Elementary Mathematics - Algebra

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Variable: A symbol having a fixed numerical value is called a constant, and a symbol
which takes various numerical values

Constant: symbol, which has a fixed numeric value.

Any real number is a constant. We can form numerical expressions using constants and
the four arithmetical operations.

Term : A term can be a number, a variable, product of two or more variables or product
of a number and a variable.

Exponents and powers:

Exponents; Method of expressing large numbers in terms of powers.

If ‘a’ is any integer, then a × a × a× … × a (n times) = an .

 a – Base
 n – exponent or power or index
Degree: The largest power of a variable in an expression is called its degree.

Facts of Exponents and powers:

 (–1)n = –1, if n is an odd natural number.
 (–1)n = 1, if n is an even natural number.
 For the base number whose unit digits are 0, 1, 5 and 6, the unit digit of a number
corresponding to any positive exponent remains unchanged.
 For base ending with 4, the unit digit is 4 for odd power and is 6 for even power.
Similarly, for base ending with 9, the unit digit is 9 for odd power and is 1 for
even power.
Rules for the exponents of a variable:
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Co-efficient: A coefficient is an integer that is written along with a variable (term) or it
is multiplied by the variable (term).

Numerical Co-efficient: The number in the variable term

Algebraic Expression: combination of constants and variables combined together with

the help of the four fundamental signs.

Types of Algebraic Expressions;

 Monomial Expression (one term)
 Binomial Expression (two term)
 Trinomial Expression (three Term)
 Polynomial Expression (one or many term)

Facts of Algebraic Expressions and Equations

 The terms having the same algebraic factors are called like terms. Terms with
different algebraic factors are called unlike terms.
 An equation can be looked as algebraic expression equated either to a constant or
to any other algebraic expression.
 Product of monomials is also a monomial.

Algebraic Inequations
An algebraic statement that shows two algebraic expression being unequal is known as
an algebraic inequation.

Properties of an Algebraic inequations:

 The algebraic expressions are connected with any one of the four signs of
inequalities, namely, > ≥, ,< ≤ and .
 When both sides of an inequation are added, subtracted, multiplied and divided
by the same non-zero positive number, the inequality remains the same.
 When both sides of an inequation are multiplied or divided by the same non-zero
negative number, the sign of inequality is reversed. For example, x y < ⇒− >x y − .
 The solutions of an inequation can be represented on the number line by marking
the true values of solutions with different colour on the number line.
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Polynomials
An arithmetic expression consisting of variables and constants that involves four
fundamental arithmetic operations and non-negative integer exponents of variables.
Condition: powers of variables in polynomial must have only non-negative integral
powers that is, only whole numbers.
Degrees of Polynomials:
In a polynomial of one variable, the highest power of the variable is called the degree of
the polynomial. In case of a polynomial of more than one variable, the sum of the
powers of the variables in each term is considered and the highest sum so obtained is
called the degree of the polynomial. Zero degree of a polynomial is not defined.

Types of Polynomials
On the basics of terms;
 Monomial
 Binomial
 Trinomial
On the basics of degree;
 Constant
 Linear
 Quadratic
 Cubic

Values and Zeros of a Polynomial

 The number of zeros depends on the line or curves intersecting x-axis.
 Number of zeros of a polynomial < the degree of the polynomial
 A zero of a polynomial can be any real number not necessarily zero.
 A non zero constant polynomial has no zero.
 By convention, every real number is zero of the zero polynomial

Root of a polynomial Equation

p ( x ) = 0, then the x is the root of the polynomial equation

Remainder theorem of Polynomials

If a polynomial p ( x ) of degree greater than or equal to 1 is divided by a linear
polynomial ( x – a ) then the remainder is p ( a ), where a is any real number.

Note:
 If p(x) is divided by ( x + a ), then the remainder is p ( – a )
 If p(x) is divided by ( x – a ), then the remainder is p ( a )
 If p(x) is divided by ( a x – b ), then the remainder is p ( b / a )
 If p(x) is divided by ( a x + b ), then the remainder is p ( – b / a )
Factor Theorem of a Polynomial
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If p(x)is a polynomial of degree n 1and ‘a’ is any real number then
 p( a ) = 0 implies ( x – a ) is a factor of p( x ).
 ( x –a ) is a factor of p( x ) implies p ( a ) = 0 .

Note:
 ( x – a ) is a factor of p( x ), if p( a ) = 0
x – a = 0, x =0
 ( x + a ) is a factor of p ( x ), if p( –a ) = 0
x + a = 0, x =0
 ( a x + b ) is a factor of p( x ), if p (– b / a) = 0
a x + b = 0, a x = - b, x = - b / a
 ( a x – b ) is a factor of p( x ), if p( b/a ) = 0
a x + b = 0, a x = - b, x = - b / a
 ( x–a ) ( x–b ) is a factor of p( x ) , if p ( a ) = 0 and p(b) = 0
x –a = 0, x = 0 or x – b = 0, x = b

Basic Algebraic Identities

 (a + b)2 = a2 + b2 + 2ab
 (a - b)2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab
 a2 – b2 = (a + b)(a – b)
 a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 – 2ab
 a2 + 1/a2 = (a + 1/a )2 - 2

 (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3a2b + 3ab2

 (a - b)3 = a3 - b3 - 3a2b + 3ab2
 a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 – ab + b2)
 a3 - b3 = (a - b) (a2 + ab + b2)

 a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 - 3ab (a + b)
 a3 - b3 = (a + b)3 + 3ab (a - b)

 (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2ab + 2bc + 2ca

 If ( a + b + c) = 0, then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3abc

Division of Polynomials
Dividend = ( Divisor × Quotient ) + Remainder.
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Synthetic Division
Step for synthetic division:
 Arrange dividend and the divisor in standard form
 Find out the zero of the divisor
 Write the zero of divisor in front of dividend in the first row. Put ‘0’ in the first
column of second row
 Complete the second row and third row as shown below.
 All the entries except the last one in the third row are the coefficients of the
quotient.

Factorisation using the synthetic division

Repeatedly do synthetic division unless you get 2 coefficient and a remainder 0.
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Note:
To identify (x – 1) and (x + 1) are the factors of a polynomial,
 (x–1) is a factor of p(x) if and only if the sum of coefficients of p(x) is 0.
 (x+1) is a factor of p(x) if and only if the sum of the coefficients of even power of
x, including constant is equal to the sum of the coefficients of odd powers of x
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Linear Equation in two variables
Simultaneous linear equations: a system of linear equations consists of two or more
linear equations with the same variables. It is also called as System of linear equations
or a Pair of linear equations.

Methods of solving the simultaneous linear equations:

 Graphical method
 Substitution method
 Elimination method
 Cross multiplication method

Graphical method;

Consistent:
 system of linear equation has one solution (Graph – intersect once)
A unique solution - a1/a2 ≠ b1/b2
 system of linear equation has infinitely many solutions (Graph - coincide)
An Infinite number of solutions - a1/a2 = b1/b2 = c1/c2
Inconsistent: system of linear equation has no solution (Graph –Parallel)
No solution - a1/a2 = b1/b2 ≠ c1/c2

Substitution Method
 From any of the given two equations, find the value of one variable in terms of the
other.
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 Substitute the value of the variable, obtained in step 1 in the other equation and
solve it.
 Substitute the value of the variable obtained in step 2 in the result of step 1 and
get the value of the remaining unknown variable.

Elimination method
 Multiply one or both of the equations by a suitable number(s) so that either the
coefficients of first variable or the coefficients of second variable in both the
equations become numerically equal.
 Add both the equations or subtract one equation from the other, as obtained in
step 1, so that the terms with equal numerical coefficients cancel mutually.
 Solve the resulting equation to find the value of one of the unknowns.
 Substitute this value in any of the two given equations and find the value of the
other unknown.

Cross Multiplication method

Solving of system of linear equations of three Variables

 By taking any two equations from the given three, first multiply by some suitable
non-zero constant to make the co-efficient of one variable (either x or y or z)
numerically equal.
 Eliminate one of the variables whose co-efficients are numerically equal from the
equations.
 Eliminate the same variable from another pair.
 Now we have two equations in two variables.
 Solve them using any method studied in earlier classes.
 The remaining variable is then found by substituting in any one of the given
equations.
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Note;
 If you obtain a false equation such as 0=1, in any of the steps then the system
has no solution.
 If you do not obtain a false solution, but obtain an identity, such as 0=0 then
the system has infinitely many solutions.

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GCD and LCM of polynomials
Finding GCD or HCF of polynomials
Note;
If f (x) and g (x) are two polynomials of same degree then the polynomial carrying the
highest coefficient will be the dividend. In case, if both have the same coefficient then
compare the next least degree’s coefficient and proceed with the division.

Finding LCM of polynomials

The Least Common Multiple of two or more algebraic expressions is the expression of
highest degree (or power) such that the expressions exactly divide it.

Using Factorisation method,

 Each expression is first resolved into its factors.
 The highest power of the factors will be the LCM.
 If the expressions have numerical coefficients, find their LCM.
 The product of the LCM of factors and coefficient is the required LCM

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Rational Expressions
The ratio of two polynomials is called rational expression. Condition of Rational
expression is p(x) where, p(x) and q(x) are polynomials and q(x) 0

Reduction of Rational expression

 Factorize the numerator and the denominator
 If there are common factors in the numerator and denominator, cancel them.
 The resulting expression will be a rational expression in its lowest form.

Note;
A rational expression p(x)/q(x) is said to be in the lowest form if GCD of (p(x), q(x)) = 1

Square root of Polynomials

 Factorisation method
 Long division method
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Before proceeding to find the square root of a polynomial using the long division
method, one has to ensure that the degrees of the variables are in descending or
ascending order.
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Quadratic Equations
General form of Quadratic equation: x2 – (Sum of roots) x + Product of roots = 0
p(x) = ax2 + bx + c, a = 0 and a, b, c are the real numbers then,
Sum of roots - α+β = -b/a
Product of roots is - α β = c / a

Zeros of a Quadratic Polynomial

Let p(y) be a polynomial then x is said to be Zero of a quadratic polynomial when
P(x) = 0 if, x ≠ 0
Roots of quadratic equations: x = - b ± √ (b² - 4ac) / 2a
Formation of a polynomial equations with given roots: (x – a1 ) (x – a2 ) (x – a3 ) …
The nature of the root of the quadratic equation
x = - b ± √ (b² - 4ac) / 2a here, b2 – 4ac is discriminant (denoted by Δ) of the
quadratic equation which decides the nature of roots

Fundamental theorem of Algebra

A polynomial equation of degree n has exactly n roots in  when the roots are counted
with their multiplicities.

Solving the quadratic equations

 Factorisation method
 Completing square method
 Formula method

Solving the quadratic equation by factorisation method

 Write the equation in general form ax2 + bx + c = 0
 By splitting the middle term, factorize the given equation.
 After factorizing, the given quadratic equation can be written as product of two
linear factors.
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 Equate each linear factor to zero and solve for x. These values of x gives the roots
of the equation.

Solving the quadratic equation by completing square method

 Write the quadratic equation in general form .
 Divide both sides of the equation by the coefficient of x2 if it is not 1.
 Shift the constant term to the right hand side.
 Add the square of one-half of the coefficient of x to both sides.
 Write the left hand side as a square and simplify the right hand side.
 Take the square root on both sides and solve for x.

Solving the Quadratic equation by using the formula method

x = - b ± √ (b² - 4ac) / 2a
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Quadratic equation in a Graph

A parabola represents a Quadratic function. f(x) = ax2 + bx + c,
Vertex - The point of intersection of the parabola and the axis of symmetry
The basic Parabola, y = x2

Note;
 The coefficient “a” in the general equation is responsible for parabolas to open
upward or downward and vary in “width” (“wider” or “skinnier”), but they all
have the same basic “U” shape.
 The greater the quadratic coefficient of x2, the narrower is the parabola and the
lesser value responsible for the wider of the parabola
 The graph of any second degree polynomial gives a curve called “parabola”.

For a quadratic equation ,

 The axis is given by x = - b / 2a
 The vertex is given by ( - b / 2a, - ∆ / 4a ), where ∆ = b2 – 4ac is the
discriminant of the quadratic equation. ax2 + bx + c = 0 Where a ≠ 0

Finding the nature of the solution of quadratic equations graphically

To obtain the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 graphically, we first
draw the graph of y = ax2 + bx + c
The solutions of the quadratic equation are the x coordinates of the points of
intersection of the curve with X axis.

 Two real and unequal roots - intersect the X axis at two distinct points
 Only one root (which is same as saying two real and equal roots ) - touch the X
axis at only one point
 No real roots - Does not intersect the X axis at any point

Solving quadratic equations through intersection of lines

We can determine roots of a quadratic equation graphically by choosing appropriate
parabola and intersecting it with a desired straight line.

 If the straight line intersects the parabola at two distinct points, then the x
coordinates of those points will be the roots of the given quadratic equation.
 If the straight line just touch the parabola at only one point, then the x
coordinate of the common point will be the single root of the quadratic equation.
 If the straight line doesn’t intersect or touch the parabola then the quadratic
equation will have no real roots.