GEFS: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

TOPIC LEARNING OBJECTIVES:

1] Students must have an in-depth knowledge on both the English
and SI units of measurement.
2] Students must be able to familiarize and explain different methods
and techniques used in horizontal distance measurement.
3] Students must be able to calculate horizontal distances using the
concept of pacing and taping.

PREPARED BY: DERYL JHON LUCAS, CE,

 MEASUREMENTS
MEASUREMENT:
Refers to the process of determining the extent, size or dimensions of a particular quantity in
comparison to a given standard.

INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM of
ENGLISH UNITS
UNITS (SI)
The foot-pound-second system Based on the metric system and
of units. developed and refined by international
Examples: convention

• foot → linear measure (length)

Examples:
• gallons → volume
• meter → linear measure (length)
• pound → mass or weight
• hectares → area
• cubic meter → volume
• grams → mass
 MEASUREMENTS
TABLE 1.1

PREFIXES MULTIPLES and SUBMULTIPLES

mega- 1x106 = 1,000,000

kilo- 1x103 = 1,000

hecto- 1x102 = 100

deca- 1x101 = 10

deci- 1x10-1 = 0.1

centi- 1x10-2 = 0.01

milli- 1x10-3 = 0.001

micro- 1x10-6 = 0.000 001

nano- 1x10-9 = 0.000 000 001

**Above prefixes are only applicable for SI (metric) units.

 MEASUREMENTS
TABLE 1.2: CONVERSION FACTORS

LINEAR MEASUREMENT
ENGLISH EQUIVALENT
SYMBOL METRIC EQUIVALENT
UNIT (SAME SYSTEM)
inches in or ‘‘ 12 inches = 1ft 1 in = 2.54 cm

foot ft or ‘ 1ft = 12 inches 3.28084 ft = 1 m

yard yd 1 yd = 3 ft 1.09361 yd = 1 m

mile mi 1 mile = 5280 ft 1 mi = 1.609 km

 MEASUREMENTS
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES:
E2] Convert: 4.8 yd → __ decameter
E1] Convert: 17.71 m → __ cm
SOLUTION:
SOLUTION: A] Refer to Table 1.2: Conversion Factor
A] Refer to Table 1.1: Conversion Factor 1 meter = 1.09361 yd
1 meter = 100 centimeter And; (Refer to table 1.1)
10 meter = 1 decameter
B] Multiply conversion factor to the
given, solving the required quantity B] Multiply conversion factor to the
given, solving the required quantity
100 cm 1m
17.71 m x ( )= 1771.0 cm 4.8 yd x ( )= 4.38912 m
1m 1.09361 yd
And;
**TAKE NOTE: Designating numerator and denominator of
conversion factor, 1 decameter
4.38913 m x ( )
10 m
NUMERATOR → same quantity as the REQUIRED
DENOMINATOR → same quantity as the GIVEN
= 0.438912 decameter
 MEASUREMENTS
OTHER UNITS OF LINEAR MEASUREMENT

1 tally = 10 pins
SOLUTION:
1 pin = 1 chain A] Convert each given quantities into the
1 pin = 100 links required unit (ft)
1 link = 1 foot
1 perch = 1 rod ❖ 5 tallies x (
10pins
)x(
100links
)x(
1ft
) = 5000.0 ft
1 rod = 16.5 feet 1tally 1pin 1link
1 vara = 33 inches
100links 1ft
❖ 6 pins x ( )x( ) = 600.0 ft
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE: 1pin 1link

E1] A line was measured to have 5 ❖ 63.5 links x (

1ft
) = 63.5 ft
tallies, 6 marking pins, and 63.5 1link
links. How long is the line in feet ?
B] Get the sum of all the converted quantities
Given: Req’d: (in ft):
5 tallies LENGTHLINE (ft) LENGTHLINE = 5000 ft + 600 ft + 63.5 ft
6 marking pins
= 5,663.50 ft
63.5 links
 PACING
What is PACING ?
- counting of the number of steps (paces) in a
required distance

PACE
- define as the length of a step in walking

STRIDE
- equivalent to two (2) paces or a double step
 DISTANCE BY PACING
LENGTH of pace will vary with:
➢ Weight of shoes and clothing
➢ Roughness of the ground
➢ Slope of the terrain
➢ Speed of pacing ** To pace a distance, it is necessary to first
➢ Fatigue determine the length of one’s pace, referred
to as PACE FACTOR.

FORMULAS:
Distance (Given)
1] Pace Factor (PF) =
Average Number of Paces

2] Pace Distance (PD) = (Mean number of paces) x (PF)

 DISTANCE BY PACING
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES:
E1] A 45-m course, AB, on level ground was paced by a surveyor for the purpose of determining his pace
factor. The number of paces for each trial taken are: 50, 53, 51, 53, 52, 53. Determine the following:
A] Surveyor’s pace factor
B] If the surveyor then took 771, 770, 768, 770, 772 and 769 paces in walking
an unknown distance CD, what is the length of the line ?
C] Assuming that the taped length of line CD is 667.0 m, determine the relative
precision of the measurement distance ?

SOLUTION:
A] Surveyor’s Pace Factor
❖ LAB = 45.0 m
❖ nAB = 6 trials (50, 53, 51, 53, 52, 53 paces)

i. sumAB = 50 + 53 + 51 + 53 + 52 + 53 = 312 paces

sumAB 312
ii. Ave. PacesAB = = = 52 paces
nAB 6

LAB 45
iii. Pace Factor (PFAB) = = = 0.86538 𝐦Τ𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞
Ave. Paces 52
 DISTANCE BY PACING
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES:
SOLUTION:
B] Length of Distance CD (LCD):
❖ PFAB = PFCD = 0.86538 mΤpace
❖ nAB = 6 trials (771, 770, 768, 770, 772, 769 paces)
i. sumCD = 771 + 770 + 768 + 770 + 772 + 769 = 4620 paces

sumCD 4620
ii. Ave. PacesCD = = = 770 paces
nCD 6

iii. LCD = (Mean no. of paces) x PFAB

= 770 paces x 0.86538 mΤpace
LCD = 666.34615 m
C] Relative Precision (RP):
❖ Taped Distance (TD) = 667.0 m
❖ Paced Distance (PD) = LCD = 666.34615 m
(TD − PD) (667.0 − 666.34615) 17 𝟏
RP = = = say
TD 667.0 17342 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟎
 DISTANCE BY PACING
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES:
E2] In walking along a 75m course, the pacer of a field party counted 43.50, 44.00, 43.50,
43.75, 44.50 and 43.25 strides. Then 105.50, 106.00, 105.75 and 106.25 strides were
counted in walking from one marker to another established along a straight and level
course. Determine the distance between the two marker.

SOLUTION:
A] Surveyor’s Pace Factor
❖ L1 = 75.0 m
❖ n1 = 6 trials (43.50, 44.00, 43.50, 43.75, 44.50, 43.25 strides)

i. sum1 = 43.50 + 44.0 + 43.50 + 43.75 + 44.50 + 43.25 = 262.50 strides

= 262.50 strides x 2 = 525 paces

sum1 525
ii. Ave. Paces1 = = = 87.50 paces
n1 6

L1 75
iii. Pace Factor (PF1) = = = 0.85714 𝐦Τ𝐩𝐚𝐜𝐞
Ave. Paces 87.50
 DISTANCE BY PACING
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES:
SOLUTION:
B] Length of Unknown Distance (L2):

❖ PF1 = PF2 = 0.85714 mΤpace

❖ n2 = 4 trials (105.50, 106.00, 105.75, and 106.25 strides)

i. sum2 = 105.50 + 106.00 + 105.75 + 106.25 = 423.50 strides

= 423.50 strides x 2 = 847 paces

sum2 847
ii. Ave. Paces2 = = = 211.75 paces
n2 4

iii. L2 = (Mean no. of paces) x PF2

= 211.75 paces x 0.85714 mΤpace
L2 = 181.50 m
 TAPING
What is TAPING ?
- process of directly measuring distances with the use of
graduated (calibrated) tape.

TAPING PARTY
✓ HEAD TAPEMAN – person responsible
for the accuracy and speed of all
linear measurements with the use of
tape.

✓ REAR TAPEMAN – person whose

duty is to assist the head tapeman
during a taping operation.
 TAPING

✓ RECORDER – keeps a record of all

measurements, sketches and
observation taken during the process of
measurement.

✓ FLAGMAN – the person whose duty is to

hold the range pole at selected points.
 TAPING
PROCEDURES OF TAPING
3] PLUMBING – when the tape is aligned,
1] ALIGNING THE TAPE – both ends stretched, and ready for marking,
of the tape must be marked the rear tapeman continues to hold
properly in order to establish a plumbline over the fixed point
intermediate points making while the head tapeman plumbs
sure for a straightline his end of the line and marks it on
measurement the ground.

2] STRETCHING THE TAPE – a steady

and firm pull, generally
between 4 and 7 kg, is
applied on one end of the
tape during stretching. No
measurement shoud be
made without stretching the
tape.
 TAPING
PROCEDURES OF TAPING
5] MEASURING FRACTIONAL LENGTHS
4] MARKING FULL TAPE LENGTHS – upon reaching the end of the
– the tape is dragged by the line, the head tapeman comes to
head tapeman who comes to a halt and the rear tapeman
a stop after pacing an positions himself at the last pin
equivalent tape length. This set to add the partial
procedure is repeated until a measurements.
partial tape length is to be
measured at the end of the l
line.
 TAPING
TECHNIQUES OF TAPING
A] BREAKING TAPE
– It is standard practice to hold the tape horizontally above ground and to
plumb at one or both ends when taping on sloping or uneven terrain surfaces.
This requires the measurement of shorter distances which are accumulated to
total a full tape length.

H = σ𝑛
𝑖=0 Hi = H1 + H2 + H3 + … + Hn
 TAPING
TECHNIQUES OF TAPING
B] SLOPE TAPING
– taped measurements may be made directly along the slope when the
ground is of uniform inclination and fairly smooth.
 DISTANCE BY TAPING
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLE:
E1] A measurement is made along a line that is inclined by a vertical angle of 15025’
as measured using hand level and clinometer. The slope measurement is 756.52
m. What is the corresponding horizontal distance.

FIGURE:
SOLUTION:
A] Using Right Triangle:

H
cos θ =
756.52
15025’
H = 756.52 cosθ
H
= 756.52 cos(15025’)
H = 729.30 m

REQ’D:
H (Horizontal Distance)
 REFERENCE

1. La Putt, Junny P., Elementary Surveying

2. La Putt, Junny P., Higher Surveying