barley, radish, etc.
❖ Day neutral plants (DNP or indeterminate plants): These plants show flowering in both
during short and long day's e.g. cucumber, tomato, maize, sunflower, cotton, etc.
➢ Growth and development: The growth and development of flowers, fruits and seeds of
plants are greatly affected by intensity of light.
➢ Metabolism: Light controls the production of enzymes and hormones for metabolism.
The plant which grow in insufficient light or in the total darkness produce maximum
amount of growth hormones gibberellins, as a result of which they are elongated with
weak pale yellow stem with few branches.
➢ Phototropism: The effect of sunlight on the plant is called heliotropism or phototropism.
It affects the movement of plant parts. Roots show negative phototropism but shoot
show positive phototropism.
➢ Classification of plants: Depending upon the relative light requirements, plants have
been classified in following two groups:
❖ Photophilous, heliophilous or sun-loving plants: These plants survive in high
intensity of sunlight.
 ❖ Sciophilous or shade loving plants: These plants survive in diffuse or low
intensity of light.
In animals, light provides vision, migration of birds, pigmentation, development of eyes etc.
b. Temperature
Temperature is degree of hotness and coldness. It is variable factor, which influenced by time,
season, latitude, altitude, slope, direction, soil type etc.
The following phenomena are affected by temperature.
➢ Transpiration: An increase in temperature causes in stomatal opening. So rate of
transpiration increases with increasing temperature or vice versa condition.
➢ Ascent of sap: At high temperature, the rate of ascent of sap increases by increasing
transpiration.
➢ Photosynthesis: Generally, the rate of photosynthesis gradually increases with rise in
temperature from 6° C to 37° C. But very high and very low temperature reduces the rate
of photosynthesis.
➢ Respiration: Generally, the rate of respiration gradually increases with rise in
temperature from 6°C to 45° C by more activation of enzymes. But very high and very
low temperature decreases the rate of respiration by denaturation of enzymes.
➢ Seed germination: Temperature stimulates the growth of seedlings.
➢ Absorption of water from soil: The rate of absorption of water from soil gradually
increases with rise in temperature from 20° C to 30° C.
➢ Flowering: Flowering is affected by temp. through thermoperiodism (the response of
plant to rhythmic diurnal fluctuations in temperature).
 ➢ Growth and development: Both extremely low and high temp.has adverse effect on the
growth and development of plants. Very low temp.causes cold injuries like: desiccation,
chilling injury and freezing injury. Very high temp. causes retardation of growth and
development as well as death of plants. This is called heat injury.
➢ Classification of vegetation: Vegetation has been placed into four classes on the basis of
its relation to temperature like: megatherms (vegetation growing in high temperature
e.g. tropical rain forests), mesotherms ( growing in alternation of low and high
temperature e.g. tropical deciduous forests), Microtherms (lower temperature
throughout the year e.g. mixed coniferous forest) and hekistotherms (low temperature
throughout the year e.g. Alpine vegetation).
In animals, temperature play important role in growth and development, maturation of
gonads, colouration, hibernation (winter sleep), aestivation (summer sleep) etc.
c. Precipitation (Rainfall)
It is the chief source of soil water. The water available to plants and animals from soil comes
as result of rainfall. In nature water may be found in vapours, liquid and ice state. The
influences of rainfall are as follows:
▪ The amount of rainfall determines vegetation and animal population of a particular region.
▪ Water is essential component of photosynthesis.
▪ Based on water relationship, plants are classified into three types - hydrophytes,
mesophytes and xerophytes.
d. Wind
Air in motion is called wind. It is an important ecological factor because Wind directly affects
in transpiration and increase the rate of evaporation of plant.
• It plays important role in pollination of the plants.
• It causes dispersal of seeds, fruits, spore etc.
• Strong wind causes soil erosion and also reduces the fertility of the soil, mechanical injury
of plants along with premature shedding of flowers, buds and fruits,breakage of branches
and bending of crop plants.

e. Atmospheric humidity:
Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere. It is an important
ecological factor because:
• It influences the physiological process such as absorption of water and transpiration.
Greater atmospheric humidity decreases the rate of absorption and transpiration where
as the low humidity increase the rate of transpiration and absorption.
• Some plant like epiphytes, lichen, mosses etc. that lacks true root with vascular tissue so,
directly supply water to their body from the humid air.
• It promotes the germination of spores of fungi in humid air.
f. Fire
Fire is caused naturally or artificially which affects the animals and plants. Fire is naturally
caused by lighting or volcanic activity. Fire kills much life and destroy vegetation but also help
many plants to regenerate.
2. Edaphic (Soil factors)
Edaphic factors include the structure and composition of soil along with its physical and
chemical characteristics. Soil is upper weathered humus containing part of earth surface
where many organisms live. The important soil components which affect the vegetation of
plant life are as follows.
➢ Soil water: Soil water fulfills the water requirement of plants and it also acts as media by
which essential minerals enter the plant body.
➢ Soil air: Soil air is necessary for the life of microorganism and in the respiration of
underground parts of higher plant.
➢ Soil temperature: It greatly influences plant life. Very low temperature causes root injury
mostly in winter seasons. Similarly, a very high temperature is also injury for root.
➢ Soil organic matter: It makes the soil porous and increases the aeration of soil. It also
increases the water holding capacity of soil.
➢ Soil microorganism: These are bacteria, fungi, blue green algae, earthworm etc. which
make the biological system of soil complex. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria and blue green
algae like Nostoc fix the atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate form and increase the fertility
of soil.

3. Topographic factors (Physiographic factors)

Topographic factors are those which are concerned with the physical geography of the earth
in an area which determines the structure and behaviour of the earth surface.
a.Latitude and Altitude: Both latitude and altitude affect in vegetation. Latitude is distance
from equator and altitude is the distance above sea level. Increase in latitude and altitude
temperature decreases, which results in variation in vegetation.
b.Slope of land: Slope is the characteristics features of mountains. Steepness of a slope affects
the amount of solar radiation received during the day and affect soil characteristics. Rain
water runs away rapidly on the slopes due to which the soil cannot absorb sufficient water
and remain dry. The steepness of a slope has a distinct effect on vegetation.
c.Direction of mountains: There is differential distribution of light in different exposure of
mountains. Southern part is directly exposed to sunlight as compared to Northern part. There
is also variation in intensity, quality and duration of light in east and west facing slopes of
mountains or hills. This variation is responsible for distribution of plants and animals in such
areas.

II. Biotic factors:

Biotic factors are living organisms. Biotic factors include all plants, animals and micro-
organism. Biotic factors are divided into three types based on food relationship i.e. Producer,
consumer and decomposers.
1. Producers (Autotrophic components)
All green plants, photosynthetic bacteria and cyanobacteria can prepare food
i.e. carbohydrate from inorganic substance. So they are known as autotrophs.
Since they supply food, shelter and respiratory gas oxygen to the animal so,
they are called producers.
2. Consumers (Heterotrophic components)
Consumers cannot prepare food so depends upon other living organism for food. Consumers
are heterotrophs. Consumers are divided into three types.
a. Primary Consumers: Organism which fully depends upon the producers for food i.e. they
are herbivores. Rabbit, Mouse, Insect, Deer, Cows, Sheep, grasshopper etc.
b. Secondary Consumers: Organism which feed producers and primary consumers. They are
carnivorous and omnivorous. Snake, Frog, Fox, Jackal, Dog, Small fishes etc.
c. Tertiary Consumer: They are top carnivorous which feed upon secondary consumer and
primary consumer. Lion, Tiger, Vulture etc. are tertiary consumers.

3. Decomposers
The microorganism (fungi and bacteria) which degrade the complex organic substance into
their simple form are known as decomposers. They play important role in ecosystem to
recycle the materials from dead animal body and plant into the soil from complex organic to
simple inorganic forms. The inorganic components are then used by producers.

Functional Aspects of Ecosystem

Trophic Level
The producers and different consumers in an ecosystem can be arranged into several feeding
or energy groups. Such feeding or energy groups are called trophic levels. They are also called
nutritional levels. All the green plants and photosynthetic bacteria make their own food by
the process of photosynthesis.
 • Producers belong to first trophic level because they prepare their own food and they also
provide the food for other trophic levels.
• All the primary consumers or herbivores belong to second trophic level as they take their
food from producers.
• Secondary consumers get their food from primary consumers. So they belong to the third
tropic level.
• Tertiary consumers belong to fourth trophic level because they take their food from third
trophic level.
While transferring the energy or food from one trophic level to the other trophic level, major
part of food or energy is lost in the form of heat and metabolic activities. ▪ Only 10% of the
energy or food is transferred from one trophic level to other.

Food Chain
Food chain is defined as the process of transfer of energy or food from one trophic level to
another trophic level by the process of eating and being eaten in simple form or in single
direction. There are basically three types of food chain in nature which are as follows:
1. Grazing food chain/Predatory food chain:
It is a type of food chain that starts from the green plants (producers) and then energy or food is
transferred to different levels of consumers. Thus the base of food chain is formed by producers.
This type of food chain utilizes direct solar energy.
Plant → grasshopper → frog → snake
Shrub → rabbit → jackal → tiger
Grass → mouse → snake → hawk
Tree → butterfly → lizard → snake → Hawk

2. Detritus food chain:

It is a type of food chain that starts from dead and decaying matters. Then food is first
transferred to micro-organisms that decompose it and then food is transferred to organism
feeding on detrivores and their predators. The dead organic matters are called detritus. Those
organisms that feed on detritus are called detrivores. Thus the base of food chain is formed by
dead organic matters in detritus food chain. This type of food chain does not utilize direct
solar energy.
▪ Fallen leaves and dead bodies (detritus) → Detrivores (bacteria, fungi and protozoans) →
Detritus consumers (Mollusca, crustaceans, insect larvae etc)
3. Parasitic food chain:
It starts from either producers or from any consumers. Then food transferred to parasites and
then to hyperparasites.
Cattle → Parasite → Hyperparasite
Plant → Parasite → Hyperparasite

B. Food Web
Food web is defined as the process of transfer of energy or food from one trophic level to
another trophic level by the process of eating and being eaten in complex network like form or
in multiple directions. So food web is the network like interconnection of food chains.

Ecological Pyramid
The graphical representation of ecological parameters like number, biomass or energy at
different trophic levels in an ecosystem is called ecological pyramid. Ecological pyramids are of
following three types:
a. Pyramid of number: It is the graphical representation of the number of organisms in
different trophic levels of an ecosystem. Pyramid of number may be upright (erect),
inverted or spindle shape.
➢ In aquatic ecosystem and grassland ecosystem, the number of producers are
maximum and the primary consumers or herbivores are lesser in number than the
producers. The secondary consumers are still lesser in number than the primary
consumers. Tertiary consumers are least in number which forms the top of pyramid.
Thus, the number of individuals is in decreasing order from the base of trophic level
to the apex of trophic level and forms upright or erect pyramid of number.
➢ In forest ecosystem, single tree provides food to many primary consumers
(herbivores) like insects, birds, squirrels, etc. The number of secondary consumers
are lesser than the primary consumers. Tertiary consumers are least in number
which forms the top of pyramid. Thus, forest ecosystem forms spindle like pyramid
of number.
➢ The pyramid of number is inverted in parasitic food chain. Single producer or
consumer may be eaten by many parasites. A parasite may be eaten by many
hyperparasites. A hyperparasite may be eaten by a number of hypoparasites
b. Pyramid of biomass: Net dry weight of organisms per unit area is called biomass. Pyramid of biomass is
the graphical representation of the biomass of organisms in different trophic levels of an ecosystem.
Pyramid of biomass may be upright or inverted in shape.
➢ In grassland and forest ecosystem, the pyramid of biomass becomes upright because biomass is

in gradually decreasing order from the base of trophic level (producers) to the apex of trophic
level (tertiary consumers).
➢ In aquatic (pond, lake, etc.) ecosystem, the pyramid of biomass becomes inverted because

biomass is in gradually increasing order from the base of trophic level (producers) to the apex
of trophic level (tertiary consumers).
 c. Pyramid of energy: It is the graphical representation of the energy of organisms in different trophic
levels of an ecosystem. It also indicates the loss of energy at each trophic level in the form of heat and
metabolic activities. Pyramid of energy is always upright in every ecosystem because energy is in
decreasing order from the base of trophic level (producers) to the apex of trophic level (tertiary
consumers). Only 10% of energy of total energy one trophic level is transferred to other trophic level.

(According to 10% law of Lindeman, 90% is utilised in metabolic activities and only 10%
energy is passed to next trophic level. This is called Lindeman`s effect).
Productivity
The rate of production or storage of organic matter by any trophic level per unit area and time
is called productivity. It is measured in Kilo Joules per square metre per year. Plants prepare
their own food by the process of photosynthesis by utilization of carbon dioxide, water in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
6CO2 + 12H2O+ light energy= C6H12O6 + 602 + 6H2O
The potential energy stored in plant tissues as organic matter i.e. sugars which are eaten by
primary consumers and transformed to primary consumers. The energy again transferred to
secondary consumers and then tertiary consumers when they are eaten by primary or
secondary consumers respectively.
Types of Productivity
Productivity is following types:
1. Primary productivity: It is the total amount of energy or food produced and stored in
producers during photosynthesis. It is of following two types:
a. Gross primary productivity (GPP): It is the total amount of food produced by the producers
without its consumption in metabolic activities and loss in the form of heat.
b. Net primary production (NPP): It is total amount of storage of organic matter in plant tissue
after its consumption in metabolic activities and loss in the form of heat.
NPP = GPP- Energy lost in metabolic activities and heat.
2. Secondary productivity: The rate of storage of energy in consumers i.e. herbivores,
carnivores and decomposers is secondary productivity. Consumers get the food energy from
producer in the form of organic matter and store it as potential energy. In each step of energy
transformation a lot of energy is lost as heat. Consumers utilize the food materials in their vital
activities (i.e. respiration) and tissue formation.
Some terminologies
Biosphere: It is the part of earth and atmosphere where life can exist which ranges from deep
water bodies, land and few meters in atmosphere.
Individual: It is a distinct living being and a basic unit of ecological hierarchy.
Habitat: a place where an organism lives.
Ecosystem: A system formed by the interaction of biotic and abiotic components within an
ecological territory.
Biomes: A large naturally forming community of flora and fauna occupying major habitat.
These are the largest ecological units. Eg, tropical rainforest, tropical savannah etc.
Ecotones: The transitional zones between two adjacent biomes is called ecotone. It possesses
certain organisms of both biomes and some peculiar organism of its own.
Ecotype: A population that is adapted to local environmental conditions is called ecotype.
These differ from each other on the basis of morphological and physiological characters but
are inter fertile ( genetically similar).
Ecads: A species in a population which is genetically similar but different in morphological
characters.
Ecological niche: The functional role or position of an organism in an ecosystem; how it meets
its needs for food and shelter, how it survives, and how it reproduces is called ecological niche
of that organism. It refers to the role of an organism in a given habitat.

Biotic interactions
The organism of a particular environment interacting to one another with respect to physical
factors for their vital life activities such as survival, nutrition, reproduction and development.
Thus, the interaction between the living organisms of an environment is called
biotic interaction. The interaction may be beneficial or harmful.
There are two types of interaction:
▪ Interspecific interaction
▪ Intraspecific interaction
1. Interspecific interaction
In this type of interaction, there is a relationship between organisms of different
species. It may be positive and negative interspecific interaction.
Positive interspecific interactions
a. Mutualism (+, +, obligatory): Symbiosis or mutualism is the interaction between two
different species in which both species are mutually benefited and both species are obligatory
(cannot survive independently). Eg; Lichen, Rhizobium bacteria present root nodules of
legumes, Mycorrhiza etc.
b. Protocooperation (+,+ non-obligatory): It is the interaction between two different species
in which both species are benefited but the relationship is non-obligatory (can survive
independently). Cattle and predatory birds are examples of protocooperation.
Predator birds sit on cattle and feed on parasites of cattle like leeches, lice etc.
so, birds get food from cattle whereas cattle get relief from ectoparasites.
c. Commensalism (+, 0): In this interaction, only one species gets benefited while other
species neither get benefited nor harmed. Some examples are:
Epiphytes: Epiphytes grow on other plants and utilize them for support. They do
not harm the organism upon which they grow. Eg, orchids, mosses
Lianas: These are woody plants that use other plants or object for support only and roots
are present in soil. Eg, Bauhinia
Epizones: Those animals that depend on plants or other animals as commensals. Eg, pilot
fish and shark, E. coli in human intestine etc
 d. Neutralism (o, o): It is the interaction between two species in which both species are
neither benefited nor harmed. The leaf eating and sap-sucking insects live together in
same plants but there are no any relations.
e. Scavenging (+, 0): It is a process of feeding of flesh of animals, which has died naturally or
has killed by another animal. The animals feeding on dead flesh are called scavengers.
Eg, vulture feeding on dead animals.
f. Mimicry (+,0, mimic, model): It is the resemblance of one organism to another or to any
natural object for protection or for some other advantage. The organism that shows
mimicry is called mimic and the organism or object to which a mimic resemble is called
model. Eg, oak leaf butterfly, Kalima; looks like the colour of dry oak leaf, leaf insect;
Phyllium, looks like green leaf etc.
Negative interspecific interactions
a. Parasitism (+, - Parasite, host): It is the interaction between two different species in
which one species is benefited which is called parasite and the other species is harmed
called host. Parasite depend on host for food and shelter which are of two types i.e.
ectoparasites(lice,leech) and endoparasites(roundworm,tapeworm)
b. Predation (+, - Predator, prey): It is the interaction between two different species in
which one species is benefited and other species is harmed. In predation one species
captures, kill and eats up the other species. Here, the killer is predator and the killed one
is prey. The relationship between tiger and deer is an example.
c. Amensalism or antibiosis (-, 0 chemical): The interaction between the two different
species in which one species is neither benefited nor harmed but other species is
 harmed. One species produces chemicals that inhibit the growth and development of
other species and such chemicals are called allelochemicals. Penicillium produces the
chemical penicillin that inhibits the growth and development of Staphylococcus bacteria.
d. Competition (+, - ): It is an interaction of different and similar species for food, shelter
and mating. In this process, weakest individuals that fail to compete are eliminated or
forced to death. Human war is the best example of intraspecific competition
2. Intraspecific Interactions
In this type of interaction, there is a relationship between or among the individuals
of same species. It is of following types:
a. Social Organization: It is a type of association between individuals of same species. In
this, division of labour occurs among species. In a colony of honey-bees, diffrerent types
of individual (one queen, few drones and many workers) live together and have
different functions.
b. Colonization: It is the grouping of individuals of the same species for better protection
from predators or harsh environmental conditions and for food. Colonization is common
in microorganisms such as Nostoc, Volvox, Anabaena etc.
c. Aggregation: It is also a type of grouping of organism of same species. Large number of
independent individuals concentrate in an area. Aggregation is beneficial during
scarcity of food, space, light and for better breeding. Example; Grasshopper
ECOSYSTEM
A system that includes all the living organisms (biotic factors) in an area as well as its physical
environment (abiotic factors) functioning together as a unit is called ecosystem.
Pond Ecosystem
A pond as a whole serves a good example of a freshwater ecosystem. A pond indeed exhibits a
self-sufficient, self-regulating system. It is aquatic, freshwater and lentic (stagnant water)
ecosystem which covers an area less than one hectare (10000 m2) where depth of water is less
than 2 meter and source of water is either rain or runoff water.
Division of pond : On the basis of water depth, light intensity, vegetation and animal in a pond, it
can be vertically divided into following 3 - zones
1. Littoral zone:
➢ Upper warm and oxygen rich circulating water which receives enough light
➢ Floating and rooted plants are present-Examples of consumers are frog, snake, turtle etc
➢ Decomposers are not found
2. Limnetic zone :
➢ Middle zone which receives less intensity of light and less dissolved oxygen
➢ Less fluctuation of temperature as compared to littoral zone.
➢ Phytoplanktons, suspended plants etc are producers.
➢ Zooplanktons, fishes etc are consumers
➢ Decomposers are absent.
3. Profundal zone:-
➢ Deep water zone beneath limnetic zone
➢ Poor biodiversity zone
➢ No effective light penetration
➢ May be absent in shallow pond
➢ Animals like snails, molluscs, annelids, crabs etc are found
 ➢ decomposers are found in this zone.

Structural components of pond

It includes biotic and abiotic factors of pond.
Biotic Components: The various organisms that constitute the biotic component are as follows-
1. Producer: These are autotrophic green plants and some photosynthetic bacteria. They
produce energy with the help of material derived from the water and mud. They produce complex
organic substances as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids etc. The producers are two types:
➢ Phytoplanktons: These are the minute microscopic floating plants like Chlamydomonas,
Volvox, Oscillatoria, Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Spirulina, Diatoms, Anabaena etc.
➢ Macrophytes: They are larger non-microscopic plants. It may be floating, sub-merged and
emergent hydrophytes.
• Floating: Eichornia, Lemna, Pistia, Azolla etc.
 • Sub-merged: Chara, Hydrilla, Potamogeton etc.
• Emergent: Trapa, Colocasia, Cyperus esculentus etc.
2. Consumer: They are heterotrophs which depend for their nutrition on the organic food
producer, the green plants. The consumers in a pond are as follows.
a) Primary Consumers (herbivores): Also known as primary macro consumers, these are
herbivores feeding directly on living plants (producer). These may be large or minute. The primary
consumer of pond is Euglena, Dileptus, beetles, mites etc.
b) Secondary consumer (carnivores): They are the carnivores which feed on the primary
consumers. These are chiefly insects and fish. Most insects as water beetles feed on
zooplanktons.
c) Tertiary Consumer: these are some large fish that feed on the smaller fish and thus become
the tertiary carnivores. Eg,large fishes, water birds, water snakes etc.
3. Decomposer: They are known as micro consumers, since they absorb only a fraction of the
decomposed organic matter. They bring about the decomposition of complex dead organic matter
of both plants and animals to simple form. Thus, they play an important role in the return of
mineral elements again to the medium of the pound. The decomposers of pond are Aspergillus,
alternaria, penicillum, cladosporium, etc. the most common decomposer.

Abiotic Components: The chief substances are heat, light, pH value of water and basic organic
and inorganic compounds such as CO2 gas, oxygen, calcium, nitrogen etc. some proportions of
nutrients are in soluble state but most of them are stored in particulate matters as well as in living
organisms. Only a small amount of these nutrients are found in dissolved form whereas major
proportion of these nutrients reside in the bottom of pond as sediments.
Functional components of pond
Food chain:The transfer of materials and energy in the form of food from one tropic level to
another trophic level by the repeated process of eating and being eaten is known as food chain.
The food chain is of following types:
1. Predatory Food Chain: This food chain starts with aquatic green plants(autotrophs) whose
source of energy is the 'sun'. The autotrophs (green plants) become the source for herbivores and
that in turn will be the source of energy of primary carnivores and then the secondary carnivores.
The energy transfer will be shown in
flow chart:
Phytoplankton -> Zooplankton-> Small fishes ->Large fish and fish eating birds
2. Detritus food chain: this food chain starts from the organic matters of dead and decomposing
organisms, known as detritus. The organic matter are first decomposed by micro-organisms
forming detritus food which is consumed by the consumer. Energy flow will be as follows:
Organic matters -> microbes / Detrivores ->Producers

Food web
In a pond there are three to five chains, interconnected with one another in different ways forming
a network called a food web. There are many kinds of animals which consume more than one
species of plants and animals for their food. Thus, there may be numerous intermediate links
sometimes with side chains also.
Ecological Pyramid
An ecological pyramid is a sort of graphical representation showing relationship between the
various trophic levels of a community.
The pyramid of number and pyramid of energy are upright in pond ecosystem because the
numbers and energy goes on decreasing in each trophic levels.
Pyramid of biomass is inverted because it goes increasing pattern in increasing trophic level.
 Pyramid of number and energy

Nutrient cycle
Inorganic substances like C,H,0,N,P,K etc. are utilized by plants and they transfer through food
chain to different consumers and lastly return back to abiotic environment again. So flow of
nutrients is cyclic.

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD): It is the amount of oxygen required by bacteria in pond in a
unit volume of water at a specified time. It measures degree of water pollution. If water is
polluted then oxygen level in water is depleted.
Dissolved Oxygen: It is the amount of oxygen dissolved in water. If DO value is 4-5ppm then
fishes become scarce and if its value further decreases then no. of aerobic bacteria increases.
 Forest Ecosystem
A Forest ecosystem is a type of terrestrial ecosystem with a high density of trees along
with other plants such as herbs, shrubs, grasses, climbers etc. A forest is a large and
complex ecosystem and hence has greater species diversity. It, however, may vary largely
in size i.e. from a small forest to a large forest which are self-sustaining and self-
regulating.
Main types of forest are: Tropical forest ecosystem, Temperate forest ecosystem and
Taiga or Boreal forest.
It includes structural and function components.
A. Structural Components
It comprises abiotic and biotic factors.
Abiotic Component: Abiotic factors of forest ecosystem includes non- living
components of forest ecosystem. Temperature, light, wind velocity and direction,
rainfall, forest fire, humidity, altitude, steepness and direction of slope, exposure, soil
pH, water holding capacity, soil microbes, humus, nutrients etc are abiotic components
of forest ecosystem. Global distribution of forest mainly depends on rainfall and
temperature (low temp. and less rainfall cannot support growth of trees). Moist and
warm climate support broadleaved forest while cool and dry climate support conifer
 forest. Overall, the quantity and quality of abiotic factors play important role to form
forest ecosystem.
Biotic Component
a. Producers: All green plants including herbs, shrubs , creepers and trees are the producers
in a forest ecosystem. In forest, producers are mainly trees. Trees are of different kinds
depending upon the type of forest in that climate such as tropical forest of Nepal has
broad leaved trees like saal(Shorea robusta), sisoo(Dalbergia sp.), simal(Bombax ceiba),
Terminalia sp.etc, temperate forest has Pinus sp., Rhododendron arboretum,
Oak(Quercus sp.) etc.
Producers also includes different grasses species , shrubs and herbs. These producers utilize
solar energy for photosynthesis and produce organic food materials.
b. Consumer: On the basis of feeding habit, consumers are categorized as:
➢ Primary Consumers: The herbivores feeding on grasses such as cows, deer, sheep,
rabbit, deer etc. Larger animals such as Elephants, Deer, Giraffe etc. grazing on
shoots and/or fruits of trees. Besides them there are also present some insects as
Ants, Beetles, Bugs, spiders, Leptocorisa, termites, grasshopper etc.
➢ Secondary Consumer: These are the carnivores feeding on herbivores. These
include the animals like fox, jackals, snakes, birds, lizards, frogs,spiders,monkeys etc
 ➢ Tertiary Consumers: These are secondary carnivores and feed on secondary
consumers. These include top carnivores like Lion, Tiger, Pythons, Hawks, eagle etc.
c.Decomposer: The microbes active in the decay of dead organic matter of different forms of
higher life are fungi as species of Mucor, Aspergillus, Penicillium etc. Also different bacteria act
as decomposers. They bring about the minerals back to the soil thus, making them available to
the producers.
Functional components of forest ecosystem comprises:
A. Food Chain: Process of transfer of energy or food from one trophic level to other with
process of eating and being eaten is known as a Food chain and is of 3 types:
1. Grazing food Chain: This type of food chain starts from the living green plant goes to
grazing herbivores and on to carnivores.
Autotrophs Herbivores Pri. Carnivore Secondary Carnivore
2. Parasitic food chain: It goes from large organism to smaller ones without outright
killing as in case of predation.
Tree parasite hyperparasite
3. Detritus Food Chain: starts with dead plant and animal remains. The transfer of energy
from dead organic matter to detritus consumers (detritivores)- small carnivores - large
(top) carnivores with repeated eating and being eaten respectively. This is called detritus
food chain
Food Web: Food web can be defined as network of interconnected food chain. Under natural
conditions, the linear arrangement of food chains hardly occurs and these remain
interconnected with each other through different types of organism at different trophic level.
Ecological Pyramids: It is the graphical representation of interrelationship between producers
and consumers of different orders. It is of 3 types i.e.
A) Pyramid of number: It is spindle shaped as a single tree provide food and habitat to
different consumers so, no. of primary consumers is more than producers and then no. of
secondary and tertiary consumers goes on decreasing.
B) Pyramid of Biomass : upright or erect
C) Pyramid of energy: upright or erect
 Nutrient cycle: The flow of nutrients in forest ecosystem is cyclic. Producers utilize
inorganic materials to produce organic food molecules which transfers to different
consumers via food chain and food web. After the death of both producers ad
consumers, decomposers decompose their body and release the nutrients to soil i.e.
again utilized by producers.

Ecological Imbalances
Certain human activities and natural processes introduce many unwanted substances in
the environment and disturb the balanced system of the environment. This is known as
ecological imbalance. The major ecological imbalances are greenhouse effects, depletion
of ozone layer and acid rain
Greenhouse effect: When the solar radiation strikes the earth surface, the infra-red
radiation further increases in wavelength which prevent them radiate back to space by
the envelop of gases (greenhouse gases) causing rise in temperature. This retention of
heat energy by earth due to presence of greenhouse gases (CO2, SO2, CFC, CO etc. is
known as greenhouse effect and thus increase in temperature is called global warming.
Causes
1. Due to deforestation.
2. Due to population growth, the excessive amount of CO2 is being deposited in the
atmosphere through furnaces of power plants, automobiles, factories, etc.
3. Industries which are involved in cement production, fertilizers, coal mining, etc. produce
harmful greenhouse gas.
4. Nitrous oxide is one of the greenhouse gas that is used in fertilizer and contributes to the
greenhouse effect.
 Consequences
1. It results in the increase in temperature of the earth as a whole causing global warming.
2. The rise in temperature result increases in sea level due to the melting of polar caps.
3. Warming up of the atmosphere causes natural calamities like flood, hurricanes, and
cyclones nearby the oceans.
4. Higher atmospheric temperature increase evaporation of water from the farms reducing
crop yield.
5. Monsoon may even stop altogether or rainfall may be altered.
Control measures
• It can be minimized by lowering emission of greenhouse gases, minimizing fossil fuel
consumption, afforestation, using alternative source for energy like hydropower etc.

Ozone layer depletion

The ozone layer is a deep layer in earth’s atmosphere that contains ozone which is a
naturally occurring molecule containing three oxygen atoms. An essential property of
ozone molecule is its ability to block solar radiations of wavelengths less than 290
nanometers from reaching Earth’s surface along with ultraviolet radiations that are
dangerous for most living beings. The process of depletion or thinning of ozone layer in
 the stratosphere due to destruction of ozone by different pollutants, especially by CFCs is
called ozone layer depletion.
Causes
1. Chloro Fluro Carbon (CFC) gas released by industry releases chlorine-containing chemicals
that react with ozone and causes damage to it. Also used as coolants in refrigerators, ac
etc.
2. Volcanic eruption, burning of large forests and savannahs, jet planes also contribute to
the depletion of ozone
3. Other causes are nitrogen oxides produced by aircrafts, satellites, industries, nitrogen
fertilizers, fossil fuels etc.
Consequences
1. Due to more UV radiations entering, it increases the earth’s temperature that can lead to
the failure of rainfall.
2. Harmful UV radiations may cause skin cancer.
3. Higher UV radiation reduces the photosynthesis thus, reducing the productivity of crops.
4. UV radiation results in the number of phytoplankton and zooplanktons and thus, harms
fish and other aquatic life.
Control measures
The depletion of the ozone layer is a serious issue and various programmes have been
launched by the government of various countries to prevent it. However, steps should be
taken at the individual level as well to prevent the depletion of the ozone layer.
Following are some points that would help in preventing this problem at a global level:
➢ Avoid Using ODS: Reduce the use of ozone depleting substances. E.g. avoid the use of
CFCs in refrigerators and air conditioners, replacing the halon based fire extinguishers,
etc.
➢ Minimise the Use of Vehicles: The vehicles emit a large amount of greenhouse
gases that lead to global warming as well as ozone depletion. Therefore, the use of
vehicles should be minimised as much as possible.
➢ Use Eco-friendly Cleaning Products: Most of the cleaning products have chlorine and
bromine releasing chemicals that find a way into the atmosphere and affect the ozone
layer. These should be substituted with natural products to protect the environment.
➢ Use of Nitrous Oxide should be Prohibited: The government should take actions and
prohibit the use of harmful nitrous oxide that is adversely affecting the ozone layer.
People should be made aware of the harmful effects of nitrous oxide and the products
emitting the gas so that its use is minimised at the individual level as well.
 Acid rain
Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is usually acidic, meaning that it
have the higher number of hydrogen ions (low pH). Normal or unpolluted rain has a pH of
5.6%, the acidity is due to the presence of CO2 in the air. But acid rain has a pH value of 4
to 4.5 that is due to SO2 and oxides of nitrogen present in it.
Causes:
• Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen (SO2, NO, NO2 ) are the main air pollutants produced
mainly by the combustion of fossil fuels for power generation.
• In the atmosphere, SO2 and NO2 react with moisture forming respective acids (H2SO4 and
HNO3 ) which then dissolving in water vapor in atmosphere fall onto the earth as acid
rain. These acidic oxides may even undergo physical and chemical transformations
producing toxic agents.
Effects
1. Acid rain creates particles in the air that can cause respiratory problems.
2. It also causes building materials to decay more rapidly and paint more likely to peel.
3. Acid rain when mixed into the soil, it dissolves many of the essential nutrients the plant
needs.
4. Acid rain raises the acidity of water of lake or pond which may destroy the aquatic life.
5. productions of crop plants decreases.
 CONTROL OF ACID RAIN
• Emission of SO2 and NO2 from industries and power plants should be reduced by using
pollution control equipments.
• Using cleaner fuels
• Liming of lakes and soils should be done to correct the adverse effects of acid rain.
• Use other sources of electricity (i.e. nuclear power, hydro-electricity, wind energy,
geothermal energy, and solar energy)

Biogeochemical cycle
The cyclic movement of essential biochemical (i.e. nutrients) from abiotic environment to
living organisms and again back to the abiotic environment is called biogeochemical cycle.
The cycling of elements and inorganic compounds that are essential for proper growth
and development of living organism is called nutrient cycle. Nutrients are of two types
based on their requirement to the body. They are: macronutrients and micronutrients.
Types of biogeochemical cycle
There are mainly three types of biogeochemical cycle.
1. Hydrological cycle (water cycle)
2. Gaseous cycle (C,H,N,O)
3. Sedimentary cycle (phosphorus, sulphur, magnesium, etc.)
 Nitrogen cycle
The cyclic movement of nitrogenous elements of the biosphere between the abiotic and
biotic component is called nitrogen cycle. Nitrogen is the essential constituent of many
biologically significant molecules such as amino acids, proteins, enzymes, nucleic acids
etc. Atmospheric nitrogen is the major source of nitrogen for plants.
Except some nitrifying bacteria and some algae, atmospheric nitrogen cannot be
utilized directly by plants. Green plants obtain nitrogen from soil in the form of
ammonium, nitrate and nitrite ions.
Nitrogen cycle consists of following steps.
1.Nitrogen fixation: Conversion of free atmospheric nitrogen into biologically
acceptable form or nitrogenous compounds is called nitrogen fixation. It occurs by three
methods:
➢ Non-biological nitrogen fixation: It occurs during lightening or electrical discharges in
the cloud. During this process, atmospheric nitrogen combines with oxygen and produce
different nitrogen oxides.
➢ Biological nitrogen fixation: Some symbiotic bacteria like Rhizobium in root nodules of
legumes, free living nitrogen fixing bacteria like nitrobacter, azotobacter, Clostridium and
blue green algae (Nostoc, Anabaena) can fix atmospheric nitrogen into various
nitrogenous compounds which becomes available for plants.
 ➢ Industrial nitrogen fixation: In industries, free nitrogen and hydrogenare combined to
form ammonia at very high temperature (400ᵒc) and pressure (200atm). This process is
called Haber`s process and used to manufacture nitrogen fertilizer.
2. Nitrogen assimilation: It is the process of conversion of inorganic nitrogenous compound
into organic form by living organisms. Green plants absorb inorganic nitrogen in the form of
nitrate, nitrite and ammonia. Ammonia combines with organic acids to form amino acids.
These amino acids are used in the synthesis of proteins, enzymes and nucleic acids etc.
3. Ammonification: The dead bodies of plants, animals and animal excreta contains
nitrogenous compounds which are converted into ammonia by microorganisms
(decomposers). This process is called ammonification. Bacillus racemos, B. vulgaris etc are
responsible for ammonification.
4. Nitrification: Conversion of ammonia into nitrates by nitrifying bacteria is called
nitrification. Ammonia is first converted into nitrites by Nitrosomonas which is then converted
into nitrates by nitrobactor.
5. Denitrification: The process of conversion of ammonia and nitrates into atmospheric free
nitrogen by certain bacteria is called denitrification. Bacillus denitrificans, Micrococcus
denitrificans etc. are the common examples of denitrifying bacteria.
6. Sedimentation: Some nitrates are lost due to leaching, soil erosion and reach deep into
the sea and washed away deep into the sea. This is called sedimentation.
Carbon cycle
Carbon is most essential component of all organic compound. Carbon is abundant in
atmosphere (0.03%) in carbon dioxide form (CO2) and dissolved state in water. Carbon
also found in carbonate rocks.
Carbon cycle is completed in following steps.
 1. Carbon fixation/ Utilization: It is the process of conversion of atmospheric carbon
dioxide into carbon compound of the organism. Plant and photosynthetic organism show
carbon fixation by the process of photosynthesis. Carbon fixed by producer enters the
food chain and passed to consumers and decomposers.

2. Carbon assimilation: Carbon assimilation is the process of changing one form of

carbon compound of organisms to the other form of carbon compound by an organisms.
Glucose formed by the process of photosynthesis, may be converted into other organic
compound such as sucrose, starch, protein, lipid etc. such carbon containing compound
are stored as food in different plant tissues which is then transferred to consumer.
3. Sedimentation: Due to different types of natural calamities, plants and animals are
buried under the soil. So carbon compound of organism are locked below the soil. Due
to high temperature and pressure these carbon compound are gradually transferred into
fossil fuel. This is called sedimentation.
4. Release of carbon back to the environment: It occurs in following ways;
• Respiration: Respiration in plants, animals and micro-organism release carbon back to
environment.
• Decomposition: Decomposition of dead bodies and metabolic wastages by bacteria and
fungi release carbon back to environment.
• Combustion: Combustion of fossil fuels, plants animals skeleton, lime stone etc. release
carbon back to environment.
• Volcanic eruption and forest fire
• Breathing: During breathing animals take O2 and release CO2 back to the environment.
 Biomolecules
• Living organisms are made up of many kind of molecules.
• These molecules are basic and essential for life so called as biomolecules. These
molecules vary in size from simple molecules such as carbon dioxides and water to
large molecules such as protein.
• The biomolecules present in a cell form a Cellular pool
• These occur naturally in living organisms
• Cellular Pool
• The collection of various types of biomolecules in a cell is called cellular pool.
• Cellular pool consists of organic (Carbohydrates, Amino acids, Proteins, Lipids, Nucleic
acids, Enzymes etc.) and inorganic compounds (Water, Mineral salts etc.).
 Inorganic compounds
A. Water
• Most abundant inorganic compound in the cells.
• It occupies 60%- 70% of the body weight and in the
protoplasm, it occupies 75% - 90%.
• It plays very vital role in the maintenance of life
• The Water (H2O) molecule has a triangular geometry with
O-H bond distance of 0.0965nm and the H-O-H bond angle
is 104.5°. Although the water as a whole is electrically
neutral, it behaves as an electrical dipole. This is because;
oxygen atom is more electronegative than the hydrogen
atoms, so it attracts electrons away from the hydrogen
nuclei.
• This gives the oxygen atom two partial negative charges
(δ-), while each hydrogen atom carries a partial positive
charge (δ+)
• ▪Hydrogen bond is formed among water molecules. ▪
Most of solutes are dissolved in water because water can
form hydrogen bond with those molecules which have
hydrophilic group.
Functions
1.Water is a universal solvent.
2.Some reactions in the body are ionic in nature that takes place in
water.
3.Water balances the body temperature and pH.
4.It acts as a medium for transport of some substances in the body
5.Helps in digestion of substances
6.Various movements of plants organs like opening and closing
of stomata and flower are controlled by water.
7.Turgidity of cell is maintained by water.
B. Minerals

• Essential components of the cells and form about 2 - 3% of

total dry weight of protoplasm.
• Help in metabolism and for growth and development of the
body. They should be obtained regularly from the food.
• On the basis their amount required by plants, these are
categorized into two groups i.e.
Macromolecules/Macronutrients and
Micromolecules/Micronutrients
 Differentiate between macronutrients and
micronutrients.
Macronutrients Micronutrients

They are required by the ▪ They are required by the plants

plants comparatively in larger amount comparatively in fewer amounts (less
(more than 0.01PPM). than 0.01PPM).
▪ They are present easily in They are present in minute or trace
detectable quantity quantity.
They do not become toxic in excess. ▪ They become toxic in excess.

▪ They have major role for formation Minor role

of protoplasmic structures and molecules.

▪ They are Ca, Mg,K,P,N,Cl,S,Na etc. ▪ They are Fe, I, Mn, Zn, B, Cu, Ni, Mo etc
 Macroelements: They are required in large Microelements: require in less
amount i.e. more than 1 gram. Macromolecules amount/ trace amount i.e. less than
are as follows: 1gm

1. Calcium ( Ca ): Used as fertilizers in the bone dust.

Strength and rigidity to bones and teeth. 1. Copper
Electron carrier in cytochrome oxidase.
2. Magnesium ( Mg ): Form structure of chlorophyll pigment.
Help in the production of melanin.
Co -factor of enzymes like ATPase.
3. Potassium( K ): Helps in the conduction of nerve impulse. 2. Iron ( Fe )
Maintains electrical potential across the membranes. Oxygen carrier as a haeme in haemoglobin
and myoglobin.
4. Sulphur ( S ): Synthesis proteins e.g. keratin Electron carriers in cytochromes.
Synthesis organic compound e.g. Co- enzyme A.
5.Sodium ( Na ): Balance anion/cation osmotic balance in cellular fluids.
3. Iodine ( I )
It acts as co - factor in photosynthesis and respiration. An important constituent of
the hormone thyroxine.
6.Nitrogen ( N ): Synthesis proteins, nucleic acids and organic Its deficiency leads to goitre.
compounds.
Synthesis of chlorophyll. 4. Manganese ( Mn )
7.Phosphorus ( P ): Synthesize nucleic acids, ATP and proteins. Important for oxidation of fatty acids.
It is a constituent of bone and teeth enamel. Important for enzymes, in respiration and
photosynthesis as mitochondria are rich in
8.Chlorine ( Cl ): Help in exchange of gases in tissue during respiration. manganese.
Form a major component of blood plasma.
Organic molecules
The molecules that are formed by the various combinations of
hydrogen, carbon and oxygen.
1. Carbohydrates
• Carbohydrates are essential biomolecules which are mainly
the compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. These are
also called hydrates of carbon.
• General formula of carbohydrate is CnH2nOn.
• They possess more than one alcoholic (-OH) group.
• Carbohydrates are known as saccharides.
• A carbohydrate is polyhydroxy aldehyde (-CHO) or ketons
(-C = O) and their derivatives because carbohydrates have
more than two hydroxyl group and bear either aldehyde or
ketones.
Types of carbohydrates
 Monosaccharides
• They are chemically simplest form
of carbohydrates in which a
carbohydrates can exist.
• They cannot be hydrolyzed into
smaller carbohydrates.
• All carbon atoms have hydroxyl
groups (-OH group) attached to
them except one.
• These carbon atom has an
aldehyde or ketone group to it.
• For example:glucose, fructose
Physical properties

• Low molecular weight.

• Sweet in taste.
• Readily soluble in water.
• Crystalline in nature.

Chemical property
• Reducing sugar: as it reduces cu++ to cu+
 Oligosaccharides:
• They are complex sugar composed of 2
-10 molecules of same or different
monosaccharides linked together by
glycosidic bond .
• On hydrolysis monosaccharaides are
yield. Example - Sucrose, lactose,
maltose etc.
• Physical properties
• Low molecular weight, Sweet in taste,
Readily soluble in water, Crystalline in
nature.
• Chemical property:
• Maltose and lactose are reducing sugar.
Sucrose is non reducing sugar.
• On hydrolysis, these yield simple sugar
or monosaccharides
Glycosidic bond
• Glycosidic bond is a kind of covalent bond which is
formed by condensation of two adjacent
monosaccharides releasing one molecule of water.
• It links two monosaccharaides units in
oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.
 Polysaccharides
• They are complex sugar formed by
condensation of more than ten
monosaccharaides.
• In polysaccharides monosaccharide are
joined together by glycosidic bond.
• They have high molecular weight,
tasteless, insoluble in water, non-
crystalline in nature.
• Example – Hemicellulose, Starch,
Cellulose, glycogen, chitin etc.
• May be homopolysaccharide( made of
same monosaccharides) or
heteropolysaccharide(made of
different monosaccharides).
 Functions of Carbohydrates
1. A source of energy about 80-85% of energy is produced by
carbohydrates.
2. Intermediate products of respiration and photosynthesis are
carbohydrates.
3. Ribose and deoxyribose are the component of RNA and DNA.
4. Polysaccharide like cellulose, hemicellulose, and chitin are the
component of cell wall.
5. Starch and glycogen are storage of food materials of plant and animal.
6. Fats and amino acids are synthesized from glucose and other sugar.
7. Lactose present in milk provides energy to infants.
8.For many commercial product such as furniture, shelter, fuel, paper, textiles
ropes, cellulose act as raw materials.
9.Agar( from red algae Gellidium and Gracilaria): used for dairy product and
cosmetic, algin (from brown algae Laminaria): used as stabilizers in ice creams,
shaving creams, toothpastes etc, carrageenin(from red alga Chondrus) is used as
emulsifier in ice creams, chocolates etc
 Amino Acids
• Amino acids are building blocks of proteins.
• They are molecules having carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and
phosphorous and little sulphur group.
• Each amino acid is a nitrogenous compound having an acidic carboxyl (-CHOO) and basic (-
NH2) group due to which it can react with both acids and bases. Such compounds are called
amphoteric compounds.
• Carboxylic group is generally present in terminal position but amino group is present in α-
position or carbon next to terminal carboxylic group.
• All protein amino acids are α-amino acids except praline and alanine.
• Amino acids are colorless crystalline solids.
• They are soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents.
• There are 20 amino acids present in nature.
• In an amino acid, as acidic –COOH group and basic –NH2 group are in same molecule,-
COOH looses a proton and –NH2 accepts a proton forming dipolar ion or Zwitter ion.
• A zwitterion is an ion that contains two functional groups OR it is an ion possessing both
positive and negative electrical charges. Therefore, zwitterions are mostly electrically
neutral .
Classification of amino acids
• There are 20 types of amino acids which are involved in synthesis of
proteins. They are divided into two categories
• A. on the basis of requirement to the body.
• Essential amino acids: These are the amino acids which are not
synthesized in the body. Therefore they must be included in diet.
These are also 10 but 2 of them are called as semi-essential(i.e.
arginine and histidine) because these can be synthesized by adults
but not by children. There are leucine, isoleucine, lysine
phenylalanine, tryptophan, valine, methionine and threonine.
• Non-essential amino acids: These are the amino acids which are
synthesized in the body. They may or may not be present in the diet.
There are 10 non-essential amino acids and They are alanine, serine,
glycine, glutamine, tyrosine, glutamic acid, asparagine, aspartic acid,
cysteine and proline .
 .B. on the basis of structure and reactions:

a. Neutral amino acids: contain one acidic- carboxylic and one basic-
amino group. Eg. Glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine
b. Acidic amino acid: contain more than one carboxylic group. Eg.
Aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glutamine, asparagine
c. Basic amino acid: contain more than one basic group. Eg. Lysine and
arginine
d. Sulphur containing amino acid: contain sulphur group. Eg. Methionone
and cysteine
e. Alcoholic amino acid: contain alcoholic group. Eg. Serine and threonine
f. Aromatic amino acid: contain a cyclic or ring structure in hydrocarbon
side chain. Eg. Phenylalanine and tyrosine
Functions of amino acids
• They are building blocks of proteins and enzymes.
• Tryptophan amino acid is precursor of plant hormone indole acetic acid (auxin).
• Tyrosine gives rise to thyroxin and adrenaline hormones and melanin pigments.
• Histidine produces histamine, a neurotransmitter essential for immune response,
digestion, sexual function, and sleep cycles. It also regulates myelin sheath, which
is a protective barrier around your nerve endings.
• Valine is known to boost muscle growth and regeneration.
• Lysine is necessary for promoting the formation of antibodies, hormones, and
enzymes and in the development and fixation of calcium in bones.
• Phenylalanine helps in maintaining a healthy nervous system and in boosting
memory power.
• Proline is mainly involved in the repairing of the tissues in the formation of
collagen.
 Proteins
• Proteins are macromolecules of α-
amino acids which are linked by
peptide bond(-CO-NH-). Several
amino acids join together by peptide
bond to form a protein hence the
protein is also known as poly
peptides.
Peptide bond
Peptide bond (-CO-NH) is formed by
the union of carboxylic group (-COOH)
of one amino acid with the amino
group of another amino acid and a
molecule of water is eliminated.
Types of proteins:
1. Based on composition:
I. Simple protein: They are made up of only peptide chains. Non-amino
groups are totally absent. Hydrolysis of simple protein yields only
amino acids. Examples are albumins, globulins, histones,glutelins etc
II. Conjugated protein: This protein consist of amino acids and non-
amino acids group (called as prosthetic groups). These non – amino
groups are nucleic acids, lipids, phosphoric acids etc. Eg: Glycoproteins,
lipoproteins, nucleoproteins, rhodopsin of retina(vitA +protein)etc
III. Derived proteins: intermediate proteins formed by partial hydrolysis,
denaturation and coagulation of simple and conjugated proteins.
Eg.Peptone, Proteases, fibrin etc.
2.Based on structure of molecules
I. Primary proteins: Such proteins has linear arrangement of amino acids
and has only peptide bonds. Insulin is the smallest primary protein.
II. Secondary proteins: The secondary structure of a protein is formed by
hydrogen bonding in the polypeptide chain. These bonds cause the chain
to fold and coil in two different conformations known as the α-helix or β-
pleated sheets (α-helix is like a single spiral and is formed by hydrogen
bonding between every fourth amino acid. The β-pleated sheet is
formed by hydrogen bonding between two or more adjacent
polypeptide chains). Secondary proteins are found in hair, wool, and in
fibrous substances. For example keratin, collagen, fibroin protein of silk
and spider net etc.
III. Tertiary proteins: In tertiary proteins, long polypeptide chain bends,
coils and variously folds to form 3-D . It has four kinds of bonds such as
hydrogen bond, ionic bond, peptide bond and disulphide bond. Eg.
Myoglobin, albumin
IV. Quaternary proteins: It is formed by polymerization of several tertiary
proteins. This is also 3-D structure. Eg: haemoglobin
 3. On the basis of shape
I. Fibrous protein: They are thread like protein. They
are insoluble in water. Keratin protein of skin,
Collagens of connective tissues etc. are fibrous
protein.
II. Globular proteins: They are oval or spherical in
shape. They are mostly soluble in water. Albumin of
egg, Gluten of seeds etc. are globular protein.
4. On the basis of nutritional value
i. First class proteins: proteins of animal origin
that contain all essential amino acids
ii. Second class proteins: proteins of plant origin
Function (Biological role of protein)
1. Enzymatic proteins catalyze biosynthetic pathways like:
➢ pepsin, amylase, hexokinase etc. help in digestion of food.
➢ topoisomerase,helicase, DNA polymerase etc help in DNA replication.
➢ RNA polymerase help in transcription.
➢ Peptidyl transferase help in translation
2. Structural proteins take part in building and repairing of body tissues (ossein of bones, keratin of skins, hairs, nails etc.,
chondrin of cartilage, lipoprotein of cell membrane, collagen etc.).
3. Many proteins are also hormones that catalyzes various metabolic activities like:
➢ insulin regulates sugar metabolism.
➢ testosterone stimulates spermatozoa formation.
➢ progesterone suspends ovulation during pregnancy.
➢ GH hormones help in growth of body parts.
4. Some proteins helps in transport of substances like haemoglobin transport oxygen in blood, carrier protein of cell
membrane helps in active transport etc.
5. Prothrombin and fibrinogen are the proteins of blood plasma that helps in blood clotting during bleeding.
6. Antibodies and antigens are proteins that helps in defense and offense respectively.
7. Actin and myosin are contractile protein that helps in locomotion.
8. Some proteins acts as storage proteins like casein of milk, ovalbumin of egg, glutellin of cereals etc
9. Monellin; the sweetest chemical is also protein that is beneficial for diabetic patients.
10. Rhodopsin and iodopsin are protein pigments found in rods and conesof retina that help in perception of image.
 Enzymes
• Enzymes are proteinaceous substances or compounds which are capable of catalyzing chemical
reactions of biological origins without themselves undergoing any change. So, they are called
biocatalysts.[ With the exception of ribozymes, all enzymes are protein-based.]
• The term enzyme was coined by Kuhne (1878).
• There are several enzymes found in living cells. Each biochemical reaction is catalyzed by a separate
specific enzyme.
• The initial stage of metabolic process depends upon the enzymes, which react with a molecule and
is called the substrate. Enzymes convert the substrates into other distinct molecules, which are
known as products
 Characteristics (Properties of Enzymes)
▪ Protein nature: Enzymes are generally proteinaceous structure. There may be
also presence of some additional inorganic or organic substances.
▪ Molecular weight: Enzymes are large macromolecules with a molecular weight of
6000 (bacterial ferredoxin) to 4,600,000 (pyruvate dehydrogenase complex).
▪ Chemical reaction: Chemical reactions are not started by enzymes but they
increase the rate of chemical reactions. They are not used up in the chemical
reaction but come out unchanged at the end of reaction.
▪ Enzyme specificity: Enzymes are highly specific in their action because each
specific enzyme increases the rate of specific chemical reaction.
▪ Heat Sensitivity: All enzymes are heat sensitive at optimum temperature (25° -
35°C).
▪ Solubility: Majority of enzymes are water soluble and some are insoluble in water.
▪ pH: Enzymes are pH (hydrogen ion concentration) specific thus the reactions
requiring different pH operate in different parts of body.
 Types of Enzymes
1.Simple enzymes: They are formed of
protein only. Eg: Pepsin, Urease etc.
2.Complex (conjugated) enzymes: They
are formed of protein part and non-
protein parts.
• They have two parts: protein part is
called apoenzyme and non-protein
part is called prosthetic group which
may be a co-factor( contains inorganic
compound like Mg,Cu,Zn etc) or co-
enzyme( contains organic compound
like Riboflavin, Niacin etc).
• The whole enzyme i.e. apoenzyme and
prosthetic group is called holoenzyme.
Biological importance (functions) of enzymes
1. Almost all chemical reactions taking place in the body of a living
organism are mediated by enzymes.
2. Act as important players in immune response and aging process.
3. Enzymes help in signal transduction inside cell like kinases.
4. Enzymes help in degradation of many ingredients like fats,
carbohydrates, proteins etc.
5. Enzymes help in energy generations such as ATP is produced by ATPase
inside mitochondria.
6. Some enzymes help in defense and clearance of toxic or non-nutritive
substances such as hydrolases in lysosome.
 Lipids
• Lipids are the groups of fats and fat like substances.
• These are the compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen but the
number of oxygen is less compared to carbohydrates.
• They are esters formed by combination of fatty acid and alcohol.
• They are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like ether,
alcohol etc.
• Fatty acid
Fatty acids are the organic acid having hydrocarbon chains of 4-30
carbon atoms that ends in a carboxylic group (-COOH).
• Carboxylic group is polar due to presence of C=O and –OH groups.
• The general formula is R-COOH, where R= CH3, C2H5.
• There are two types of fatty acids,: saturated and unsaturated fatty
acids.
 Differences
Saturated fatty acid Unsaturated fatty acid
They do not have any double bond in between carbon They have one or more double bond in between carbon
atoms. atoms.
They have higher melting point. They have lower melting points
They are solid at room temperature They are liquid at room temperature
They are commonly found in animals They are commonly found in plants
They do not undergo hydrogenation due to lack of They undergo hydrogenation due to presence of double
double bond bond and convert into saturated fatty acid.

They increase blood cholesterol They do not increase blood cholesterol

They have straight chain They bend in the double bond
They are found in storage cell They are mostly found in non storage cell
Eg: Palmitic acid (C16H32O2), Stearic acid (C18H36O2). Oleic acid (one double bond), linoleic acid (two double
bond), linolenic acid (3 double bond)
 1. Simple lipids: These are ester of fatty acid and alcohol. There
are of various types
• Neutral Fats • Waxes
• These are esters of fatty acids and • They are esters formed by
glycerols, hence also called as combination of long chain fatty
glycerides. Each molecule of glycerol acids and long chain alcohol
can react with three molecules of fatty other than glycerol. Waxes are
acids. Depending upon the number of chemically inert. They do not
fatty acids attached, they are called bear double hydrogen bond in
mono, di or triglycerides. These are their hydrocarbon. Waxes are
solid at room temp. and found in mainly protective in functions
animals. and forms water insoluble
coating on hair and skin of
• Oils animals and on stem, leaves and
• These are inert esters formed by fruits of plants. Eg. Plant wax,
combination of unsaturated fatty acid bees wax, lanolin or wol fat etc
with alcohol. They are liquid at room
temperature. Oils are found in plants.
 Differences
Fats oils

They are triglycerides formed by the They are inert ester formed by combination of
esterification of 3 molecules of saturated fatty unsaturated fatty acids with alcohol
acid with tri-hydric alcohol glycerol
They have high melting point. They have low melting point

They are solid at room temperature They are liquid at room temperature

They are commonly found in animals They are commonly found in plants

They do not undergo hydrogenation due to They undergo hydrogenation due to present of
lack of double bond double bond
They are found in storage cell They are mostly found in non-storage cell

Eg: Vanaspati ghee, Margarine Eg: groundnut oil, mustard oil, sunflower oil
 2. Compound lipids:When lipids combine with non-lipid compound they form
compound lipids
Eg, Phospholipids( Phosphoric acid+ lipids), Glycolipids (Carbohydrates + lipids),
Lipoproteins (Protein + lipids) etc
3. Derived lipids: They are the derivatives obtained on the hydrolysis of the simple
and complex lipids. For e.g. steroids, terpenes,lipid soluble vitamins etc. Common
sterols are Cholesterol and ergosterol
• What is cholesterol?
• Cholesterol is fat soluble white crystalline sterol or steroid that occurs in brain and
nervous tissue of animal. It is insoluble in water but soluble in solution of bile salts.
Due to insoluble nature it may deposit on inner wall of arteries which reduces
lumen of blood vessel and cause hypertension (high blood pressure) and heart
diseases. In the cell membrane, the steroid ring structure of cholesterol provides a
rigid hydrophobic structure that helps boost the rigidity of the cell membrane.
Without cholesterol, the cell membrane would be too fluid
 Functions of lipids
• As energy source: Lipids provide energy after their oxidation (9.3 kcal/gm).
• Storage food: They are storage food for plants and animals.Eg: in plants oil
are stored in seeds and triglycerides are stored in adipocytes cells of animals.
• Heat insulator: Subcutaneous fat present below skin help in heat insulations.
• Structural components: Phospholipids, glycolipids and lipoprotein are
structural components of cell membranes
• As solvent: acts as solvent for fat soluble vitamins like vitamin A, D, E and K.
• Lipoprotein can prevent bacterial disease
• Soap is formed from fats by saponification process.
• Cholesterol produces sex hormones like progesterone, estrogen and
testosterone, also forms vitamin near surface of irradiated skin etc
Nucleic Acids
• Nucleic acid is non-protein, nitrogenous substances which are the
polymer of nucleotides found in nucleus as well as in cytoplasm.
• They were first isolated by F. Meischer (1868) from nuclei of pus cells
and these form genetic material of all organisms including virus.
Structure of Nucleotide
• A nucleotide is composed of 3 components i.e. phosphoric acid,
pentose sugars and nitrogen bases.
• A nucleotide without Phosphoric acid is called nucleoside. (OR)
nucleoside is formed by combination of a sugar and N-base by N-
glycosidic bond.
Nucleotide= phosphoric acid+ pentose sugar+ nitrogen base
Nucleoside= pentose sugar + n-base
Nucleotide= Nucleoside + phosphoric acid
 a. Pentose sugar
• It is a 5 carbon sugar and is
of two types i.e.
• Ribose sugar: it is found in
ribonucleic acid (RNA).
• Deoxyribose sugar: it is
found is deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA).
• One oxygen atom is lacking
at carbon-2 of ribose sugar
to form deoxyribose sugar.
 b. Nitrogenous bases
• There are two types of
nitrogenous base in a nucleic
acid.
• Purine base: Purine contains
two carbon nitrogen rings in
their structure.
• Adenine and Guanine are found
in both RNA and DNA.
• Pyrimidine base: Pyrimidine has
only one carbon nitrogen ring.
• Pyrimidine bases are Cytosine(
found in both DNA& RNA),
Thymine (only in DNA) &Uracil
(only in RNA)
 c. Phosphoric acid: : It contains phosphate group. It combines two
nucleotides with the help of phosphodiester bond.

Types of Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids are of two types i.e.
A. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and
B. Ribonucleic acid (RNA).
A.Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA):
DNA is a genetic material. It helps in the inheritance of traits from one generation to
successive generation. It also helps in the expression of characters of organisms in the
form of enzymes, proteins and hormones. DNA is present in chromosome,
mitochondria and chloroplast. Circular DNA is found in prokaryotes and linear DNA is
found in eukaryotes.
Types of DNA

On the basis of number of base pairs in one complete turn, DNAs are
following types:
a. A-DNA: it has 11 base pairs per complete turn and right handed
duplex.
b. B-DNA: it has 10 base pairs per complete turn and right handed
duplex.
c. C-DNA: it has 9 base pairs per complete turn and right handed
duplex.
d. D-DNA: it has 8 base pairs per complete turn and right handed
duplex.
e. Z-DNA: it has 12 base pairs per complete turn and left handed
duplex.
 Structure of DNA
• Watson and Crick in 1953 developed a double helical structure of DNA. They were awarded Nobel Prize
for this work.
• According to them, DNA is double stranded helical structure formed by polydeoxyribonucleotide chains.
• Two strands of DNA are antiparallel i.e. if One strand moves in 3’-5’ direction, other strand in 5’-3’
direction.
• The diameter of DNA is 20 Aᵒ.
• The distance of one complete spiral turn is 34 Aᵒ. In one complete turn, there are 10 base pairs.
• the distance between two pairs of nitrogen bases is 3.4 Aᵒ.
• Each deoxyribonucleotide is made up an outer phosphoric acid, middle deoxyribose sugar and central
nitrogenous base.
• Nitrogen bases are two types - Purines and Pyrimidine. Purines of DNA are Adenine and Guanine,
Pyrimidine are Cytosine and Thymine.
• The purine base is attached to its specific pyrimidine base by hydrogen bond. A attach to T by two H- bond
and C attach to G by three H- bond.( called as complementary base pairs)
• Nucleotide in a helix joined together by phosphodiester bond.
• There are two grooves along the surface of the DNA molecule. One is wide and deep called the major
groove and other is narrow and shallow called minor groove.
[ Because of specific base pairing, the total amount of purine equals to total pyrimidine. This property is
called Chargaff`s rule.]
Functions of DNA
1. It helps in synthesis of RNA by the process of transcription.
2. It controls the metabolic activities of cells.
3. It controls the development of individuals through intrinsic and
extrinsic flow of information.
4. It controls growth and development of organisms.
5. DNA gives new combinations during meiosis by crossing over.
6. DNA helps in inheritance of genetic information from one
generation to another generation
7. Autocatalytic function of DNA helps in replication of DNA itself.
 B. Ribonucleic acid (RNA): RNA is single stranded polyribonucleotide chain
that helps in the formation of protein, enzymes and hormone. RNA is
synthesized in nucleus but is found in nucleolus, cytoplasm and on the
membranes of ribosomes. RNA acts as hereditary material in some viruses. It
helps in protein synthesis.
• Structure of RNA
• RNA is single stranded molecule
consisting of polyribonucleotides.
• Each ribonucleotides consists of a
pentose sugar, phosphate and a
nitrogen bases.
• The nitrogen bases are adenine,
guanine, cytosine and uracil.
• The nucleotides are joined together by
phosphodiester bond. It forms back
bones of RNA strand.
Types of RNA

1. m-RNA: It is called messenger RNA. It constitutes about 5 – 10 % of total

RNA present in the cell. It carries message from DNA to the ribosome for
protein synthesis. It has a cap region at 5ᶦ end for attachment of smaller and
larger sub-units of ribosome, initiation codon (AUG) to start protein
synthesis, terminating codon (UAA, UAG or UGA) to stop protein synthesis
and Poly A region at 3ᶦ end for dissociation of ribosomal subunits.
2. r-RNA: It is called ribosomal RNA. It is most abundant and stable type of
RNA which consists of 70 – 80 % of total RNA contents. It is synthesized in
the nucleus and finally diffuses out in the cytoplasm and bind with protein
molecules to form ribosome. It assembles the amino acid to form protein.
3. t-RNA: It is called transfer RNA. It works as adaptor molecule. It picks up
amino acids from amino pool and carries them to the sites of protein
synthesis in an order specified by mRNA. It is about 10 – 15 % of total RNA.
 .
• Due to modification of some
nucleotides like dihydrouridine
(DHU), it becomes twisted and folded
over itself and appears clover leaf
shape.
• tRNA consists of four loops. They are
i. DHU loop at 5’end which identifies
which amino acid is to be attached
ii. Anti-codon loop which matches with
codon of mRNA
iii. Ribosome recognition loop and
iv. Amino acid binding loop.
• Function of RNA
It plays an important role in protein
synthesis.
• It is the hereditary materials in some
virus.
 …. DNA RNA
Full Name Deoxyribonucleic acid Ribonucleic acid
Replicates and stores genetic Carry out instructions encoded
Function
information in DNA
Structure Two strands One strand
Deoxyribose (which has one less
Sugar Ribose
hydroxyl group than ribose)
Adenine + Thymine Adenine + Uracil
Base Pairs
Guanine + Cytosine Guanine + Cytosine
Pairs Bonded
Hydrogen bonds Hydrogen bonds
By
Location in Form in nucleolus, then move to
Mostly nucleus, some in mitochondria
Cells cytoplasm
Length Several million base pairs Several thousand base pairs
Replication Self-replicating Synthesized by transcription
Reactivity Fairly stable More reactive