'[,!

DK
'

511
»' C1M85
 THE LIBRARY
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
'try^x^U
xyZxyui ^^
^ -^
"^^
 :

THE CAUCASUS

PEOPLE,

A BRIEF HISTORY OF THEIR WARS,

A SKETCH or THE

ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE RENOWNED CHIEF

SCHAMYL.

BY

LOUIS MOSER

LONDON
DAVID XUT'J\ 270, STRAND.
isse.
 LONDON:
T. RrCHABDS, GREAT QDEEN STREET.
 w

TO

WILLIAM FANE DE SALIS, ESQ.,

DIRECTOR OF THE PENINSULAR AND ORIENTAL

STEAM NAVIGATION COMPANY.

Southampton, 1856,

Dear Sir,

I gladly avail myself of your per-

mission to present to you this little work
on the Caucasus, compiled during leisure
hours in your Company's Steam Transport
Service, from French, German, and original
Russian sources.

I have been induced to offer it by the

interest you are known to take in the
affairs of the East, and also by the position
you hold in the great Company which has
taken so prominent a part in furthering
the objects of the Crimean War, and in
IV DEDICATION.

bringing European energy to bear on Asiatic

torpor.

The brave and long- continued struggle

of the Caucasian races, against an enemy
so greatly superior to them in physical
force, has enlisted the sympathies of Europe
in their favour ; and it seems probable that
events now in progress may render it desir-

able to obtain more accurate information

concerning a country and people hitherto
so imperfectly known, and, it may be
added, so difficult to know well.

My little work can pretend to no merit

but that of authenticity ; but, on this

ground, I would fain hope that it may

prove of some public service, and that you
wiil accept it as a trifling tribute of esteem
and grateful acknowledgment of kindness
received from you by,

Dear Sir,

Your most obedient Servant,

Louis MOSER.
THE CAUCASUS AND ITS PEOPLE.

CHAPTER I.

—Traditions connected
Superb Scenery of the Caucasus.
with it. — The — Side Ranges. —The
loftiest Peaks.
Black Mountains. — The Andisch Range. — The Kai-
tach.—The Rivers of the Caucasus. —The Kouban,
Terek, Kouma, — Their
etc. —The vege-
tributaries.

tationof the Caucasus. — amazing Its —The variety.

animal kingdom, etc.

In no region of the earth are the striking

contrasts of scenery, in which nature often

seems to delight, more magnificently dis-

played than in the Caucasus.

From the banks of the Don, and far and

wide along the course of the Manytch and

Kouma, stretches a weary waste of barren
B
Z THE CAUCASUS

steppe country, which gradually loses itself

in the inhospitable slopes that bound the

Caspian Sea. Abruptly and unexpectedly,
however, from this dreary and monotonous

plain, there arise, first a chain of hills, and

then a mighty range of mountains, towering

ever higher and higher, and throwing out

spurs that slope into and embosom broad,

sunny, smiling valleys, while, at the same

time, the loftiest peaks rise to the height of

everlasting snow ; where the glaciers only

melt sufficiently to feed the torrents, which

leap roaring and foaming from cliff and

cavern.

This varied and rugged range of moun-

tains is covered in many parts with forests

of the most luxuriant vegetation, though, as

we have said, its wild, sharp peaks pierce

beyond the line of perpetual snow : it ex-

tends from the Black Sea to the Caspian, and

forms nature's boundary between the two

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 3

continents of Europe and Asia ; and on this

range, with its numerous branches, offsets

and headlands, the name of the Caucasus

has been bestowed.

Tradition has chained Prometheus to the

highest point of the Caucasus, and laid the

scene of the Golden Fleece expedition on the

lovely slopes that overhang the Black Sea.

The ark of Noah, too, is said to have

rested on a peak of one of its branches, but

beyond this, both history and tradition are

nearly silent concerning this mountain land ;

and there are, even at this hour, extensive

tracts of country untrodden by European
foot, and known to us only by the vague

and uncertain glimpses afforded by hearsay

or imagination.

The range of the Caucasus, with its

thousand bare and fantastically shaped

summits, extends for a length of one hun-

dred and fifty miles, from Anapa, on tlic

 :

4 THE CAUCASUS

Black Sea, to Cape Abcharan, on the Cas-

pian. Its breadth varies continually, as it

sometimes spreads out its branches, and

opens into broad acclivities, and sometimes

contracts into narrow passes, and sinks into
extensive valleys or deep ravines.

Amongst the loftiest points in the prin-

cipal range, proceeding from west to east,

rise most conspicuously the following peaks

the Oschten, Nisiri, Maruch, Dschumantan,

Tuturguh, and Elbruz ; about the middle of

the range stands out pre-eminently the Kas-

beck, and to the east and south-east, the

Kadori, the Sakoris-twer, and the Kah-dagh.

In the neighbourhood of the pass of

Dariel, the loftiest heights present a ba-

saltic formation, though the lower hill

ranges are of chalk, slate, and limestone.

The Elbruz, the loftiest peak of the Cauca-

sian range, attains, according to some tra-

vellers, the height of 15,400, or, to others,

 AND ITS PEOPLE. O

of 16,330 feet ; and this Colossus is held in

high veneration by the people, who believ-

ing it to be the abode of good and bad
spirits, look up to it with awe not unmixed

with fear. The next in height is the Kas-

bek, also called the Msinwari ; it is es-

timated at 14,400 feet, and it is constantly

covered, from summit to base, with ice and

snow.

Among the spurs and side ranges of the

Caucasus, that on the north-west runs nearly

parallel with the principal chain ; it is called

the Black Mountain range, in contradistinc-

tion to the chief, snow-covered one, whose

branches, extending north-west and south-

east, are connected with each other by steep

cliffs, deep precipices, and impenetrable
forests. These branches enlarge and ex-
tend as they approach the centre, but to-

wards the north they throw off numerous

arms to the Kouma Steppes, where, after
6 THE CAUCASUS

forming the promontory of Beschtan, they

sink into the forest range of ShebKaragatch.

To the south, an extensive branch stretches

in gentle declivities in the direction of the

river Kour, meeting the projecting spur of

Mount Ararat. Towards the east, the prin-

cipal chain divides itself at different points

into two ridges, one forming the wide ex-

tending elevations of the Andisch range,

while, towards the north-east, a second

branch forms that of the Kaitach; this

stretches to the Caspian, after encircling

larger or smaller valleys, which are again

broken up by isolated mountains and hills.

Of the various rivers which diverge from

the northern flank of the Caucasus the most

important are, the Kouban, the Terek, and

the Kouma, besides the Podkouma, a branch
stream of the latter, which runs towards
the steppe from which it takes its name.

The Kouban has its source in the north-

 AND ITS TEOrLE. /

ern slope of the Elbruz ; and after leaving

the hills by a wide bend to the westward,

and receiving the waters of several tributa-

ries, it falls into the Kouban-Liman, whicli

flows into the Black Sea.

On the right of its course the Kouban

receives no river of any importance ; but

the streams which join it on the left, rising

mostly in the high and dark range above

them, deserve some mention, not only on

their own accounts, but from their serving

to mark more distinctly the abodes of the

several Caucasian races.

The names of the rivers, which flow

from east to west, are the Great and Little
Indtchik or Selentchuk, the Uruss, the

Great and Lesser Laba, the Chodz, the

Schadgasha, the Supa, Kara-Kouban, and

Afips.

The tributaries of the Kouban are more

numerous than those of the Terek. The
8 THE CAUCASUS

latter also takes it rise in the snowy range,

and soon entering a narrow valley, follows

an eastern course, till it falls into the Cas-

pian Sea, whither it conveys all the streams

that rise in the north and north-eastern

part of the Caucasus. These tributaries

join the Terek on the left, as do also the

waters of the four united rivers, Malka,

Baksan, Tshegem, and Tcherek, and the

rivulets Uruch, Aredon, Flag, Makaldon,
Gnaldon, and others of less importance.

The south, and more especially the south-

western slopes of the Caucasus, are most

abundantly supplied with water ; and some

of the streams which rise in these regions

take the direction of the Black Sea, while

the rest join the river Kour, as it flows from

west to east, at the foot of the Caucasus,

and at length fall with it into the Caspian

Sea near Salian.

Among the former we find the Schacho,
 ;

AND ITS TEOrLE. if

Gebs, Tshab, Inabs, Ardo, Bsyb, Engari or

Ingar, Iskenitz, Guali, and Rioni ; among

the latter, the Didi-Liachoi, Aragoi, with

the Gudamaquari, the Jori, and Alasami.

Among the tributaries of the Kour, the

largest are the rivers rising in the south

and south-eastern slopes of the Caucasus,

and flowing directly into the Caspian Sea
of these the most worthy of note is the

Kissra, a river formed by the confluence of

four difl"erent streams, namely, the Anditch,

Avarsh, Kara, and Kasamuch-Kissra. The

waters of these, after meeting, force them-

selves between the Anditch and Kaitach

range of hills, and fall into the Caspian

Sea, under the name of the Szulak. The

Koura, also, and the Samura, are rivers

worthy of notice.
The natural boundaries of this highland

region are, therefore, the rivers Kouban

and Terek on the north, the valley of the
10 THE CAUCASUS

Kour on the south, the Caspian Sea on the

east, and the Black Sea on the west. Within

these limits nature has collected the cha-

racteristics of the most widely differing

landscapes : inhospitable rocks, wild tor-

rents, and terrific chasms, with the treasures

of the richest and most fertile vegetation,

and an almost boundless variety of fruits

and flowers, which are elsewhere found dis-

persed through various zones and climates.

Here we have the plane tree and the box-

wood of unusual size and thickness ; there

the mulberry and the vine, which in the

beautiful wilds of Mingrelia grow without

any care ; the oak and the elm, the ash,

the birch and the pine, form almost im-

penetrable forests ; the whole of the Alpine

flora is found here, and destructive creepers,

along with the lovely myrtle, rosalia, laurel,

azalea, rhododendron, and many other

flowers, as well as fruits, namely, figs,

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 11

chesnuts, and melons of extraordinary size

and flavour. The richest abundance of ve-

getable produce, in short, is found blooming
in the very midst of barren unfruitful rocks,

that seem to defy the very vegetative power

of nature.

The animal kingdom of the Caucasus is

no less exuberant; horses, sheep, cattle,

and buffaloes are numerous, as well as wild

boars, jackals, hyenas, panthers, chamois,

goats, and deer ; besides hares, pheasants,

and all kinds of game ; fowls, too, and bees

are in abundance ; and among the occa-
sional visitors may be mentioned the bear,

the denizen of the north, and even at times

the tiger. The mineral treasures of the

Caucasian ranges are as yet little known ;

and the prevalent scarcity of salt often ex-

poses the mountaineers to great privations.

On the whole, nature has lavished her

bounties most generously on the soil of the

12 THE CAUCASUS

Caucasus, and she has been no less munifi-

cent in endowing the aboriginal inhabitants

of these mountains with the mental qualifi-

cations for enabling them to appreciate her

blessings.
 ;

AND ITS PEOPLE. 13

CHAPTER II.

The Personal and Mental Qualifications of the Cauca-

sian Races. — Princes and Nobles. —Their Privileges.

— Great Public Meetings. — appearance of

Brilliant

the Assembly. — The Debates. — The Brotherhoods.

Judicial Proceedings. — Lawful and Unlawful Rob-
bery.—Leading the Caucasian
features of character.
— —Trade
Slaver)'. —Warlike Expeditions.
in Girls.

The Caucasian races are of fine physical

organization, and possess preeminently the

susceptibility of intellectual culture.

Though of different origin, and separated

by language and dialects into many tribes,

fhere is a striking agreement in the character,

manners, and customs of the whole people

and all the races of the Caucasus adhere

strictly to one and the same code of oral

and traditional law, by which their commu-
nities, their households, their customs, and
 ;

14 THE CAUCASUS

even their dresses, are governed and re-

gulated.

It must be acknowledged, however, that

while their virtues are strengthened and

upheld by these traditions, their national

vices are often excited by them to savage

excesses. The tendencies of the people are

all republican ; and most tribes admit nei-

ther of aristocracy nor hereditary titles.

All men being equal among them, the

jurisdiction of the chiefs or princes (called

in the different dialects Psahy, By, Bei,

Beg, and so on) is exceedingly limited

and that of the nobles (Usden, Work, or

Mursden) is still more restricted, unless

they possess means of upholding the lustre

of their ancestral rank by a rich showy

appearance, or by preeminent valour on the

battle-field. On the other hand, great

homage is paid to aged men of unblemished

character, as well as to those who have dis-

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 15

tinguished themselves by exploits against

the common enemy and ; also to minstrels.

The life of the mountaineer of the Cau-

casus is one continued series of dangers

and hardships, imposed upon him by the

necessity of defending his mountain home :

he must, therefore, in order to gain lasting

influence over his tribe, make continual

displays of dexterity, perseverance, and un-

daunted courage.
Where princes reign a small tribute is

paid to them, and they, as well as the

nobles, have a right to a hospitable recep-

tion in every house, rich or poor, which

they may enter, and they may remain as

long as the provisions last. In all other

respects they are on an equality with the

rest of the clan, and must obey the will of

the popular assemblies denominated Tafes,

which are called together to discuss matters

concerning military service, or when a

16 THE CAUCASUS

battle is to be fought, a feast to be cele-

brated, or judicial business, such as the

trial or condemnation of a culprit, to be

transacted. These meetings are held mostly

on moonlight nights, in sacred groves, or
under a huge primeval tree, near which is

generally to be seen an ancient decayed

cross, the last memorial of the Christian

sires assigned to the Caucasian races, and

to which there is usually attached an emo-

tion of religious awe, originating in some

tradition.

On the occasion of one of these meetings,

every man arrays himself in his best attire,

and all vie with one another in the pic-

turesque style of their adornment, and in the

display of bright arms and jewelled dirks,

as well as of formidable javelins and bril-

liant feats of horsemanship, so that there is

a great deal of pleasurable excitement in

these nightly scenes, by which the fiery

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 17

spirits of the warriors arc animated to still

higher martial ardour, and the hills are con-

tinually made to reecho their tremendous

battle-cry.

The Speaker and Council of Elders are

seated on the turf in the centre of the

assembly, in order that they may be seen

and heard by every one present ; around

them a circle is formed by the middle-aged
warriors, whose steeds are tethered in a

ring outside that formed by their owners,

and this outer circle is again surrounded

by the youth on horseback.
Whenever an elder rises to address the

meeting, the deafening clash of arms, the

clatter of a thousand tongues, the stamping

of a multitude of horses, and the whole

many-voiced tumult, is hushed in an in-

stant ; and in profound silence, and with

deep emotion, the assembly listens to the

counsel addressed to it by the venerable

18 THE CAUCASUS

speaker, whose mystical, enthusiastic elo-

quence often excites his hearers to heroic

efforts in defence of their mountain homes,

by promising them, finally, that whoever is

slain on the battle-field in the conflict with

the enemy, shall be thence instantaneously

transferred to Paradise.

When the speaker has concluded his

harangue, his proposals are submitted to

the deliberations, and then to the votes of

the assembly ; these are given first by the

aged, and then downwards to the youngest
members present, all having an equal right

to express their opinions freely; and the

majority of votes constituting any measure

so agreed on, is law, holy and binding on

the whole community.

Before setting out to attend one of these

great public meetings, each Brotherhood or

smaller community usually discusses and

resolves on the measures proposed to be
 A^D ITS PEOPLE. 19

advocated in the larger assembly, wliicli

consists of ten of these Brotherhoods, and is

empowered in the pnblic meetings to pass

laws, from which there is no appeal.

In the Brotherhood the motto is
— " One
for all, and all for one"; it undertakes to

provide for the widows and orphans of

fallen warriors ; and in case of one of its

members being unable when he wishes to

marry to raise the funds necessary for the

purchase of a bride, this is done for him by

the community.

Should one of the clan be convicted of

theft of any goods or chattels belonging to

a friendly neighbour, and unable to pay the

fine (mostly a certain number of oxen or

sheep) to which he has been condemned by

public sentence, it has to be paid for him

by a contribution raised among the Bro-

therhood to which he belongs.

Robberies committed on the property of

20 THE CAUCASUS

unfriendly neighbours, however, especially

if well planned and boldly executed, are

greatly applauded.

Should disputes occur, and the dispu-

tants not be able to come to any agreement,
umpires are chosen, by whose decision the

parties have to abide.

The majority of the tribes, and especially

the Lesgheans, cling to the principle of

retributive justice.

Guided by the law, " that he who shed-

deth man's blood, by man shall his blood

be shed", they regard it as a solemn duty

to hunt after the aggressor till they have

laid him low; and this barbarous custom

has given rise to sanguinary feuds, which

last from generation to generation.

These mountaineers are taught, that the

spirits of their relatives who have been
slain can never rest in peace until they

shall have been avenged ; and not only is a

 ;

AND ITS PEOPLE. 21

brother or friend of one who has fallen,

always ready to pursue an assassin to

death, but he can seldom be induced to

give quarter to Russian prisoners of war,

lest he should thus chance to leave the

manes of some ancestors or brethren un-

avenged.

Cowardice, treachery, or the violation of

the law of hospitality, are all regarded

among these races as unpardonable crimes ;

and whoever is known to have committed

any aggression on the person or goods of a
guest, is, according to law, to be tied hand

and foot, flung into an abyss, and left to

perish without mercy. A coward is re-

garded as an outcast from the community

and should he be prevented by disease from
leaving the abodes of his tribe, he is con-

demned to live and feed with the dogs.

The leading features of the Caucasian

character, in short, are valour, pride, re-

22 THE CAUCASUS

verence for age, and a high sense of the

duty of hospitality. When a guest enters

any dwelling, the host considers himself as

bound to wait on him, to serve him, to

minister to his wants, provide for his com-

fort, and afford him every gratification in

his power. The best place in the house,

the choicest morsels at the dinner, are

allotted to him, and the members of the

family vie with one another in endeavour-

ing to amuse him ; the utmost care is taken

never to disturb his repose ; and should he

fall sick, he is nursed with the utmost

anxiety and tenderness.

Were enemies lying in wait for the

stranger, his host would not fail to protect

him ; and should the threshold be violated

by his pursuers, the hostess Vs'ould offer

him her breast, and by this act constitute

him at once a member of the family, who

would then peril property and life in his
 AND ITS TEOPLE. 23

defence. Such extreme cases as this, how-

ever, are of rare occurrence.

The visit of a minstrel is regarded as a

great honour to a family ; and every guest

is, on his departure, furnished by his host
with letters of introduction, which give him

a clainf to further hospitalities on the road

to his place of destination. Prisoners of

war and stragglers only are claimed as

bondsmen ; of the latter, few are found

among the Caucasian tribes, and such as

are met with are usually in the enjoyment

of the same privileges as the rest of the

family. Should the bondsman, however,

be guilty of any offence, the master of the

house has a right to put him to death.

One of the darkest features of Caucasian

life is the existence of the Slave Trade,

which, notwithstanding the vigilant oppo-

sition of the English Ambassador at Con-

stantinople, is still a favourite object with

24 THE CAUCASUS

these races, and often carried on, in defi-

ance of all obstacles, with the most daring

intrepidity. On most occasions, the father

himself sells his daughters to a broker

who supjDlies the Turkish harems ; and fre-

quently receives a good round sum for his

merchandise.

The poor girls, on their parts, by no

means object to the proceeding, as they are

taught from their infancy to long for the

luxurious idleness of the harems of Stam-

boul, and regard it as a kind of earthly

Paradise.

Warlike expeditions in pursuit of plun-

der, either to the Russian territory, or to

that of a neighbouring tribe, have great

charms for a people accustomed to constant

exertion, and delighting in tumult and

activity.

"When one of these is in contemplation,

the first step is the ceremony of taking the

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 25

" Blood Oath", as it is called, which binds

those who take it to perseverance in valor-

ous effort, and to standing by each other

to the death. The bravest warrior among
them is then chosen as leader, and the occa-

sion is celebrated by a feast and a dance.

The warriors after this retire to rest ; but at

daybreak they rise and set forward on their

march, ascending mountains, crossing rivers,

and forcing their way through primeval

forests, till they reach the point of attack.

The march is mostly planned so as to sur-

prise the enemy in sleep, and in such case

the deadly onslaught usually spares no one.

Should any prisoners be made, they are

speedily driven to some place of security,

where the spoil is deposited ; and the re-

treat of the assailants is generally as sud-

den as their appearance.

Prisoners of war often prefer death to

captivity ; they destroy their arms and mu-

26 THE CAUCASUS

tilate their horses, that they may not ren-

der service to the enemy ; and sometimes,

finally, embrace the first opportunity to

precipitate themselves into some rocky

abyss, rather than endure the passing their

lives in bondage.

Sanguinary battles are often fought for

the sake of recapturing the body of a slain

friend ; as it is considered a great misfor-

tune and disgrace that one who has fought

and bled in the cause of the common weal

should be buried on a hostile soil.
 AND ITS TEOrLE. 27

CHAPTER III.

Mode of Life among the Caucasians. — Food. — Dress.

—Marriage. —Education of the Boys. — The Attalik.

— Education of the —Medical Treatment

Girls. in

Circassia. —Funeral Ceremonies. — Lamentation and

Rejoicing.

The ordinary mode of life among the Cau-

casians is frugal, and in strict accordance

with their social condition. Their houses

and huts are for the most part poor and

meagre in construction, seldom exhibiting
the smallest sign of prosperity. A few have
dwellings rudely built of stone, but the

majority of the habitations are constructed

of pine boards, roughly put together and

thatched over ; others consist merely of

hurdle-work plastered with clay and mor-

tar ; and though they contain several rooms,

 ;

28 THE CAUCASUS

they are without windows or chimneys, and

are used as common resting places for men

and cattle. Some tribes have no houses at

all, but live in caves.

The Caucasian villages are mostly formed

in a circle, in the centre of which the cattle

are placed for security during the night

but others consist of a few huts, widely

scattered about the forest, and the poverty

of the inhabitants seems legibly written on

every threshold.

Their ordinary food is a preparation from

coarse millet, and a piece of roast meat and

a draught of beer, which they occasionally

brew, are the greatest luxuries they know.

Knives, forks, and plates are dispensed with

in a Caucasian household, and considered

superfluities.

As the Caucasians are exceedingly fond

of their arms, one of their greatest amuse-

ments is to polish their jeweled dirks, and

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 29

often richly ornamented guns and pistols,

or the long straight sword, which they wear

in a coloured scabbard. Helmets, shirts of

mail, etc., were formerly worn by them, but

they have been discontinued since the use

of fire-arms has become general.

The dress of the Caucasians is often rich

and picturesque ; the men wear a long silk

undercoat, and a short overcoat without a

collar ; a closely-fitting tunic, with neatly

worked cartridge pockets of red morocco
in front, yellow boots, and a head-dress of
Astrachan lambskin, with a crown of crim-
son cloth or leather ; their silken sash, or

ornamented leather girdle, is well stocked

with weapons ; and a felt cloak, for the pro-

tection of their gay attire, is their constant

companion.

The women wear robes ornamented with

fur and silver lace, and reaching to the

knees, where they are met by trowseri,

30 THE CAUCASUS

mostly of silk, and over the head and face

is worn the Ishadra^ a white and often beau-
tifully embroidered veil. The poorer classes

are, of course, more scantily attired.

Family life in the Caucasus is generally

entered upon at an early age ; a fact that

might be in a great measure accounted for

by many circumstances arising out of the

peculiar position of the country, the isola-

tion of many of its valleys, and the difficulty

and occasional impossibility of communica-

tion between them. Polygamy is found

among only a few of the tribes, and even

with them it may be regarded as the ex-

ception rather than the rule. Marriages

take place at so very early an age, that a

girl of eighteen would be looked upon as a

decided old maid, and be very likely there-

fore to remain unmarried for the rest of

her life.

Men of the middle classes choose their

 ;

AND ITS PEOPLE. 31

wives for themselves, according to taste

but the matrimonial partners of the sons of

nobles are chosen for them. In the nego-

tiations carried on concerning the marriage,

the stipulations as to the amount of horses,

slaves, cattle, and valuable arms which are

to be given, form a very important item ;

when these are concluded, the bride, it is

said, is so anxiously watched over by her

relatives, that the lover has to resort to

many stratagems before he can succeed in

even seeing her for a few moments.

The wedding is celebrated with noisy

feasting and revelry, in the midst of which

the bridegroom has to rush in, and, with

the help of a few daring young men, to

carry off the lady by force ; and by tliis

process she becomes his lawful wife.

The Caucasians are said in general to

treat their wives well, but now and then

they send them back to their father's
3*2 THE CAUCASUS

house, —an affront which gives rise to the

bitterest feuds. Adultery is punished with

death.

In the education of the male children

we find among the Circassians many traits

of character and custom, curiously analo-

gous to those of the ages of chivalry in

Western Europe.
As it was the practice for young aspirants
to the honours of knighthood not to be left

to be educated in their parental homes, but

to be sent into the household of some noble

to be trained to the practice of chivalric

exercises, so the son of a Circassian chief

is taken from home, and consigned to the

charge of a tutor or foster-father, called an

Attalik, and until he attains the age when

his education is supposed to be complete, it

is considered an unpardonable weakness in

the real father even to desire to see his

child. Boys are regarded rather as the

 ;

AND ITS TEOrLE. 33

property of the tribe than of their parents

and should the latter have neglected to

choose an Attalik for their son, any one

who feels so disposed may offer to under-

take the charge. There are even instances

of enthusiastic educators carrying off a pupil

by force ; and this is not, by Circassian law,

a punishable offence.

A male child at his birth is presented

with a bow and a quiver of arrows, as

symbols of his future career ; and to these

is added an amulet, to guard him from

witchcraft, and from the influence of the
evil eye.

The Circassians being entirely ignorant

of science and letters, understand by edu-

cation chiefly gymnastic exercises, riding,

swimming, and the use of warlike weapons ;

but the young pupil is also instructed in

the art of stealing with expertness, as well

as in eloquence, in order tliat he may one

D
34 THE CAUCASUS

day shine as an orator at the public meet-

ings.

Having attained to manhood, the young

mountaineer is conducted in triumph back

to the house of his parents, where, at a

feast held on the occasion, he displays his

acquirements before his friends and rela-
tives. The guardian or tutor —the Attalik
as he is called — is then overwhelmed with

presents and congratulations, and he enjoys

ever afterwards the highest consideration

in the family.

The education of female children is left

to the mothers, by whom they are taught

to attend to domestic affairs, to be skilful

horsewomen, and also the use of arms.

On the decease of the head of the family

— the father — the management of the

household devolves on the mother ; but

should the sons not agree to remain toge-

ther, the father's property is divided among

 AND ITS TEOrLE. 35

them, the eldest obtaining the hxrgest share,

and with it the house, of wliich he then

becomes the possessor. The smallest por-

tion is given to the younger son.

Death being looked upon in this country,

as almost every where else, as a most im-

portant family event, funerals are performed

with great pomp ; that of a warrior espe-

cially with extravagant ceremonies. Illness

among the Caucasians is commonly attri-

buted to evil spirits, wliich they endeavour

to drive out of the patient by all kinds of

torture and by tumultuous noise. LTnder

the impression that the spirit exercises his

malignant influence over the patient chiefly

during his sleep, they no sooner see him

sinking into slumber than they take every

method they can devise to disturb him,

and if noise will not keep him awake, they

sprinkle cold water over his face whenever
he attempts to close his eyes. When, at
 ;

36 THE CAUCASUS

last, death puts an end to his sufferings,

the women commence the funeral dirge

tearing the hair from their heads with

frantic lamentations, and lacerating their

hands and faces in a frightful manner, and

the men lash themselves with whips till

they are covered with blood.

No manifestation of this kind is made,

however, when the deceased has been struck

by lightning, as it is considered then that

he is one of the chosen people, who has

been recalled to the Most High without

the intervention of a mediator. The body
ia in such cases interred on the eighth day,

on the spot where the event occurred. The

remains of persons who die of disease are

first put into a bath, and then laid out

upon a carpet in their best clothes ; and
should the body be that of a warrior, it

is burnt in the garments he has worn in

battle.
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 37

AVhile the preparations are being made

for the funeral feast and the interment, the
remains are watched by the female relatives,

who weep and lament over it incessantly.

It is then borne in solemn procession, still

amidst frantic lamentations, to its last rest-

ing place, whence the mourners return in

the same manner to the habitation ; but as

soon as they arrive, they suddenly exchange

their doleful lamentation for hearty enjoy-

ment of the good things set before them

for the feast ; and though they are careful
to commemorate the virtues of the departed,
they do not suffer the remembrance of them

to interfere with their indulgence in the

most unrestrained hilarity. The wealthy

repeat these funeral feasts at short intervals,

on or near the graves of their deceased

relatives.
38 THE CAUCASUS

CHAPTER IV.

The Religion —Relics of Christianity

of the Caucasians.
mingled with Paganism. — Social Recreations. — Love
of Music. — Homage paid Minstrels. — Language
to

of the various Tribes. —The Tcherkess, or Circas-

—Their beauty. —
sians. modes of improving
Artificial

—Pride of Birth among Nobles. —The Great and

it.

LittleKabardah. — The Tribes inhabiting Tcherkes-

kaia.—The Abassians, or Abchases.
It would be very difficult to point out

precisely what are the religious doctrines

entertained by these mountaineers, as they

are extremely vague and indefinite.

The ruined churches —the decayed and

mouldering wooden crosses, found in many

places in groves and forests —the frequent
occurrence of some Christian rite being

found still in use among the tribes of the

Western Caucasus, lead inevitably to the

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 39

conclusion that, at some period, the Chris-

tian religion must have been prevalent

here ; but if so, the spirit of Christianity

has long since entirely disappeared, and

been superseded by that of Islamism, in-

troduced in days of yore, it is said, by a

certain princess and her nobles. The ma-
jority of the people have but a confused
conception of a deity, whom they worship

in ceremonies compounded of the usages

of Christianity, Mahommedanism, and Pa-
ganism. Some of the tribes still pay homage
to a God of Thunder and a God of Light-
ning, as well as to Gods of Winds, Waters,
and Forests ; but as they have no priests,

except the.Mahommedan Mollahs, the office

of consecrating the oxen and sheep, brought

as sacrifices to these deities (and offered in

traditionally sacred groves and forests), is

usually performed by aged men of unim-

peached character.
40 THE CAUCASUS

The feast of Easter is still kept never-

theless with something like Christian cere-

monies ; and in the beginning of spring,
the people observe a long fast, after which
they have a festival, at which they present
coloured eggs to each other, a custom pre-

valent in Russia, and many parts of Ger-

many, at the same season.

In a few scattered mountain caves, a kind

of worship is paid to the prophet Elias, but

without any reference to Christian tradi-

tion ; and the people in general are greatly

under the influence of childish surpersti-
tions, and fears of witchcraft and of ghosts.
The principal occupation of the Cauca-

sian people is that of cattle-breeding, which

they carry on on an extensive scale, the

herds of some owners amounting to thirty

thousand head, and many of their horses

are of excellent breed and much prized.

In agriculture, the Caucasian has made
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 41

very little progress, and under his mode of

tillage, even the most fertile soil yields but

a very meagre produce. Of handicrafts-

men there are few to be found, except

armourers, and most of the furniture and

cooking utensils are of home manufacture.

The women are expert and industrious,
as weavers and embroiderers, and produce
really wonderful specimens of domestic

workmanship in cloth, shawls, carpets, veils,

and gold and silver lace, with which they

ornament the furs so abundantly supplied

by the various animals of the forests.

The Caucasians also supply themselves

with gunpowder, an article in very great

demand among them.

Music and song are held in high estima-
tion, but they are as yet in a very low stage
of development; the only musical instru-

ments in use are a kind of violin, a fife, and

a small drum, and the melodies performed
42 THE CAUCASUS

on them, though plaintive, are exceedingly

monotonous ; but they are nevertheless

greatly admired by the public, and no fes-

tival is complete without the presence of

the minstrel, who, in public estimation, is

only second to the brave warrior, and is

treated with the greatest veneration by

young and old. The women are generally

eager to manifest their admiration for him,

and the young damsels especially desire his

notice and favour ; the men, too, pay him

homage, but not always quite unmingled
with jealousy.

The talents of these bards are mostly

displayed in impromptu effusions in praise

of daring deeds in the battle field, in eulo-

giums on the warriors, or compliments to

the virtues and beauty of the ladies who

happen to be present at the party. Next
to the song, the national dance is the fa-

vourite amusement of the Caucasians, and

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 43

it is as bold and martial in its character as

the people themselves. In general there is

much free social intercourse among them,

and from these pleasures their women are
not excluded. The only drawback on the
advantage of these gatherings is, that when,

as frequently happens, the men take to

amusing themselves with sham fights, and

playing at soldiers, their impetuosity often

occasions accidents ; and in the bustle of

their evolutions, with foot and horse, deadly
wounds are inflicted, which turn the scene
of festivity into an arena of mourning, and,

what is still worse, give rise to animosities

that beget bloody feuds, continuing through

many generations.

The valley of the river Terek, which, as

we have seen, rises near the centre of the

Caucasian range, and flowing eastward, falls

into the Caspian Sea, —forms a kind of divi-

sion of the territory of the Caucasus into a

u THE CAUCASUS

North- Western and South-Eastern district,

the inhabitants of which differ essentially

in language, though the Tatar dialect is

extensively known among them, and used

as a general medium of communication,

and the nomadic tribes retain com-

monly their mother tongue. Of these, the

first to be mentioned are the Tcherkess, or

Circassians, as they are called in England,

or Adiges, as they call themselves, whose

origin is rather uncertain ; they declare

their primitive home to have been in Arabia;

but even if this be true, they have dwelt
so long in the Caucasus, that they may
fairly be counted among the aborigines.
This fine race is renowned for physical

strength, beauty of feature, and symmetry

of form ; they are agile and active in the

highest degree, and surpass all the other

tribes in their noble and manly bearing, as

well as in the cleanliness of their persons,

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 45

and their tasteful dress. They often resort,

it is true, to rather strange methods, in

order to preserve or augment the charms

and attractions with which nature has en-
dowed them. The young girls, for instance,

at the first stage of their development to-

wards womanhood, are sewed up into a

pair of tight leather stays, which they wear
till their wedding-day, when it is cut off

with a sharp dirk. It is adopted, of course,

with a view to obtaining a fine slender

waist.

The character and mental capacity of the

Tcherkess are not inferior to the promise

of their personal appearance. Chivalrous

and hospitable, true to their engagements,

considerate and respectful towards their

women, benevolent to the poor, they com-

bine so many admirable traits of character,

as to have just claims on the sympathy

often manifested for them in Europe ; and
46 THE CAUCASUS

though from their continual intercourse

with their neighbours, their frequent wars,

and their nomadic way of life, they are

seldom found without any mixture of other

races, the amalgamation has been oftener

advantageous than otherwise, especially to

their nobles. Most of the Tcherkess tribes

are governed by princes, though their au-

thority is very limited ; but both princes
and nobles are excessively proud of their

descent, and manifest this pride in their

matrimonial alliances. Marriages bet^veen

persons of unequal rank are seldom heard

of, as they are greatly discountenanced..

Mahommedanism has made great pro-

gress among the Circassians, while Christi-

anity, though it must have been extensively

known to their forefathers, has scarcely left

any other trace than that of the before-

mentioned ruins and crosses, still to be seen

near their habitations. Their language,

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 47

which, on account of its modulations, is

exceedingly difficult, is spoken throughout

the district called the Kabardah, from the

Laba to the Black Sea. This district borders

to the west on the Molka, to the north on

the Terek, to the east and south-east on the

Sundscha and Kumbalei, but duo south it

leans on the great mountain chain. It is

divided by the Terek into two parts, the

Great and the Little Kabardah, of which

the former, though in the southern part

mountainous, is throughout fertile, and

abounding with luxuriant vegetation. The
Little Kabardah extends along a mountain

range, running from west to east, nearly

parallel with the great chain ; its northern

part is barren, but the southern thickly

wooded.
The Kabardine villages consist of forty

or fifty houses built in a circle, and gener-

ally bearing the name of the noblest of the
48 THE CAUCASUS

inhabitants ; but both the name and the

situation of these villages are frequently

changed; for as the people till the land

very indolently, and never manure it, as

soon as they have exhausted one tract they

remove to another.

In 1822, the majority of the inhabitants

of the Kabardah left their native soil to cross

the Kuban, and settle between the Great

Indshik, or Selendshuk, and the Uruss.

The following tribes live in Tcherkeskaia,

or Circassia Proper ; that is, the territory

bounded on the north by the Kuban, to

the east (on the northern side of the great

range) by the Laba, and beyond it, by the

Sodcha.

1. The Bestenians, who are found along

the Upper Laba, and in the valleys on both

sides of the mountains, towards the Uruss

and Chodz, where the latter joins the Laba.

2. The Mochotians, who occupy the base

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 49

of the Black Mountains, between the Laba

and the Fars ; they live in cleanly and

neatly kept villages, and cultivate the land,

but in spring and harvest-time they tmvel

with their herds of cattle as far as the
Kuban.
3. The Tenirgoi, also called the Kemur-
quahes, to which belong the smaller tribes

of the Jerogokon, Ademi, and Hattuquahe,

whose dwelling places border on the south,

on those of the Mochotians, and extend
from the Laba towards the Kuban. They
possess larger herds than any other tribe,

sometimes numbering as many as from

thirty to forty thousand head.

4. The Bseduch and the Gatzakoi are

spread over the territory situated on both

sides of the Supe to the Afips.

5. The Abasechs are found in the valleys

of the chief mountain range, to the south

of the Bseduch, and they extend over the

E
5Q THE CAUCASUS

southern declivities to the Black Sea. This

tribe is rather numerous, and their Auls or

villages consist of detached, fenced-in, and

pallisaded farms, surrounded by fields and
woods, and held as freehold property by

the cultivators, who are brave and warlike

in their character.

6. The Shapsuchs live westward of the

Bseduchs and Abasechs, on both sides of

the chief mountain range, and on the Black

Sea coast. They are more numerous than

the Abasechs, and are distinguished for

their love of independence, their free insti-

tutions, and their personal bravery. They

do not acknowledge the supreme authority

of any prince.

7. The Natagoi, or Natkokuatches, is a

tribe composed of the remnants of several

others, which are separately extinct. Their

warlike spirit and love of independence,

has spread the terror of their name far over

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 51

the Kouban, and they arc commonly re-

garded as a race of marauders ; they live

on the west of the Shapsuchs, between the

Kouban Taman and Black Sea ; and their

territory is particularly rich in wild honey,

which is found in crevices of the rocks ; it

is not glutinous, but hard and firm, and it

has to be dissolved in water before it can

be used.

The second principal race of the western

Caucasus is that of the Abassians, or

Abchases, who differ widely from their

neighbours in language and feature. They

have small faces and long noses, and their
language is quite distinct, not bearing the

slightest resemblance to any other, either

Asiatic or European, dialect. Their man-

ners and customs are much like those of

the Circassians, by whom they were for-

merly overpowered and driven into the

mountains.
 —

52 THE CAUCASUS

Though of Christian descent, they appear

to be generally quite devoid of religious

faith, but their princes and nobles pro-
fess adherence to that of Islam. Their

villages consist of a considerable number

of houses and farms, scattered about the

forests, whence they obtain the wax, honey,

and furs which they bring to the European
markets. Several of their tribes dwell at

present on the right bank of the Kouban,

and along the rivers Molka and Podkuma,
but the majority have their homes on the
left bank of the Kouban, and on the moun-
tain ridge extending down to the shores of

the Black Sea.

Their country is known by the names of

the Great and Little Abassa; the latter

borders on the frontiers of the Circassians

to the west, and to the east on the Kouban,

and their district is at present inhabited by
five tribes, bearing the collective name of

Ablikissek. They are

 —

AND ITS PEOPLE. 53

1. The Klitsh, on the so-called Stone

Bridge over the Kouban.

2. The Tramekt, renowned far and wide

for their beautiful horses.

3. The Louh, in the valleys of the Lesser

Indshik and the Kouban.

4. The Aflankt and Dudurquahe, be-

tween the Great Indshik and Uruss, touch-

ing to the north on the country inhabited

by the Kubardines before their flight, and

to the west on Dudurquahe.

5. The tribe Bibert.

The Great Abassa is inhabited by

a. The Beshilbai, on the sources of the

Great Indshik ; they are governed by

princes, and devote themselves more to

cattle-breeding and the rearing of bees

than to agriculture ; and in spring and
autumn they leave their homes for the low
grounds on the Lesser Indshik, and roam
about with their herds over extensive tracts.
54 THE CAUCASUS

h. The Tarns, who dwell near the sj)rings

of the Uruss and the Great Laba.

c. The Kasilbeg, who live between the

Greater and Lesser Laba, and whose houses

and huts are carried up to the summits of

the highest range.

d. The Barakoi, who are neighbours on

the western side to the Kasilbeg, on the

Highlands. From the barrenness of their

soil and their consequent poverty, these

people have to contend with great priva-

tions.

e. The Baghs live near the sources of

the Laba and the Chodz.

/. The Tchagerai, or Tchegreh, occupy

the country Avestward of the Baghs, which

on the north-west borders on the dwellings

of the Bestenians.

The following tribes reside in the so-

called Transmontane Abassa, on the heights

of the principal ranges, and on the south-
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 55

ern declivities that slope towards the Black

Sea.

g. The Ubichs, neighbours of the Tcher-

kess Natugoi. They have good and well-

cultivated vineyards on the mountain decli-

vities.

li. The Midawy, or Medoweh, also called

the Ashipsi ; they dwell with the Dshige-

tita, south of the Tchagerai.

y. The Bsubeh, Bsub or Bsyb, neighbours

of the former tribes, extend all over the

heights, from the great mountain ridge to

the Creek of Gagry, which constitutes the

boundary of Circassia and Abchasia proper.

Abchasia extends from the highest peaks
of the great range to the Black Sea, along

the borders of Circassia, and is separated

from Mingrelia by the river Ingur or

Enguri. It is inhabited by the Abchases,

the Tsebeldes, and the Abkhaves.
 —

56 THE CAUCASUS

CHAPTER IV.

The Tatars of the Caucasus. —Their Appearance.

Occupations. — — Domestic — The va-
Religion. Life.

rious Tribes. —Kumick —Turcomans. —The

Tatars.
ever-burning Fire on Cape Abcharan and else-

where. —The —
Nogay Tatars. Their Mode of Life.
— — —
The Suanes. The Ossetes. Singular Kind of
—
Hospitality. The Geographical Limits of their
—
Territory. —
The Dugores. The Kists, etc. The —
Lesghians. — Beauty and High Character of their
Women, etc.

The Tatars of these regions are found

scattered about in various places, not much
connected with one another, in the valleys

of the Kouban, Baksan, Tchegem, Tcherek,

and Argudan, all of which rise in the

northerly branch of the Elbruz. The ex-

ternal aspect of these people does not

immediately announce their Mongolian

descent, as they are only distinguished
 ;

AND ITS PEOPLE. 57

from the Circassians by a more compact

figure, a darker skin, and smaller eyes.

They live in pretty little cabins and houses

built of pine logs, and are very intelligent

and industrious. They manufacture gun-

powder, carpets, cloth, and felt blankets

they get salt from the mountain salt-pits,

cultivate tobacco, and brew beer and szra,

which some travellers have thought as good

as English porter; and their merchandize
and manufactures are held in great repute

all over the Caucasus, and obtain for them

considerable influence. Their favourite

article of food is horse flesh, which they

regularly fatten for the purpose.

The more northerly dwelling places of

these Tatars exhibit many traces of Chris-

tian architecture, but the Christian religion

has entirely vanished from among them.
They are devoted to the Islam faith, but

are much addicted also to the interpreta-

 :

58 THE CAUCASUS

tion of signs and omens, and are supersti-

tious to excess. Polygamy is foreign to

their habits, but their wives are secluded

from the gaze of strangers, and treated with

great consideration. To parents, also, re-

spectful homage is paid ; an undutiful son

is punished by being put in a pillory in a
public place, and should he not reform his

conduct, he is expelled from his parents'

house, and finally from the village.

The principle of retributive justice is

fully recognized among these people ; but

they may be appeased by a solemn recon-

ciliation, and their strict integrity renders

treachery an almost unheard of occurrence

among them.
The names of these tribes are

1. The Karatchai, who live near the

sources of the Kouban.

2. The Urusby, who are their neighbours

to the west.
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 59

3. The Tchegem, who rear bees, and

produce a great deal of honey, which is of

a rather intoxicating quality, being made

from the Azalea pontica.
4. The Balkar, or Bassianians, who in-

habit cold inhospitable mountain valleys.

The Koumik Tatars, who inhabit the

plains of the Sundcha, to the east of the

northern cape of the Aksai, and of the

Koissu or Sulak, as far as the Caspian.

They are also to be found in the districts

of the Kavanich Gubden and Dsengutei, in

North Daghestan.
The Truchmenen, or Turkomans, occupy
the whole length of the Caspian Sea coast,

from Boniak to the borders of Shirvan or

Daghestan, including the districts of Der-

bend or Kuba ; the most influential of

these tribes number as many as three

hundred villages. Another tribe of this

race inhabits the district of Baku, wdiich

60 THE CAUCASUS

stretches to the extremity of Cape Abcha-

ran, where it runs into the Caspian. On a

pinnacle of this plateau, is maintained the

far-famed ever-burning fire, which serves
to the mariners of the Caspian as a beacon,
and to those among them who are Guebers
or Fire-W6rshippers, also as an object of

pious veneration. It is said to be kept up

with a kind of gas ; and these perpetual
fires are maintained on the highest ridges

of the districts of Tcheki and Rurki in

Armenia, as well as far in the interior of

Persia, and on the Steppes between the

Caspian and the Sea of A soph.
The Nogays, commonly numbered among
the Tatar tribes, are a mixed people, trac-

ing their origin from Nogai, a descendant

of Dchengis-Khan, from whom, in the

thirteenth century, they derived a high

reputation.

After the conquest of Astrachan, in 1557,

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 61

they were subjugated by the Russians, from

whose oppression they retreated to tlie

banks of the Kouban. In 1778, they were

defeated in a battle, as well as in various

skirmishes, and reduced to the insignificant

number who now pasture their numerous

herds in the districts between the Kouban
and the Kouma, and on the eastern Ko^^ma
steppes. They live under tents covered
with felt, called kibitkas, and are an idle

and rather savage race, but hospitable and

easily managed, although somewhat too fond

of an intoxicating beverage which they

make from mares' milk. In their various

wanderings, they make use of a two-wheeled

carriage, called in the Caucasus an araba, a

kind of locomotive that accompanies every

movement with a screeching noise, which

appears to be music to Nogay ears.

They say that no honest man ought to

conceal his goings- out and comings-in ; and

62 THE CAUCASUS

that only thieves need creep in and out

softly.

Two only of the Nogay tribes live on the

left bank of the river Kouban, in Circassia.

These are the Maurensauls, who occupy the

extensive fertile valleys extending along the

Kouban, from the influx of the Laba ; and

the Mauzuras, or Kasai, between the Uruss

Laba and Kouban.

The latter were, at the end of the last

century, very numerous, amounting to at

least eight thousand families, but they are

at present reduced to a very small number.

The Suaneti, or, as they call themselves,

Schnau, inhabit the heights of the Cau-

casus, south of the Tatars, east of Abchasia,

north of Mingrelia, west of Imeretia, and of

the heights of the Chenisqual, and of the

Ingur, which flows through these mountains.

Being surrounded by a steep mountain

chain, they have hitherto preserved their
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 63

independence ; they bow neither to prince,

noble, nor foreign invader, and are certainly

a very fine race, but it must be owned ex-

cessively dirty in their habits, and greatly
addicted to robbery. They live in misera-

ble cabins, without chimneys, or so much

as a loophole to serve for a window, and in
these are harboured, not only their families,

but also their cattle, and certain treasures,

such as gold and trinkets, which they ob-

tain by open or secret theft, and ornament

their wives therewith. Their garments are

poor and scanty ; they wear no headdress,

seldom comb their hair, and frequently

possess but one drinking cup for the whole
family, but then, that serviceable utensil is

a silver goblet.

These people are said to be of Christian

origin, but not a vestige of Christian doc-

trine is to be found among them ; and their

mode of life would certainly not do any

great credit to it if there were.
64 THE CAUCASUS

Their women, though they cover their

faces with a red cloth, so that only one of

their eyes is visible, are by no means re-

markable for chastity, and generally have

at least one favoured admirer.

Among the honest occupations of this

tribe is that of obtaining lead and copper

ores from their mountains, and also prepar-

ing their own gunpowder.

The Ossetes, or Ossetians, are a people of

peculiar dialect and physiognomy; they

have round full faces, fair hair, and blue

eyes, and are of middle height, and strongly

built. Their villages, though small, consist

of stone houses with flat roofs, and they are

protected by strong towers, in which, when

the hamlet is attacked, the aged men, wo-

men, and children, can take refuge. These

people are, like the rest, brave in battle, and

willing to combine against a common

enemy, but their system of morals is based
 AND ITS PEOrLE. 6o

on a mere tissue of absurd and inconsistent

traditional usages. A guest, as long as he

remains under their roof, is watched over

with the utmost solicitude, and the liost

would certainly defend him at the peril of

his own life against any attack ; but scarcely

has the stranger quitted the abode that af-

forded him such hospitable shelter, tlian

the host, his former protector, sets out to

follow and plunder or even murder him,

and that sometimes before he has got be-
yond the precincts of the village.

The religion of the Ossetians is a com-

pound of Christian and pagan practices,

and they also worship a prophet Elias, in

caves which are the abodes of astrologers

and soothsayers, here held in great ve-

neration.

Agricultural pursuits would in this coun-

try require considerable labour, on account

of the sterility of the soil, and the inha-

F
66 THE CAUCASUS

bitants therefore in general prefer cattle

breeding ; but they grow their own tobacco,

and brew a malt liquor of excellent quality.

If we regard the Terek valley as the

boundary between the Eastern and Western

Caucasus, the Ossete territory will be the

south-eastern part of its western half. On

tlie north their country is bounded by the
Kabarda, and on the west and south-west
the Tatars and Imeretians are their neigh-

bours. They extend along the southern

declivities of the Caucasus, and thence be-
tween Iraeretia and the Aragvi into Geor-
gia Proper, along the Imeretian chalk cliffs,

by the sources of the Reoni, and eastward

to the Didi-Liachvi, Patara Liachvi, Med-

chuda, Kssarai, and Aragvi, where they are

known under the name of Dvaletti.

The most important branches of this

tribe are the Dschmuri and Gudamaqua,

who live on the banks of a considerable
 AND ITS PEOPLE. ()7

mountain river of the same name ; and tlie

Chevvaurethi, whose territory is on the Ara-

gvi. The Ossetians, north of the Dvalctti,

occupy the banks of the rivers Urucli, Dur-

dar, Aredon, Frag, and Gualdon, down to

the Terek, which receives these rivers.

The most influential Ossete tribes found

near the sources of the Terek, are the Du-

gores, who inhabit the rugged mineral

ridges along the Uruch ; they are governed

by princes of the venerated Circassian fa-

milies, Badi-lathe and Tcherkessate. The

Schimi-Kurtauli, Walagiri, Phaikome, and

lastly, the Tagauri, inhabit the Kasbeck.

6. The Medzeghee or Kists, are often

called Tchetchenzes, from the name of their

most influential tribe. They possess the vir-

tues and qualities peculiar to the Circassian

races, and especially a most enthusiastic

love of freedom and independence, submit-

ting with the utmost reluctance to a foreign

 —

68 THE CAUCASUS

yoke, and watching with keen vigilance

every opportunity of throwing it off.

Their villages consist of flat-roofed stone

houses, protected by walls and towers, ca-

pable of resisting an energetic attack. Some

of these tribes possess an abundance of
cattle and corn, but they are nevertheless
very frugal in their mode of living.

They usually confine themselves to the

district bordered on the west by the Terek

(in the part where it flows northward), on

the east by the Aksai and Engure, and

bounded on the north by the Lesser Ka-
barda and Sundcha, and to the south by

the Snowy Mountains.

The most influential tribes among them
are :

-1. The Ingushes, or Galgai, who reside

on the Kumbolei, and in the plains be-

tween the latter and the banks of the Assai.
2. The Kists, north-west of the Ingushes,

and extending to the Argun.

 —

AND ITS TEOPLE. 69

3. The Karabulaks, from the Zarthan to

the Argun ; and, lastly,

4. The Tchetchenzes, who are found

along the banks of the Argun, the Aksai,

and the Sundcha. Several branches of this

tribe inhabit the Snowy Mountain ridges,

and of these the principal are :

a. The Tchavi, from the Aragvi to the

springs of the Yori.

h. The Tuschi, found to the east of the

latter, on the Alzani.

The Lesghians are composed of many
different tribes, who have been settled for

ages in the almost inaccessible heights, and

in the valleys and hollows encircled by

arms of the Caucasian mountain ridges,
which extend from north to south-east.

Even on the East, their country is separated

from the Caspian and from Daghestan by a

mountain chain stretching from north to

south. Several of these tribes have been

70 THE CAUCASUS

compelled to succumb to the encroachments

of the enemy, though they are as manly in

character, as fond of mdependence, and as

ready to do battle in defence of it, as any

other of the Caucasian races. Though in

general their manners resemble those of the

Circassians, their habits are more predatory

and violent, and they are sterner observers
of the law of retribution.

Their villages (auls) resemble those of

the Kists, the houses being flat and stone-

roofed, but of a larger size, and so well

fortified, that they may certainly boast of

each man's house being his castle. Some of

the highlanders among them live in caves

dug in the rock, or huts wedged in between

the clifl's. The Lesghian women are the

finest in the Caucasus, and, besides their

beauty, are famed for their domestic habits

and their skill in knitting and weaving.

Nor are their virtues confined to the do-
 A'SD ITS PEOPLE. 71

mestic circle ; for, when a battle is being

fought, they fly to the field to encourage

the eff'orts of their countrymen, to reani-

mate the failing and exhausted, and bring

needful succour to the wounded ; and they

themselves have been known to commit

suicide on the field of a lost battle, rather

than submit to be taken by the enemy.

The w^iole of these Lesghian races are

devoted followers of Islam.

The soil of the Lesghian territory is very

various in different parts ; in some it is

fertile, yielding abundant return for the

light labour bestowed upon it ; in others,

the severest toil is required to obtain a

subsistence from it, as an artificial soil has

to be spread over the hard naked surface

of the rock. But whenever this is the case,

the people work with indefatigable perse-

verance upon it, and often, by their indus-

try, convert dreary and barren uplands into

charming plateaux.
72 THE CAUCASUS

The Lesghians are divided, according to

their several dialects, into four distinct

tribes ; namely, the Avares, the Akushas,

the Kasikoumiks, and the Kuraghs.

The territory of the Avares borders west-

wdi'd on the Aksai, to the north on the

promontory of the Aksai and Enderi, to

the east on the Koissu, and to the south

extending over the chief mountain range

on the Samura.
The most influential tribes among these

Avares are, the Audi, the Gambi, the

Koissubou, the Ansaldi, the Richei, the

Kialar, the Borotsi, the Khitadler, the

Unso, the Dido, the Karak, and Khe-

serti.

The Akusha district borders westward

on the Koissu, to the north and east on

the Tartar tribes of Kasanick Gubden and

Dsengutei, and to the south on the sources

of the Ossen. Their principal tribes are

 AND ITS TEOPLE. 73

the Ssalata, the Tarkow, and the Brother-

hood of Dsaro.
The Kasimouks live between the upper
part of the Koissu on their west, and the

Kaitach range and Tabasseran on their

east ; and have the Akushas on the north,
and the Turpi ridge and its southern de-

pendencies on the south. The most influ-

ential tribes among them are those of

Achim, Karakaitah, Tabasseran, Kasikou-

mick, and the Sussanet of Yelissim ; the

Brotherhood of Dsaro, with the Dsaro, Be-

lakan, Taly Dsinick, Mirchach, and several

smaller tribes, including the E-ubeshti,

who have the reputation of being the best

armourers in the Caucasus ; and lastly, the

Kurragh, who inhabit the valley of the

Kour, towards Baku.
To give a correct statement of the num-
bers of the various races and tribes who
inhabit the Caucasus, would be a task still
74 THE CAUCASUS

more difficult than that of enumerating

their names, and describing the position

of the almost inaccessible districts they

inhabit.

The following table, therefore, though

drawn up from the most authentic sta-

tistical documents, is only given as an

approximate calculation, which it must be

left to a future time to rectify.

I. TSCHERKESS Or AdIGES.
1. In the Great Kabardas . . . 20,000
2. In the Lesser Kabardas . . . 8,000
3. Kabardas, who have taken refuge on
the banks of the Indshik and the
Uruss 15,000
4. Bestenians 25,000
5. Mochothi 8,000
Tenigoi, with the Jegorokes, Ademi,
6.

7.
and Hattuquahe
Bsedooks
.... 18,000
20,000
8. Abasechs 180,000
9. Shapsooks 210,000
10. Natugoi with the Shane and The-
gakeh 50,000

Total of the Tscherkess . . 554,000

 AND ITS TEOPLE. 75

II. Vbassians.
 .

76 THE CAUCASUS

III. Tartars.
1 In chief mountain range 20,000
2. Kamiick Tartars 60,000
3. Turkomans 70,000
4. Nogai in Circassia 16,000

Total of Tartars 166,000

IV. SuANES, about . 40,000
V. OSSETIAKS.
1. Dwaleshi . 20,000
2. The total of other tribes 40,000

Total of Ossetes 60,000

VI. MiDZiGHEES, namely, the smaller tribes
included in the chief tribes.
1. Ingusches . . . . . 60,000
2. Kists . . , . . 35,000
3. Karabulaks . . . . 30,000
4. Tchetchenzes . . . . 70,000

Total of Midzighees . . 195,000

VII. Lesghians, according to their chief tribes.

1. Awares 75,000
2. Akuscha 45,000
3. Kasimiiks 126,000
4. Kuragh 30,000

"Total of Lesghians . 276,000

Making the grand total of the whole

population 1,433,000
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 77

The southern declivities of the Caucasus,

of which several imposing branches stretch

as far as Mount Ararat, shelve, on the

whole, more gently downward, and are less

precipitous than the northern.

The rich vegetation of this part of the

Caucasian chain renders it beautiful beyond

description, and the charm of the magni-

ficent scenery, produced by this luxuriant

growth of all kinds of plants, is heightened

by an equable, salubrious, and delightful

climate. An excellent wine is made here
from grapes, the cultivation of which gives
the people no trouble whatsoever, as they

grow quite wild and often with a gigantic

vigour, that makes even the vines of Italy

seem poor in comparison, —twining their

wreathed branches round the largest trees,

and hanging their glowing fruit even on

the topmost boughs. The wine made from

them is kept in bags of buffalo or sheep-
78 THE CAUCASUS

skin, which have been previously saturated

with naptha.
Nearly all the people inhabiting this part

of the Caucasus are of Georgian origin, and

belong to the Greek Church.

This region is divided into three pro-

vinces or districts, all extending northward

to the Snowy Mountains.

1. Mingrelia in the west, between the

rivers Ingur, Tychemis-quali, E,ioni, and

the Black Sea.

2. Imeritia, lying eastward of Mingrelia,

whose people are in much the same condi-

tion as their western neighbours.

3. Georgia Proper, extending eastward

to the Tcheki and Rurki.

The Georgians are considered as the

finest race in the Caucasus next to the

Circassians, to whom they are inferior in

grace of deportment, but they are not, like

the Circassians, animated by a noble passion

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 79

for liberty and independence. The women

endeavour to heighten their beauty by the

use of paint, in which certainly they are

not very successful ; and they also, witli

the same view, overload their dresses with

gaudy ornaments.
The population of Georgia, Imeritia and

Mingrelia is very scanty, and many rich

woodlands and beautiful valleys have been

entirely depopulated by the sanguinary
wars that have raged in the country, and
by the iron despotism that still continues to

weigh on and impoverish it.

 —

80 THE CAUCASUS

CHAPTER V.

THE "SVAKS OF THE CAUCASUS.

—
The Caucasus in Ancient Times. Remains of a great
—
Wall across the Mountains. A glance at the An-
cient History Georgia. — Russian Progress from
of

the time of Peter the Great. — Under the Empress

Catherine. — FirstSettlement the Cossacks.
of
Russian Intrigues the Kabarda. — Great number
in

of Forts built in and near theCaucasus.

The amount of knowledge of the Caucasus

possessed by the ancients, and the degree

of importance which these regions held in

their estimation, we have now little means

of ascertaining, as history and even tradi-

tion are silent on these points. But we

are led to infer that they must have at-

tached considerable value to it, from the

fact of a prodigious wall having been built

at some remote period, and the remains of

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 81

which are still to be seen, extending along-

various tracts of the great mountain chain,

from Derbent, on the shores of the Caspian

Sea, to the pass of Dariel.

This wall is attributed to Alexander the

Great, who is said to have reigned over the

mountaineers, under the name of Iskandeer.

There is another story, too, of a certain

Georgian king, residing in an ancient for-

tress, built on the southern declivities of

the Caucasus one hundred and twenty

years before Christ, and holding sway over

a powerful and flourishing people, until the

Scythians (Chazardes) came from the north

to wage war upon him. In consequence of

these wars, the eastern district fell under

Persian rule, and the western under that of

the Greeks, who exercised authority in the

country till the fall of the Pontic king

Mithridates, after which it yielded to the

mighty sceptre of Home.

G
82 THE CAUCASUS

Towards the end of the tenth century,

we find both districts reunited under the
Georgian queen Tamar, in whose reign
they became a powerful kingdom ; and, as

the sway of this queen extended over many

of the mountain tribes, she compelled them
to adopt the Christian religion, which had
been promulgated in Georgia as early as
the fourth century.

This prosperous Georgian kingdom was,

however, ravaged and laid waste by Ti-

mour, in the thirteenth century ; and so

complete was the desolation, that nearly

two hundred years afterwards it had not

recovered from it, when Alexander the

First, by dividing it among his three sons,

made it an object of contention to Turkey,

Persia, and Russia, and led to long dynastic

warfare concerning it, each of those powers

endeavouring to gain the advantage over

the other.
 AND ITS PEOPLE, 83

The Persians advancing from the Cas-

pian, and the Turks from the Black Sea,

came here into collision, and vied with

each other in effecting the ruin of the

country, which each regarded as the

enemy's territory ; while they exercised by

turns a fluctuating authority over the sub-

jugated people of Daghestan, and the Turks

occasionally also over the Black Sea coast,"

and the districts at the mouth of the

Kouban.
In 1553, the Russians overran Kasan ;

and two years afterwards the Circassian

princess of Beschtan, being hard pressed

by the Tartars, had to emigrate to the

Kabarda, and applied to Russia for protec-

tion. It was given; and, in 1557, the

Russians garrisoned Astrachan, and ad-

vancing to the mouths of the rivers Terek

and Koissu, gained, for the first time, a

footing on Caucasian soil.

84 THE CAUCASUS

In 1568, they built the fortress of Terki,

on the Terek; and within a year after-

wards, their name had spread such terror

among the mountaineers, that the Geor-

gians, too, sought their protection.

The E-ussian garrisons on the Terek

were, however, viewed with such displea-

sure by Sultan Selim, that, in 1570, he

'caused them to evacuate Terki; but by

1574 they had retaken, enlarged, and

strengthened it ; and then when they had
defeated the Shamkul of Tarku, they gar-

risoned that place as well as Enderi, and

built the fortress of Koissu.

Sultan Selim now became so much

alarmed at the Russian successes, that he

sent an army of three thousand men, under

Achmet the First, to assist the people of

Daghestan against them ; and these com-

bined forces compelled the Russians to

retreat.
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 85

In 1587, Alexander, the second King of

Kachetia, placed himself under Russian

protection ; and in the course of the fol-

lowing year, Russia, desirous of possessing

a legal —or apparently legal — claim to her

conquests, concluded with Persia a treaty

of alliance, in which she. asserted her right

to invade and appropriate the country

about the Terek, as well as Tarku, Der-

bent, Baku, and Georgia, an extent of aim
which she has even yet but imperfectly
attained.

The year 1594 presented favourable pro-

spects to the Russians. The King of

Georgia, in offering his submission to their

ambassador, had made the most flattering

declarations of his earnest desire to promote

their objects in the Caucasus ; and through

his intervention treaties had been con-
cluded by them with several of the moun-

tain tribes, between his territory and theirs.

86 THE CAUCASUS

After this, the Koumik Tatars and the

people of Daghestan were defeated in

battle ; and Russian influence appeared

now to be firmly established, and Russian

authority to reign supreme.

Under this supposition, and relying too

much on a success that was really some-

what ephemeral, the Russians were guilty

of many acts of imprudence and tyranny,
for which they had afterwards to suffer the

punishment. In 1604 and the following

years, the Daghestan people waged a ter-

rible and exterminating warfare on the

invading army, which they fairly annihi-

lated ; so that for a long time the Russians

lost all those means of communication, and

all the influence over the people and
countries of the Caucasus, which they had
acquired under so many difficulties, and
with such unspeakable sacrifices.

Though several tribes of the Kabarda

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 87

still remained under Russian rule, and

though in 1614 several princes of the

Lesser Kabarda swore, both verbally and

in writing, allegiance to llussia, it was evi-

dent that her influence over tliem was little

more than nominal.

During the interval between this time

and that of Peter the Great, no important

acliievement of the Russians is recorded,

though they showed their intention of per-

severing in their efforts to consolidate their

power, by fortifying Tarki in European

style. In 1648, the King of Imeretia

offered his submission, and two years after-

wards took the oath of allegiance to Russia

for himself and his heirs : a compact, ne-

vertheless, which could only be considered

binding in time of peace, as might be easily

shown from the state of the people at that

period, and even at the present day.

With the appearance of Peter the Great,

88 THE CAUCASUS

however, the aspect of Kussian affairs in

the Caucasus underwent a marked change.

The Turks had retaken Tamar and built

Anapa ; and, while their possession of the

coasts of Abchasia brought them into inti-

mate contact with the mountaineers, and

that of Poti and Redout Kaleh gave them
great power over Mingrelia and Imeretia,

they had also taken Achaltzik.

The tribes of Daghestan, on the other

hand, taking advantage of the weakness of

Persia, declared themselves independent, as

did also the khans of Kuba, Derbent, Baku,

Shemacha, Shervan, Sheki, Gandga, Kara-
bagh, Erivan, and Nachitchevan.

The Lesghians, hitherto almost unknown,

now began to rise, and in 1714 they made
an onslaught upon Georgia, and afterwards
frequently repeated their attacks.

In order to counteract the influence

gained by the Sultan of the Avares, the

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 89

Utsmai of Karakaitach, the Kadi of Tabes-

seran, and the Sultan of the Kasemiicks,
the keen perceptions of Peter the Great

suggested the possibiHty of surprising them

by an energetic movement, for which a

plausible excuse had been afforded by the
assassination of three hundred Russian mer-
chants.

Peter embarked in 1722, in Astrachan,

with a large force —some historians say a

hundred thousand men— and proclaiming

that he had undertaken this expedition to

assist Persia against the Kasikoumucks and

Lesghians, he landed at Tarku, and soon

conquered and garrisoned the coast as far

as Derbent.

In 1723 Persia made over to Peter,

Daghestan, Shirvan, Gilan, Masanderan,

and Astrabad ; and in the treaty of peace

entered into with Turkey, he stipulated for

the confluence of the Avares and the Kur,

90 THE CAUCASUS

as the centre of the territory dividing the

frontiers of Russia, Persia, and Turkey.

In the following year the warriors of
Daghestan attempted the re-capture of

Tarku ; but they failed, and had to submit

to Peter, who then began to build the forts

of Svatoikrest on the Koissu, and Kislyar

on the Terek, demolishing at the same time

the fortifications of Terki, the town which

he had given up in 1728.

The plans of Peter, however, though

clearly laid down in his will, were in a

great measure frustrated by his death ; and

the Russian successes in the Caucasus were

checked by Shah Nadir, who, in 1735, car-

ried his forces triumphantly through Persia,

defeated the Turks at Kars, and, although

the Lesghians took some of his guns at

Kumick, succeeded in forcing the Russians

to retreat beyond the Terek.

The Turks, too, were equally successful
 a:sd its people. 91

against the Empress Anna, and in 1739

forced her to evacuate the Kabarda. Cathe-

rine II, however, who entered fully into

the spirit of Peter's, designs, began to

prosecute them with circumspection and

assiduity. A prince of the Kabarda having
become a convert to the Greek Church,

the Russian empress pretended that, for his

protection, it was necessary to fortify Mos-

dok on the Terek; this w^as done in 1763,
and, in order to secure this fortress, the

empress, in 1771, established a military

cordon^ consisting of the subjugated Greben

Cossacks, who were compelled to settle on
and guard the left bank of the Terek, from
Kislyar upwards ; while, to the Wolga
Cossacks, was entrusted the charge of

guarding the line between the latter place

and Mosdock, so that the progress of the

Russian arms was rendered very secure.

It was in the fifteenth century that

92 THE CAUCASUS

this tribe of bold adventurers, called Cos-

sacks, rose into notice. They occupied the

steppes between the Wolga and the Don,

and in the course of time extended them-

selves over the coasts of the Sea of Asoph
and the banks of the Dneiper; nominally
acknowledging Russian supremacy, but
making very light of it whenever they had
an opportunity. The first settlement of

the Cossacks on the Don was called Tcher-

kask, and was founded by their Hetman,

under Ivan Vasiliewitch ; after this event

the Cossacks became more tractable, though

they revolted nevertheless under Tzar Alexei

Michaelowitch, whose reign, and that of his

successor, were disturbed by the attempts

of the Cossacks to recover their independ-

ence.

Their last and most determined rebellion

took place in the reign of Catherine II,

under their chief Pugatchef, and in this

 —

AND ITS PEOPLE. 93

last effort they exhausted their power of

opposition to the Russian rule.

The Cossacks are now exempt from every

tax, trained to military service, and divided

into regiments occupying military colonies,

the inhabitants of which are ranked in four

classes, namely :

1. Male children, from their birth to

their sixteenth year.

2. Youths from the sixteenth to the

twentieth.

3. Men from the age of twenty to sixty,

during the whole of which period they

have to serve alternately six years in the

field and six years in the colony.

4. Those who have attained the age of

sixty and upwards.
The supreme chief of all the Cossacks is

the grand duke, the heir to the throne.

The Cossacks who line the roads live

in stanitzas, that is, entrenched villages,

94 THE CAUCASUS

secured by palisades and surrounded by

huts raised on high poles for sentries, and

called Vashkas, from which the alarm can

be sounded on the suspected approach of

an enemy. As the Cossacks are good horse-

men, and capable of much endurance, they

have often proved of great service to the
Russians in combating the mountaineers.

In 1771 instructions were issued by the

government concerning the means to be

pursued to gain the affections of the people

of the Kabarda. Deserters from that coun-

try, and all who could be induced to adopt

the doctrines of the Greek Church, were to

be rewarded with rich gifts and money ;

but on princes and nobles willing to enlist

in the Russian military service, landed pro-

perty was to be bestowed, in addition to

gold and honours in abundance. The

scheme was, nevertheless, not very success-
ful at first, for the Kabardines raised an
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 95

army of twenty-five thousand men, with

which they defeated General Medern in

1772.

In the meantime the rest of the Caucasus

was in a veiy disturbed state. At the

death of Nadir Shah, the whole of Daghe-

stan, Shirvan, Karabagh, Gandya, Erivan,

and Nachitchevan, revolted successfully

against the invaders ; and Heraklias, of

Georgia, also thought the moment favour-

able for securing the former dependencies

of his country, and took the Leghians into

pay to aid his designs on Gandya, Kara-

bagh, Erivan, and Nachitchevan. But the
people of these districts combined with the

sultan of the Avares and the Turks to

attack Heraklius ; and Catherine, availing

herself of this circumstance, sent a large

army under general Todleben —the first

Russian army which had traversed the

Kabarda and the Pass of Duricl — to assist

96 THE CAUCASUS

Heraklius against his enemies. The Turks

were then defeated in 1771 at Kutais and
Bagdadshik, after which they concluded a

treaty of peace, and it was then settled

that the Kabarda should be dependent on

Russia.

In 1775 Russia established in the Terek

country several forts, the most remark-

able of which were Jekaterinograd on the

Molka, Georgievisk on the Podkouma, and

Stavropol on the Alshile. Within three
years afterwards this line of fortifications

was continued to Moskossk and Dousk, and

placed under the guardianship of Wolga
Cossacks. The Kouban Cossacks were thus
induced to claim Russian protection, and

the Kouban became the western, the Molka

and Terek the eastern frontier of the Rus-

sian territory.

Another attempt was made in 1779 to

recover the independence of the Kabarda,

 AND ITS PEOrLF.. 97

and, thougli it proved abortive, it induced

the Russians to construct the formidable

fortress of Kostantinogovsk. Four years

afterwards Heraklius II, of Georgia, ten-

dered his submission to the Russians ; and

then, in order to secure the communication

with Georgia, they constructed the fort of

Vladikavkas, at the entrance of the Terek

valley.
98 THE CAUCASUS

CHAPTER yi.

—
The Mission of Sheik Manzur. His success in agita-
tion. — —
The Russians again victorious. The Sheik
taken prisoner. —Various warlike movements. —The
Russian frontier extended. — The Will of the King
of Georgia. — Russia takes possession of the Country.
— Prince ZizianofF assassinated. — More Fortresses
built. — Assassination of the Russian Ally by his

own Son. —The Trans-Caucasian Provinces. —The

Tartar General YermolofF. —Daring Exploits on both
sides. —Arslan Bey. —Kasimullah.
To arrest the progress of Russia, by other
means than by superiority in warlike opera-

tions, the Turks now had recourse to reli-

gious agitation, and a clever fanatic, Sheik

Manzur, was, in 1785, sent to proselytize

the Caucasians. He found among them

great apathy with respect to the doctrines

of Islam ; but taking advantage of their

I
 AND ITS PEOrLE. 99

intense hatred of tlicir Christian in\aders,

lie addressed enthusiastic appeals to their

patriotism, and having thus succeeded in

exciting a feeling in favour of the Turks,

in their political character, as enemies of the

Russians, he afterwards effected his pur-

pose of gaining them over to their religion.

This Sheik Manzur was, in his personal

qualifications, singularly well adapted to

the task he had undertaken. Young, grace-

ful, of majestic figure, and beautiful fea-

tures, of daring valour in presence of the

enemy, and gifted with captivating elo-

quence ; he was also frugal in the midst of

plenty, living almost wholly on milk and
bread, yet lavishly charitable, and the fame

of his sanctity spread at once like wildfire

among the Caucasians. He constantly

preached to them the necessity of unity

and combined action ; and, in 1785, he had

acquired such influence, that he began to

100 THE CAUCASUS

alarm the Russians in their forts, by cutting

off their supplies and reinforcements.
The standard of rebellion being now
fairly raised, he, in 1788, broke through

the Russian lines, and attacked Naur ; and

though unable to master the garrison, for

the very women fought on the walls with

heroic desperation, he acquired by this bold

attempt a still more powerful influence

over his Caucasian followers.

War had, meanwhile, again broken out

between the Russians and the Turks, who,

uniting their forces with those of the Cir-

cassians, marched towards the Kouban,

and engaged General Bulkakoff; but he
defeated them, and drove them back to

Anapa.
In 1791, Anapa was captured by the

Russians, and Sheik Manzur, being taken

prisoner, was sent to end his days in miser-

able captivity at the fort of Schlusselbourg.

I
 AND ITS PEOrLE. 101

After this defeat, the Turks were very

glad to come to terms with Russia, and in

the treaty concluded at Jasi, they consented

to resign the protectorate over Mingrelia,

Imeretia, and Georgia, and promised that

the Pacha of Achalzik should discontinue

his traffic in slaves, by which, as the Rus-

sians were aware, his influence over the
Lesghians would necessarily be curtailed. *

Russia now spared neither labour nor

expense in consolidating her interest in

Daghestan, and in the mountains. She
established commercial depots along the
Terek, constructed roads through the coun-

try, and, in 1786, took the Shamkal of

Tarku and the Sultan of the Avares into

her pay.

Since the war of 1793, the Khans of

Baku and Derbent also had continued in

the receipt of Russian gold ; and in 1794,

their lines of fortifications were extended
i02 THE CAUCASUS

from the fort of Ust Labrusk to Georgievsk

and to the Nedre-mansh Redout, near

which were built the forts of Protschoi,

Okop, Gregoriopolst, and Kaukask.

But the progress of the Russians was not
uncontested. Aga Mohamed, a relative of

Shah Nadir, now fell with fire and sword

on the invaders, and endeavoured to restore

Ihe former state of things ; but General

ZukofF advanced with his forces from Kis-

liar, and besieged and took Derbent, Baku,
Kesba, Tcheki, Shirvan, and Karabagh,
which were garrisoned by the Russians till

the death of Catherine.

The King of Georgia, George the Thir-

teenth, becoming about this time greatly

embarrassed, by the feuds and hostility of

the Lesghians, solicited the assistance of

Russia, which was immediately granted ;

and since, by means of this help, he was

successful, his gratitude led to an event of
 AND ITS I'EOrLE. 103

importance, that bid fair to realise some of

the ambitious dreams of Peter and Cathe-

rine, for the extension of Russian influence.

George the Thirteenth, namely, made over

his empire by will to Russia ; and in con-

sequence of this will, when his death oc-

curred in 1800, she immediately assumed

the government, and in the following year

took possession of the country, proclaiming

Tiflis the capital of the districts of Gori-

Lori, Dusheti, Thetavi, and Signack.

Having now obtained a footing on the
other side of the Caucasus, Russia set to

work in good earnest, to accomplish the

difficult task she had undertaken ; and

though unable to communicate with her
own dominions through any other channel

than that of one dangerous mountain pass,

she persevered in forcing her way onwards

through all obstacles. The dangers she in-

curred, however, it must be admitted, were

104 THE CAUCASUS

not to be compared to those which the

English had to brave in their Indian wars.

The first governor of Georgia, General

Knorring, organized the system by which

Russia proposed to govern the newly ac-

quired country. He was succeeded, in

1803, by Prince ZizianofF, who, as a far-

sighted politician, at once became aware of

the necessity of securing the territory so

recently gained, by extension of the fron-

tier ; and not being able just then to attack

the Turks, he directed his movements to-

wards the Caspian instead of the Black Sea,

and in 1804, seized Gandya, under the
pretext that it was formerly a dependency
of Georgia, and now belonged to Russia

by right of inheritance. He annexed it,

therefore, to the other territory, under the

name of Elizabethspol, and this act created

so great a panic, that the people of Shirvan,

Baku, Derbent, Karakaitach, and even the

 ;

AND ITS PEOPLE. 105

Sultan of the Avares, once more oflfered

their submission to Russia.

ZizianofF, now making Tiflis the basis of

his operations against the Lesghians of

Belokan and Dsara, soon subdued them,

and then marched against Imeretia under
the pretext of putting down disturbances

there ; thence he undertook, during the

same year, an expedition against Erivan

but this proved unsuccessful, from what

was called the treachery of the tribes

before mentioned, who seized the first

opportunity of revolting against Russian

supremacy.

The Russian general believing this

revolt to have been instigated by Turkish

intrigues, now endeavoured, in his turn, to

excite disturbances in Mingrelia and Ime-

retia, with a view of severing all connexion

between them and the Turks ; and in the

meanwhile, with the assistance of Kelim

106 THE CAUCASUS

Bey, Prince of Abchasia, he suppressed the

insurrection in his own territory. In 1805

he even succeeded in incorporating Kara-
bagh, and occupying Tcheki, Nuchi, and

Shirsheh ; but while in the act of passing

the gate of Baku in triumph, he was sud-

denly assassinated.

Russian forces immediately advanced

from the Terek, made themselves masters
of Derbent as well as of Baku, and, after a

sanguinary struggle, they avenged their

general's death by horrible atrocities.

The Turks, now strengthened by an

alliance with the Circassians and the Tchet-
chenzes, declared war against E-ussia ; but

the Russians, though surrounded by diffi-

culties and suffering great hardships, were

nevertheless victorious.

General Gudowitch attacked and took

Anapa by sea, overpowered the Circassians

on the Kouban, and punished the Tchet-

 AND ITS TEOrLE. 107

clienzes by confiscation of the fort Khan

Kale, which formed also a convenient and

acceptable addition to the Russian line of

fortifications.

By force or stratagem, therefore, the

Russians had succeeded in establishing,

between 1798 and 1803, eight fortresses on

the Upper Molka, and along the Podkouma
to the Kouban ; to these, in the course of

one year more, they added six others. In

1805, Cossacks from Little Russia were in-

troduced to guard the Ust, Labinst, and

Kaukask; and though in 1807 the armis-

tice of Uzun-Kilissa was concluded, in

1809 hostilities were resumed with unwar-

ranted ferocity, and the Prince of Imeretia

and his family were taken prisoners and

confined in Tiflis, which they were not suf-

fered to leave again.

Just at this time the Russian ally, Kelim

Bey, was assassinated by his own son, Ars-
108 THE CAUCASUS

Ian Bey, who was attached to the Turkish

party ; and as the Abchasians on the occur-

rence of this event made some anti-Russian
demonstrations, a pretext was afforded to

Russia for occupying Sachum-Kaleh. This

she did in 1810, and secured thereby her

first footing on the east coast of the Black

Sea.

In 1813 the Russians concluded, on terms

very favourable to themselves, the peace of

Gulistan ; the stipulations of which, besides

offering great immediate advantages to

Russia, contained the germ of future acqui-

sitions of territory as well as of fresh pre-

tences for aggression.

Russia was to obtain by this treaty all

the southern declivities of Caucasus, as far

as to the Attaghez range bordering on the

Araxes, on the Persian side ; and on that
of Persia, as far as the Achalzik.

Trans-Caucasia, therefore, consisted at

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 109

this time of Georgia, with the provinces of

Kachetia, Karthli, Somchiti, and Eliza-

bethspol.

Secondly, of the provinces of Imeretia,

Mingrelia, Abchasia, and Gurieb ; all of

which, except Imeretia, were nominally

governed by their own princes.

Thirdly, of the provinces Tcheki, Shirvan,

and Karabagh, on the lower Kour valley,

still under their old khans.

Fourthly, of the districts on the coast of

the Caspian Sea, namely, Baku, Derbent,

and Kuba, whose khans had been exiled.

Russia had made all these acquisitions in

the short space of thirteen years, during

which she had been developing her ener-

gies with astonishing rapidity, though appa-
rently without attracting the notice of the

Western Powers. As Turkey was still in

possession of the Circassian coast, it was

not likely that E-ussia would allow the
110 THE CAUCASUS

peace to be of long duration ; she would

probably, it was thought, regard it merely

as affording a favourable opportunity of

preparation for the renewal of hostilities,

for which, indeed, occasion was daily given

by the Circassians, assisted by the Turks,
attacking and plundering the Russian
lines.

The Kabardines, though compelled to

submit to the protectorate of the Russians,

embraced every opportunity of giving vent

to the hatred they bore them; and the

Tchetchenzes were no less hostilely dis-

posed, but burst forth continually from

their inaccessible mountain retreats, to

spread terror and death through the lines

of the invader.

The hostility manifested against the

Russians on their first appearance in the

Caucasus, increased in the minds of the

mountaineers with every Russian conquest;

 AND ITS TEOPLE. Ill

and, had their resistance been properly

organized, and their strength augmented

by combination and union under one leader,

tliey would doubth^ss have succeeded in

annihilating the legions of their northern

foe. The policy of the Russians in exiling

the khans, under the idea that the people

would then be more easily subjected to the

laws and reconciled to the customs of their

new rulers, had by no means the desired

effect ; but, on the contrary, rendered them
still more distrustful of, and exasperated
against their new rulers. The beys or

princes, while ostensibly acknowledging

the Russian protectorate, were really in-

triguing against a complete subjection to

it ; and their dangerous opposition was en-

couraged by the Lesghians, amongst whom
the Avares, Karakaitachs, Kasikoumicks,

Azooks, and Dsaro-Belokans, were the most

formidable foes to Russia : the khans of

112 THE CAUCASUS

Tabasseran and Kuragh alone had cordially

espoused her cause.

The Mahometan Tartars of the provinces

taken in the last war from Persia, were

naturally more inclined to obey the dictates

of their own khans than those of Russian

officials, and therefore needed to be care-

fully watched. Yermoloff, their commander,

however, did his best to uphold the czar's

interest, by constructing new lines of forti-

fication and destroying others which had

proved useless ; and he succeeded in ob-
taining for the Russians, for the first time,

a secure footing on the Sundshah, by the

forts Pregradnoi-stan, Usmalchan, Gurt,

Nasran, and especially Gras-naja, which

commanded the defile of Khan-kaleh.

Near Enderi, on the outlet of the Koissu,

in the plains of Tarku, he erected the fort

of Wnesnapjaja, which afforded an efficient

defence against the Khankalat of Tarku,

 ;

AND ITS PEOPLE. 113

as well as against the slave trade of Enderi

for the Lesghians and Tchetchenzes, en-

gaged in this traffic, were in the habit of

meeting at that place to transact their busi-

ness and arrange their movements. Yer-

moloff also connected Wnesnapjaga by a

line of forts with Grosnaja, constructed

roads, cut down forests, and kept, by his

moving columns, a vigilant superintend-

ence over the subjugated Tchetchenzes,

living within the districts surrounded by

the above-mentioned forts.

The military road through the pass of

Dariel, which had hitherto led from Mosdok

to Vladikavkas, was now carried to Jeka-

terinograd, on the left bank of the Terek,

and protected by a line of forts at the

entrances of the valleys Uruch, Boksan,

Tchegem, and Tcherek.
The Circassians, whose invasions had be-
come more and more dangerous, were kept
I
114 THE CAUCASUS

in check by forts erected on the left bank of

the Kouban, and extending for a consider-

able distance into their territory.

Fort Protshnoi-Okop now became the cen-

tre of the Russian military operations, and
the Chernomorski Cossacks stationed along

the Kouban, from the Ust-labinsk down-

wards, were placed under the orders of the

general commanding in the Caucasus, who

commenced a cruel guerilla warfare against

the mountaineers; burning their villages and

cornfields, capturing their flocks, and en-

deavouring to exterminate them by all the

scourges of war. They nevertheless resisted

his advances, fought step by step for their

native soil, and to the Russian superiority

of numerical force opposed that of the most

determined and desperate valour.

Of the feats of daring performed by the

Russians during this war, several deserve

to be mentioned. The capture of Paraul,

 AND ITS TEOPLE. 115

the residence of the Khans of the Avares,

for instance, in 1818; that of the Akucha

in 1820 ; and the siege and occupation of
Kuragh, by which a arious powerful tribes

were reduced to subjection. The defeat of

Sarkhai, Khan of the Kassemuk d'heer

Khorey, in the same year, was of great

importance to Daghestan, and for some
time served to clieck the attempts of the

Lesghians to regain their liberty.

In this battle there were twelve hundred

men killed, and the Russians took six hun-

dred prisoners, besides capturing the nine

celebrated guns which the Lesghians had

taken from Shah Nadir, and a great quan-

tity of other munitions of war.

Sarkhai Khan now took refuge with the

Khan of Kir van, and then fled with him

and the Khan of Karabagh to Persia ; and
their flight afl'orded llussia a welcome op-
portunity and pretext for phicing the con-
 ;

116 THE CAUCASUS

quered districts under her own governor.

This plan she also pursued with the

Khanate of Tcheki, after the death of the

khan. In the meanwhile the Russians had

frequent skirmishes with the western tribes,

in which both parties met with serious dis-

comfiture and damage.

Arslan Bey, while advancing his preten-

sions to the throne of Abchasia (in 1821),

gave battle to the Russians near Kodor

but though in command of a force numeri-

cally stronger than that of the enemy, he

suffered a defeat. He renewed his efforts

for the delivery of Abchasia from the

foreign yoke in 1824, but this attempt also

proved unsuccessful and terminated his

career. The Russians continued to gain

ground, though slowly, and they had to

purchase this slow progress by almost in-

credible sacrifices.

All at once a fanatic Mussulman, named

 AND ITS TEOPLE. 117

Kasimullab, made his appearance on the

theatre of war at the head of a large body

of the mountaineers, with whom he began

to wage war to the knife against the

Russians. With the exploits of this man

begins a new era of the Caucasian wars,

especially in the eastern part of the chain,

whose inhabitants, unlike the western

aborigines, were faithful and devoted fol-

lowers of Islam.

For centuries past the teachers and

priests of the Mahometan doctrines had
found access to the mountain homes of the
Lesghians and Tchetchenzes, and exercised

great influence over them ; while the races

of the Western Caucasus had remained

indifferent and in great measure dead to

every form of religion.

Murshid Hadji Ismael Effendi, a man

in high repute for piety and learning, ac-
quired under the celebrated Halidshah,
 ;

118 THE CAUCASUS

Shah of Bagdad, had drawn a great num-

ber of disciples and followers after him to

the village of Kurlomir, in Shirvan, where

he had established a school for preachers

and the chief purpose of his teaching was

to exhort the people to united action in the

pursuit and destruction of the invading

unbelievers. This astute politician knew

full well, that the success of the moun-
taineers in defending their country against

the well trained and strictly disciplined

armies of Russia, depended entirely on their

union and co-operation. Without this co-

operation the Caucasus must inevitably be-

come an easy prey to the invader.

To induce all the Caucasian hordes to

rally round the banner of the prophet, was

a task of no little difficulty ; for it was
necessary to contend against the petty mu-
tual jealousies of the different tribes, as well

as against their low standard of morality,

 AND ITS fEOPLE. 119

and their lack of knowledge, and of any

property or stake in the country beyond

that of their miserable hovels.

By steadfast perseverance, however, and

by working on their passions when they

were either suffering under reverses or

buoyed up with triumph by success, he at
last effected his purpose of enlisting the

sympathies of the different tribes in the

common cause, and inducing them to parti-

cipate in the struggle against the common

enemy. His tactics were of so bold a cha-
racter, that he often succeeded in surpris-

ing the Russians and carrying dismay into

their lines.

One of his disciples, Mohammed Effendi,

animated by the enthusiasm of his pre-

ceptor, returned to his native country to

officiate as a religious teacher for the dis-

tricts of Tabasseran and Kuragh ; and

when, in 1820, the Russians succeeded in
120 THE CAUCASUS

subjugating Kuragh and in partly devas-

tating the interior of Tabasseran, this

Mohammed Effendi traversed every village

and hamlet in the country to excite the

zealous hatred of the Faithful against

the Infidel, and to implore them to be

true to the standard of the prophet and

arrest the progress of the Christian foe.

Old and young to a man responded to his

call. Inflamed by his rapturous orations,

they came thronging in to swell his ranks,

and exulted in the sanguine anticipation

that now at last they would exterminate
the Christian invaders.
 —

AND ITS PEOPLE. 121

CPIAPTER VII.

First appearance of Kasi-Mulhih. — He commences his

agitation. — Takes a fortress from the Russians.

Ineffectual opposition of General Yermoloff. —Prince
Paskiewitsch appointed. — Cis-Caucasia and Trans-
Caucasia. — Georgia an easy conquest. — Attacks of
the Circassians. — Grand plan of Paskiewitsch for
dividing the Caucasus.

Among the hearers of Mohammed EfFendi

was the devout youth, named Kasi-Moham-

med (afterwards Kasi-Mullah), in whom
especially the preacher's harangues had
kindled an ardent desire to effect the de-

liverance of his country.

After listening long enough to become

inspired with the most fervent enthusiasm,

he retired to a lonely spot, consecrated by

tradition, and there, rapt in dreams of
future glory, he brooded over the plans
122 THE CAUCASUS

that should carry destruction to the door of

the invader. When he had spent some

time in seclusion, he returned to his native

place, where he was elected Murshid of

Tchetchenia and the coast defiles. .

He now began his operations by agitat-

ing the people ; counselling them to wage

an exterminating warfare against all unbe-
lievers, and feeding their fanaticism by
wonderful accounts of the revelations made

to him, during his pilgrimage to the tomb

of Abu-Musselim, one of the heroes who
fell in the battle of Kunstagh, and whose

departed spirit, as Kasi-Mullah alleged,

had commanded him to lead the children

of the Prophet to glory.

Of commanding stature, and gifted with

glowing eloquence, he acquired the greatest
influence over the multitude ; the ranks of

hi« adherents were rapidly swelled by new

and zealous converts ; and taking advan-
 AND ITS PEOPLE. l^S

tage of moments of ardour and excitement,

he often succeeded in surprising the Rus-

sians, and even wrested from them the fort

Amir Hadji Yurt, in the country of the

Koumik Tatars.

The Russians, it is true, afterwards re-

captured this fortress, but they had to lavish

a great amount of force to attain their ob-

ject, and in the meantime the Murshid had,

by successful stratagem, secured to himself

the devotion of the mountaineers, amongst

whom his fame was now spreading like

wildfire.

General YermolofF had to strain all his

faculties, and make tremendous exertions

to oppose the formidable power of the
Murshid, and at last he only succeeded in
destroying a few of the Aouls on the
Sundcha and the Argun territory ; though
even these conquests, trifling as they were,

were exulted over by him as great victories,

12i THE CAUCASUS

on account of the difficulties he had had to

overcome.

The Czar, however, great as the difficul-

ties were, became impatient with Yermo-

loff's slow progress, and appointed Prince

Paskiewitsch to supersede him; and the

latter general, on his departure, received

imperative orders to confine the Caucasians

within the limits to which the policy of the

Russian cabinet had restricted them a cen-

tury ago.

Paskiewitsch did not disappoint the hopes

of his imperial master, for with a new army

at his command, he fought so successfully

against Caucasians, Persians, and Turks,

that he was enabled in the treaties of peace

of 1827 and 1829 to secure to Russia, in

this part of the globe, the empire at which

she had so long been aiming. Persia agreed

to hand over to Russia Talisch, Nachitche-

van, and Erivan ; while the Turks relin-

 —

AND ITS TEOPLE. 125

quislied Anapa, Poti, the whole of the

Circassian coast on the Black Sea, the Pro-

tectorate of the Circassians, and the Pachalic

of Achaltzik ; the Caucasus it was agreed
should be confined within its present limits,

namely, the Manysh and Kouma on the

north, and Araxes, Arocat, Arpatshai, and
Choloki on the south.

Cis-Caucasia was to include, with the

government of Stavropol, four districts,

namely, Stavropol, Patigorsk, Mosdok, and

Kislyar, and the town of Stavropol was to

be the residence of the governor. This

territory contains 1430 square miles, and
counts 180,000 inhabitants.

Trans- Caucasia, with the head gover-

nor's seat at Tiflis, includes the following

provinces :

1. Georgia, with the districts of Tiflis,

Signache, Telavi, Ducheti, Gori, and Eliza-

bethspol, a district of 832 square miles and

126 THE CAUCASUS

about 400,000 inhabitants, among which

are 20,000 Ossetes, 60,000 Tatars, and

10,000 Pshawes or Tushes.

2. Imeritia, with 640 square miles, di-

vided into the districts of Imeretia, with

100,000; Mingrelia, with 70,000; and

Gurriel, with 20,000 inhabitants, all of

whom are of Georgian origin. Also it in-

cludes Abchasia, with 52,000 inhabitants,

whose allegiance to Russia is of a very

doubtful and precarious nature.

3. The province of Achaltzik, with

17,000 inhabitants, of whom many are

Armenians.
4. The province of Armenia, with 360

square miles, and included in which are

the districts of Erivan, with 34,000 Arme-

nian inhabitants and 30,000 Tatars ; and
Nachitevan, with 8,000 Armenians and
11,000 Tatars.

5. The province of Shirvan with the dis-

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 127

tricts of Shirvan, containing G 2,000 Tatars

and 6,000 Armenians ; Karabagh, with

35,000 Tatar inhabitants and 20,000 Arme-

nians ; and Tcheki, with 45,000 Tatars and

9,000 Armenians.

To these must be added the Khanate of

KaHssh, with Lenkoran on the Caspian
Sea, and the country of the Lesghian tribes:

the Confederation of Dsaro-Bclokan, with

46,000 inhabitants ; the Sultanate of Yehs-

sai, with 21,000; and the territory of the

Anzooks, the Didoi, and Kabutchi, with

32,000 ; all of whom frequently rebel

against their Russian taskmasters. The

allegiance of these people being enforced

by military despotism of the worst kind,

they often seize the opportunity of the

Russian garrison of occupation being deci-

mated by sickness, to drive them with great

loss out of their territories.

6. Daghestan, with the Shamkulat of

128 THE CAUCASUS

Tarku, with 60,000 inhabitants ; the dis-

tricts of Derbent, with 6,000 ; of Kuba,

46,000 ; and of Baku, with 15,000.
Some Russian authorities speak also of

Lesghistan and Circassia ; but their organi-

zation, even if they can be counted at all

among the Russian dominions, is so very

uncertain, that any record of their condi-

tion must be illusory.

Prince Paskiewitch, having settled the

boundary question, now devoted himself to

the consolidation of the newly acquired

territory, by conciliating as far as possible

the masses of the people. Georgia gave

him no trouble, for he allowed the nobles
to retain their rank, property, and privi-

leges ; and they, on their side, manifested a

vehement desire for fine Russian uniforms

and glittering decorations. The female

population of Georgia, too, was delighted

with the fashions introduced by the Rus-

sian ladies, and soon imitated them.
 AiSD ITS PEOPLE. 121)

As adherents of the Greek Churcli, the

Georgians were strongly biassed in favour

of Russian rule, and still strongT3r ties were

soon formed between the nations by the

intermarriages of Georgian with Russiafi

families. In Mingrelia and Imeretia the

poverty-stricken population, reduced by the

incessant wars and oppression of their rulers

to the most abject condition, submitted un.

resistingly to the dictates of Paskiewitch ;

and he secured the golden opinions of the

Mahometan population by prohibiting the

Russian priesthood from compelling their

attendance on the services of the Greek

Church, by building mosques and schools,

and by leaving .their internal jurisdiction

and customs undisturbed.

Thus far successful, the prince directed

his serious attention to his grand object

of securing Russian ascendancy in the

mountains, by cutting off the communica-

K
130 THE CAUCASUS

tion of the hostile tribes with the subject

races.

The coast of the Black Sea being now in

the hands of the liussians, they built along

it fort after fort, without paying the slight-

est attention to the attacks of the enraged

mountaineers, or to the ravages of the pesti-

lential climate, by which their garrisons of

occupation were too frequently carried off.

All losses were quickly replaced by fresh

drafts of men, and as ships of war were

continually cruising along the coast, the

landing of arms, ammunition, or stores, by

the enemy, became almost impossible.

As also the Russian forts on the Kouban
commanded the valleys, the communica-

tion on that side was, more or less, under

Russian control.

The Circassians from time to time re-

newed their efforts to assault, capture, or

destroy one or more of these forts; but

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 131

they never attempted to retain their con-

quests, retiring immediately to their moun-

tain fastnesses, which then hecame the
targets for incessant attacks by fire and

sword, directed against them by the Rus-

sian divisions stationed at Protschnoi-Okop ;

and by these means many of the moun-

taineers were brought into subjection.

In the Western Caucasus, the Tcherkess

or Circassian tribes ; the Abasechs, Shap-

sooks, and Natagoi ; the Abassians of the

Ubich, Madore, and Posib, as well as the

Suaneti, are still in the enjoyment of free-

dom and independence ; and, on the whole,

the allegiance of the tribes supposed to be

subject to Russia is of a very doubtful

nature. Their disaffection is often mani-

fested by outbreaks against the army of
occupation, attended by disastrous conse-

quences ; but their nominal subjection is

nevertheless a key to future conquests, and

pregnant with important results.

132 THE CAUCASUS

With a view to the isolation of the vari-

ous tribes still hostile to Russia, Prince

Paskiewitsch formed a plan for connecting

the conquered districts by four military

roads. The one Vi^as intended to form a

communication between the Bay of Ge-

lendchick and the Northern Kouban ; the

second, to proceed from Abchasia across

the loftiest ranges to the valley of the Pod-

kouma ; the third, to cross the Lesghian

mountains from Kachetia to the valley

of Koissu, and through its defiles to the

Tarku ; and the fourth, to traverse the

mountain ridge of the Muchi into the

valley of Samura, and thence to Derbent,

Cleverly as this plan was arranged, how-

ever, it was found, when it came to be exe-

cuted, that the obstacles to be overcome

were of so formidable a character, that only

the first of the proposed roads could be

completed and properly defended by forts.

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 133

Had Paskiewitsch succeeded in his pro-

ject, he would have divided the Caucasus

into four districts, each of which could

have been separately subjugated and held

in check by a comparatively small force ;

and, what was still more important, the

isolation of the hostile tribes of moun-
taineers would have been perfect, and their

union in large masses to attack the Rus-

sians rendered impossible.
134: THE CAUCASUS

CHAPTER VIII.

Further Exploits of Kasi-Mullah — March through

Daghestan. —Takes —Eefeated by
Tarku by storm.
General KochanofF. — Surprise of Kislyar. — Re-
peated Revolts of the Dsharan Tribes. — Campaign
of General Rosen. — Hirari destroyed and Kasi-
Mullah — Hamsad Bey becomes the leader
killed.

of the insurgents.—Assassination the Khanum

of

and her — himself turn assassinated

sons. Is in in

the Mosque. — Guerilla warfare.

Daghestan had now became tranquil, and

the Shamkul of Tarku had even rendered
the Russians considerable service ; but the

territories of the Tchetchenzes and Les-

ghians were daily becoming more dis-

turbed.

The last achievements of Yermoloff had,

indeed, served for a time to abate the

ardour of both races ; but Kasi-Mullah was

 AND ITS TEOPLE. 135

neither intimidated nor inclined to inacti-

vity, and he was making every exertion to

extend his influence and his fame; while,

knowing that he Avas feared and hated by

the priesthood, he resolved to humble this

and other factious parties before rc-com-

mencing operations with his increased

forces against the Russians,

On the plateau of Arrakan, on the Ava-

rean range, he attacked Sahif Eifendi, the

chief of his opponents, and defeated him,

so that he had to escape by Hight ; while

Kasi-Mullah, at the head of his daily in-

creasing forces, directed his march towards

the northern mountains. Encouraged by
his success he then ventured on attempting
to detach the aged Khanum of Kunsagh
from the Russians, under whose protection
she stood, and persuading her to espouse

the cause of the prophet ; but as she de-

clined his overtures, he resolved on forcing

136 THE CAUCASUS

her to compliance and to tlie support of his

army; and in 1828 he attacked her forces,

but failed in the attempt and was obliged

to retreat. Though eager to avenge his

discomfiture on the Russians, who had come
to the assistance of the Khanum, he did not

find the opportunity he sought till 1831,

when, marching into Daghestan with the

flag of insurrection in one hand and the
Koran in the other, he roused the country
to rebellion, attacked the chief Russian

forts on the Caspian, and assaulting the

town of Tarku took it by storm and en-

tirely routed his enemies.

After this achievement he besieged the

citadel of Bourmaya, which was considered

impregnable even by the Russians ; cut off

the supply of water, and so exhausted the

garrison by constant attacks, that he would

soon have captured the fortress and made
a triumphal entry, had not the Russian
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 137

General Kochanoif all at once come to

the assistance of the besieged. Kochanoff

forced Kasi-Mullah to retire to the moun-
tains ; but he ravaged and destroyed the
country as he went, and as soon as he had

collected his forces again he set out for

Derbent. For eight days the town was in

great danger, but on Kochanoff's advanc-

ing to its succour Kasi-Mullah was again

defeated.

Undismayed, however, by this second

failure, he directed his efforts against other

equally important but less strongly forti-

fied points, and these fell an easy prey to

his arms. By the 11th of November he

had carried fire and sword to the very walls

of Kislyar, a fortress situated on the Terek,

in one of the five districts of Cis-Caucasia.

This fortress he afterwards surprised and

took, and he only evacuated it to return

laden with booty to his native place, Himri,

138 THE CAUCASUS

there to spend the whiter hi comfort and

security, and make preparations for the

ensuing campaign.

The unusually stormy insurrections in

the east and north-east of the Caucasus,

imposed, in the course of the year 1831, a

great deal of labour and anxiety on the

Russian generals, which were still further

augmented by outbreaks in the south.

The Confederation of Dshar, though re-

peatedly forced to submit to the Russians,

had often successfully attempted to throw

off their yoke, but for this hardihood they

had been severely chastised by YermolofF.

Hardly, however, had the Persian war
broken out, than they once more recovered
their independence, and maintained it dur-

ing the whole time the Persian and Turkish

wars lasted.

After the conclusion of peace, Paskie-

witsch forced them back to their nominal

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 130

allegiance to llussia, and inflicted severe

punishment for these insurrectionary at-

tempts ; but his severity was of little avail,

for hardly had he quitted the Caucasus

when they attacked the Russian garrison,

which they defeated and took from it four

pieces of artillery. To avoid such disasters

for the future the Russians now constructed

the fort of Sakatal, by which the position

was completely commanded.

These revolutionary movements of the
Dsharan races, which had occasioned so

much uneasiness to the Russians, had af-

forded great encouragement to a fanatical

Lesghian chief, a bitter enemy of the Rus-

sians, named Ham sad Bey, by whose in-

strumentality the disturbances had been

frequently fomented. Under pretence of
entering into negotiations with him, the

Russians had enticed him into their camp

and made him prisoner ; and although

140 THE CAUCASUS

they had kept him in captivity but a very

short time, and when they released him

loaded him with presents, his capture was

regarded as an act of treachery, and tended

to embitter his hostility against them. He

returned the Russian presents with con-

tempt, and hastened to unite his forces

with those of Kasi-Mullah.

In the following spring, Kasi-Mullah

broke forth again from his mountain re-

treat; and this time he chose the Terek

line for the theatre of his operations, and

even threatened Vladikavkas, the key to

the pass of Dariel, before he returned,

richly laden with plunder, to his mountains.

The Russians now felt serious apprehen-

sions that the forts which they had con-

structed, with the view of overawing their

enemies, would not even serve to secure

the safety of their own garrisons. The ac-

tivity of the mountaineers frustrated all

 AND ITS TEOPLE. Ill

their attempts to be on their guard against

them, and they were sure to make their ap-

pearance where they were least expected.

General Rosen, the successor to Prince

Paskiewitsch, determined therefore to di-

rect an energetic campaign against Himri,

Kasi - Mullah's native place, and chief

stronghold. He marched against it with a

large and effective force, and he not only

succeeded in destroying it, but Kasi-Mullah

himself fell in the defence.

The victory, however, was not achieved

without immense sacrifices. The Russian
troops had to climb almost untrodden

mountains, exposed all the way to the at-

tacks of the enemy's sharpshooters ; and

every step of their path was marked by the

bodies of soldiers who fell from the ranks,

«

before they reached the summit, where

they had to storm Himri, the Ehrenbreit-

stein of the Caucasus.

142 THE CAUCASUS

The mountaineers fought valiantly, every

man among them braving death as long as

he was able to bear a weapon.

With the fall of Himri and of Kasi-

Mullah, the Russians imagined their task

completed ; but they had yet to learn that

Kasi-Mullah was only the pioneer of other

opponents, who would offer them still more
determined resistance, and that the on-
slaught of the Tchetchenzes and Lesghians

were but introductory to still bolder ex-

ploits.

Hamsad Bey, the irreconcilable enemy

of Russia, took the place of his slain com-

panion, as leader of his organized force ;

and on meeting with opposition from va-

rious chiefs, he attacked two of them, the

Kadi of Dargo and the Shamkul of Tarku,

in their own territories, and forced them to

assist him. After this, he entreated the

aged Khanum of Kunsagh to support him,
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 143

and when she refused, he caused her two

sons, and afterwards the aged princess her-
self, to be assassinated.

But Hanisad Bey was overtaken by a just

retribution for this deed. On visiting th>.»

mosque a few days after the murder, he

was himself assassinated in the very midst

of his Murids by Osman and Hadji Murad,

allies of the Khanum, and who had been
educated with her sons. The Murids, to

avenge their master, then killed Osman,

and Hadji now called on the people to take

vengeance on the murderers of their be-

loved princess. The people responded to

the call, and returned with him to the

mosque to slaughter the Murids, some of

whom had escaped and taken refuge in a

neighbouring tower ; but their fierce pur-

suers set it on fire, and they all perished in

the flames.

In the meantime, the Russians had dis-

 ;;

14:4 THE CAUCASUS

covered that they had been quite mistaken

in supposing the spirit of insurrection in

the Caucasus stifled by the death of Kasi-

MuUah. It became evident, even in the

districts garrisoned by the Russians, that

this was by no means the case, and they
therefore changed their tactics, and from a

defensive, adopted an aggressive mode of

warfare.

In 1834, they stood once more before

Himri, and captured it this time with less

trouble than in 1832, utterly destroying it,

so as not to leave one stone upon another

yet notwithstanding the completeness of the

destruction, the mountaineers had by 1836

built on the same height another fort, still

more formidable.
The Russians now contemplated attack-

ing the mountaineers in rapid succession

but the latter frustrated their design by

suddenly moving off, just as tlieir enemies
 AND ITS TEOrLE. 14.')

were ready to give tliein battle, and pro-

ceeding in a direction in which it was not
possible for the Russians to follow witli

equal celerity, and where they lost more

men, by want of provisions and forced
marches, than they could have done by an

engagement.
Frequently it happened, that when they

had defeated the mountaineers in a skir-

mish in some valley, and had to pass some

defiles on their way to their forts, they were
picked off by hundreds as they went by the
Caucasian sharpshooters.

It is this guerilla warfare, still practised

by Schamyl, that keeps the Russians in

constant apprehension of losing their hold

on the Caucasus.
146 THE CAUCASUS

CHAPTER IX.

Schamyl's birth and early youth. — His natural quali-

fications for the mission he assumes. — Russian
advances into Georgia, etc. — Schamyl's first appear-
— Capture of Himri.
ance on the theatre of the war.
— Schamyl's mysterious disappearance. — Fights a
pitched with the Russians. —Russians com-
battle

pelled from Achulko. —The

to retire of the
arrival

Czar. — Achulko taken. — Schamyl's escape. — Va-

rious events of the war.

What Themistocles was to the Greeks,

what Wallace and Tell were to their re-

spective countrymen, such is Schamyl to

the brave warriors of the Caucasus. For

many years he has been struggling to

defend the freedom of his native soil from

the crafty policy, the arms and the flatteries

of Russia, and to drive back the invader

from those lovely fertile valleys, which.

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 147

though interspersed between the rocky

defiles of snow capped mountains and al-

most inaccessible from without, are yet

amply provided with all the necessaries df

life.

This remarkable man, the valiant chief

and venerated sultan and prophet of his

people, was born in 1797 at the aoul of

Himri, the birthplace also of his cele-

brated predecessor, Kasi - Mullah. The

people among whom his earliest years were

passed are, like all mountaineers, devotedly

attached to their native land, and this feel-

ing was probably imbibed by him as well as

others with his earliest breath. These peo-

ple are also remarkable for their skill in

martial exercises and in horsemanship, a

singular anomaly in a race of mountaineers,

which has been sometimes accounted for

by their descent being traced to a remnant

of European crusaders. Their complexion
148 THE CAUCASUS

and deportment show, indeed, little traces

of an Asiatic origin ; and though they

acknowledge the authority of the Koran,
they entertain among them a vague expec-

tation of a Saviour who is to supersede

Mahomet the prophet of God —a popular

belief which is said to have formed a great

obstacle to Schamyl's success.

In his early youth he is stated to have

been somewhat feeble in his bodily consti-

tution, but exerting himself to overcome
this natural inferiority by courage and reso-

lution. Even then, he held himself in some

measure aloof from his companions, was

fond of spending many hours at a time in

solitude in some wild and picturesque spot,

and maintained his influence with those

around him by a certain reserved solemnity

of manner, as well as by the superiority of

his talents and learning.

As he grew to a more mature age he also
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 149

became distinguished for the fiery and im-

passioned eloquence, which is, perhaps, the

most efficient of all means of acquiring in-

fluence over a brave, simple, and excitable

people ; and to this qualification he added

that of perfect self-control, an immoveable

calmness of aspect in moments of the

utmost peril, and a rigid temperance in his

mode of life, which seldom fails to ensure

respect to those who have the means of

indulgence within their reach.

We have seen in what manner Georgia

came into Russian hands, and by what a
series of. successes and stratagems they con-
trived to plant their forts and strongholds
in all the passes of the mountains, and

along the coasts of the Black and Caspian

Seas. Having afterwards obtained a foot-

ing in Armenia, the granary of the whole

southern region, they subjugated the greater

part of the country, and hemmed in the in-

150 THE CAUCASUS

dependent tribes between tlie Cossacks on

the north and the conquered country on

the south.

They had just enlisted in a local Nizam

a large number both of the Christian and
Mahometan inhabitants under the Rus-

sian standard, when Schamyl appeared with

Hamsad Bey on the theatre of the war, pro-

claiming that he had, in a personal com-

munication with the prophet, been entrusted

with the mission to free his country from

its invaders, and announcing himself to be

invincible in arms and invulnerable to

mortal weapon. The whole of Daghestan

rose at his summons, and he took the for-

tresses of the Tarku and Derbent, and

plundered and laid waste the Russian ter-

ritory as far as Kislyar. In the defence of

Himri (the chief emporium of arms and

ammunition for the Caucasus), where Kasi-
MuUah lost his life, Schamyl was really
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 151

wounded, both by bullet and bayonet ; but

as he fought his way through the ranks of

the enemy, and afterwards disappeared in

a very sudden and mysterious manner, his

followers were confirmed in the opinion

that he bore a charmed life, and was their

appointed prophet and deliverer.

An interval of quiet succeeded the cap-

ture of Himri, and this led to the idea that

the Caucasian wars were at an end ; but

Schamyl still remained at the head of a

numerous body of armed men, and occu-
pied himself with freeing the passes and

securing supplies whenever they were

needed ; and while the native tribes in

their mountain fastnesses refused to pay

tribute or offer any kind of submission to

the invaders, they, on their sides, had to

entrench themselves behind walls which

they dared not leave, either for exercise or

water, except in sufficient numbers to

152 THE CAUCASUS

guard against surprise. In fact, although

the Russians were supposed to have re-

mained in possession of the Caucasus, they

were obliged to remain in their forts or

in their great lines of road, and they were

never safe when beyond the reach of their

cannon.

In 1837, Schamyl, having obtained con-

siderable reinforcements, measured his

strength with that of the Russians in a

pitched battle ; and his success so greatly

impaired the prestige of the Russian arms,

that their general resolved to deal with him

at once as he had done with his prede-

cessor —that is, to march upon his secluded

stronghold with an efficient body of troops,

capture or kill him, and annihilate any

force that he might have collected.

On their march towards Schamyl's hiding

place, the Russians fortified Chunsak, much
to the displeasure of the reigning princess,
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 153

altliougli she was devoted to the czar ; and

this iVvarean expedition, as it was called,

then proceeded to attack Ashiltack, an aoul

or village in Andi, consisting of three hun-

dred dwellings, partly rough stone houses

and partly caves cut in rocks. It was

defended by no less than five thousand

Circassians, and was not taken without

considerable loss on the side of the llus-

sians. After this, though they were greatly

reduced by this action and by the fatigues
of their march, they assaulted Achulko with
impetuous valour ; but Schamyl offered

such a determined resistance, that, though

their cannon destroyed some of his towers,

he compelled them to retreat, the Circas-

sians pursuing them for nearly two miles

with shouts of victory, and they retired
through the defile of Koissu without gain-
ing a foot of ground beyond their military

road.
154 THE CAUCASUS

So great was the sensation created by

this defeat, that the Emperor Nicholas now
resolved to come in person to the Caucasus,

trusting that his presence, while it encou-

raged his own soldiers, would strike terror

into his enemies. His imperial aspect does

not, however, seemed to have proved quite
so awful to the mountaineers as he had

anticipated ; and when he sent forth a

proclamation stating that he had powder

enough to blow up their very mountains

should he so please, they were by no means

so much alarmed as he intended them

to be.

He made, too, the unwelcome discovery,

that the army of the Caucasus was no more

free from corruption than any other Rus-
sian institution, and he ordered General
Rosen to be superseded in favour of

General Golovine, who then received re-

inforcements to the number of eighty thou-

 AND ITS TEOPLE. 155

sand men. With this army a decisive bh)w

was to be struck, and Achulko, Schamyl's

strongest hold, taken at any cost. Nearly

one half of the Russian troops, however, were

lost in various ways, and still the object was

not effected. Thereupon General Grabbe

was appointed commander-in-chief, and
after having fought some disastrous battles,

he appeared before Achulko, which he

besieged for two months.

This mountain fortress, the name of

which is said to be a word of Tatar deriva-

tion, signifying " meeting place in time of
disturbance", is situated on a high rock,

one side of which falls precipitously to the

river Koissu, a depth of six hundred feet,

while the other loses itself in inaccessible

defiles. Nature, therefore, has done much

for the defence of this place, and what she
has neglected has been supplied by the
liand of art ; for Schamyl, much as he said
156 THE CAUCASUS

of the help of the prophet, did not rely

implicitly on it, but surrounded Achulko

with walls and towers, whose strength the

Russians had often proved in impetuous

and untiring attacks.

But this time the emperor's orders were

to take the fortress at all hazards ; and

after the capture of entrenchment after

entrenchment, fort after fort, and a mur-

derous assault of five days duration, General

Grabbe did take it.

The din of combat died away during the

night of the fifth day, and on the morning

of the sixth the Russians found themselves

masters of the ruins of Achulko, But

where now was Schamyl 1 Neither among
the slain nor among the prisoners was he

to be found. One or two of his men were

seen here and there on the tops of some of

the rocks ; and after a while some deserters

joined the Russians, and confessed that
 —

AND ITS PEOrLE. 157

Schamyl was liiddcn, and intended to

escape during the night.

All approaches to the caves opposite

Achulko were now strictly guarded, and

the Russians kept vigilant watch. At mid-

night the Russian sentinels heard a slight

noise proceeding from one of the caves in

the rocks above them ; they concealed

themselves, and presently a man was let

down to the plateau by means of a rope,

and after looking cautiously about he made

a signal, and a second descended, swiftly

and silently, and "svas followed by a third

enveloped in a white mantle, such as

Schamyl frequently wore. The Russians

sprang from their place of concealment,

and after a short resistance took all three

prisoners, and carried them exultingly to

the tent of their general. When they got

there, however, they discovered that the

whole affair had been a stratagem, got up

158 THE CAUCASUS

to favour the escape of Schamyl, who had

descended the moment the Russians had

left the spot, —and taking advantage of the

excitement in their camp consequent on his

supposed capture, had made good his re-

treat, and reached the banks of the Koissu,

without his enemies being able to do any-

thing more than send after him a few

useless bullets.

The immense sacrifices that the Russians

had made in the hope of capturing Schamyl

were therefore entirely useless.

In the very same year he made his ap-

pearance again at the head of a large force

in Kachetia, in the most southern part of

the Caucasus, threatening Sakatal and
E-uchi, annoying the Russians when in

small numbers, but always dispersing at

the approach of any stronger body of the

enemy until he reached Tchetchenia, when

he fought a battle with them and gained
the victorv.
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 159

Movements and achievements of this

kind, and the astonishing reports of the

defeats suffered by the Russians, extended

and strengthened his influence among the
mountaineers, who now rallied around him
in greater masses, believing that he had a
divine mission to free them from their

hated enemies.

In 1840 the Circassians stormed the forts

of Wiliaminofsk, Lagaressk, and Abin, and

repeatedly crossed the Terek, defying the

Russians in all directions. Schamyl mean-

while took the initiative, and attacked their
largest fortress, Nicolaizioski, which he
took and destroyed, and then again dis-

persed his followers.

The Russians rebuilt these forts, gar-

risoned them, and then sent General Anrep

to avenge the indignities< they had suf-

fered ; and this he did, but not till he had

himself sustained considerable loss. Seizing
160 THE CAUCASUS

the opportunity when Schamyl had lessened

the efficiency of his forces by dividing them,

he made a well-planned attack on him with

all the troops at his command, and suc-

ceeded in obtaining a decided advantage.

In 1841 the Russians were again in so

far successful, that they were enabled to

confine the war to Schamyl's country ; but

in the beginning of 1842 he advanced into
the Russian territory, and with the celerity

that characterised all his movements, ap-

peared all at once before Kislyar, with a

force of twenty thousand men ; defeated

the Russians, though they fought bravely

to oppose his advance, and returned to his

camp laden with rich booty.

But this year had still more severe re-

verses in store for the Russians.

General Grabbe, the conqueror of

Achulko, had been ordered to take Dargo,

one of Schamyl's strongholds, and to inflict

 AND ITS TEOPLE. 161

severe chastisement upon him. He ad-

vanced, therefore, towards it witli a pow-

erful army, but made only slow progress,
and paying for every foot of land he gained

a heavy price in human life. While still

at a considerable distance from Dargo, he

saw that to attempt to take it with his ex-

hausted, discouraged, and decimated troops,

would lead to utter discomfiture and ruin ;

and, bowed down by care, he had just re-

solved on submitting to the painful neces-

sity of a retreat, when Schamyl's forces fell

suddenly on him in the forest of Itschkeri,

and mowed do^^^l everything before them.

When at last Grabbe reached the shelter of

the Russian forts, he found he had lost the

greater part of his officers and eight thou-

sand men.

After this. Generals Grabbe and Golo-

vine were both recalled, although the Em-

peror attributed their failure more to the

M
162 THE CAUCASUS

elements than to their own want of skill

or energy. He still, however, persisted

in ignoring the military talents and stra-

tegic skill of Schamyl, though these were

now in the highest state of activity, and

gaining him continually fresh adherents,

even among the Tchetchenzes, who the

Russians had supposed would never be

induced to join his ranks. The/ agitation
he had set on foot had also gained him
friends in the Kabarda, and Akucha, Ka-
rakaitach, and Tabasseran had openly joined
him, so that the Russians were now at-

tacked and menaced in every direction, and

the whole of their army had to be confined

within their forts.

General Neidhardt, the newly appointed

commander-in-chief, wrote despatch after

despatch, pointing out the deplorable con-

dition he found himself in, and urging the

necessity of meeting Schamyl's strategy.
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 1G3

which was of no ordinary kind, by sonic

other methods than those indicated in the

plan of attack arranged for him at Peters-

burg, and which he had been commanded

to observe. After some delay, he received

reinforcements, but was again recommended

to follow the Petersburg plan, and also to

arrange his army of 130,000 men into five

divisions, march upon Schamyl from as

many different points, destroy every field,

and overcome every obstacle that might

present itself, and finally, to surround and
defeat Schamyl. The difficulties presented

by the peculiar nature of the ground to be

traversed, as well as the scarcity of provi-

sions for the maintenance of so great an

army, had not at all been taken into con-

sideration in Petersburg.

Great delay was occasioned by the non-

arrival of despatches, or returns from an

agent, who had been sent to Astrachan

164 THE CAUCASUS

with a million of silver roubles to purchase

food for the army ; and after all, the delay

was of no avail, for no tidings of the agent

could be obtained.

Neidhardt now attacked the Tcherkeges,

on the Sulak, with thirty thousand men ;

yet it took him a whole month to bring an

unimportant village to subjection, and in

doing so, he lost great numbers, both of

officers and men. He then advanced on

Dargo, where Schamyl was awaiting him

with a body of men amounting to twenty-

four thousand. Numerous as his force was,

however, he avoided coming to a pitched

battle, and contented himself with molest-

ing the Russians incessantly, and harassing

their forces whenever they were preparing

to attack him, and then suddenly falling

into their rear, until Neidhardt was obliged

to retreat.

In addition to this failure, another cir-

 AND ITS PEOrLE. 165

cumstance occurred, by which the Peters-

burg plan was rendered entirely nugatory.
Schamyl had hitherto met with no sym-
pathy among the south-western population,
and though the Dsarans were favourably
inclined to him, the fort of Sakatal kept

them in check. The Sultan of Yelessy,

who enjoyed far and wide the reputation

of being a pious, good, and great man, and

who exercised a powerful influence over

the Lesghians and the Tartars of Cheki,

E.uchi, and Shirvan, had hitherto held him-

self aloof, and resisted all attempts to gain

him over to Schamyl's cause. Now, how-

ever, he very unexpectedly came forward
of his own accord, and joined him. To the

Russians, his desertion of their cause was a

great blow, and he soon afterwards even

expelled their official persons from his ter-

ritory, and then descended the Alasan, to

do battle for his newly adopted party.

166 THE CAUCASUS

In the first instance the sultan was suc-

cessful, but he was aftenvards defeated in a

desperate engagement, and so much reduced

that he had to fly for refuge to Schamyl,

who received him with open arms, and he

has ever since resided with him, under the

name of Daniel Bey, assisting Schamyl by

his sagacious counsels, his influence, and
his personal bravery.

The sultan's defection from the Russians

was also of great service to Schamyl, by
compelling them to divide their new forces,

half of which only could advance against

him, while the rest were engaged in keep-

ing in order their former subjects.

 —

AND ITS PEOPLE. 167

CHAPTER X.

Prince Woronzoff appointed to command the army of

the Caucasus. — His unlimited authority. — Sufters

repeated defeats. —Change the Russian plan of
in

warfare. — Schamyl ravages the Kabarda. — The

Grand Duke Alexander arrives. — Schamyl attacks
the forts on the Black Sea. —Makes a descent on
Armenia. — Gains a complete victory. —Inaction of

Schamyl during the last year or two. — Specimens of

his oratory. — Instance of his stern discipline.

Present state of the Caucasus.

The failure of General Neidhardt's cam-

paign having created great displeasure

against him at the court of Petersburg, he

was dismissed, and General, now Prince,

Woronzoff appointed to take his place, and
invested, at the same time, with such un-
limited powei" and authority, as had not

been granted to any Russian subject since

the time of Catherine the Second and her
168 THE CAUCASUS

favourite Potemkin. He was to be respon-

sible to the emperor alone for anything he

thought proper to do ; from the Pruth to

the Araxes his word was to be law ; he

was to bestow rewards and distinctions in

the army without even asking the em-
peror's sanction ; to be allowed to bring
officers, civil and military, of every class,

before courts martial at his pleasure, and

to inflict even the punishment of death, if

he thought fit. The only order he was

required to obey was that of taking Dargo

and Schamyl, and for this purpose an army

of two hundred thousand men was placed

under his command.

Woronzoff set out with twenty-four thou-

sand men to effect these objects ; and as he

advanced towards Dargo, the Lesghians

feigned to evacuate the district, and allowed

him to cross the pass of Audi unmolested.
Then Schamyl, having previously destroyed
 AND ITS TEOPLE. 1G9

all the habitations and fields on his line of

march, so that neither man nor beast could

find there the least support, appeared on

the heights with a numerous force and sur-

rounded the Russians ; while Hadji Murad

intercepted Prince Belontofi", who was in

charge of a large convoy of provisions,

which consequently fell into the enemy's

hands.

For three weeks Woronzoff was kept in

this painful position ; but at last reinforce-

ments were promised to relieve him, and

General Gogatl, having entrenched his

camp and secured his line of communica-

tion, began to move towards Dargo.
The more nearly he approached it, the

more numerous became the enemy, and the

greater the obstacles he had to encounter.

Abatis after abatis had to be taken at the

point of the bayonet ; and when at last he

reached Dargo, he found in it only a desolate
170 THE CAUCASUS

deserted village, stripped of every comfort,

and destitute even of food.

Woronzoff had now no other resource

than to retreat to Gersesaul, but on his

retreat he had to encounter the well-calcu-

lated attacks of Schamyl's forces, and by

these he was all but crushed. It is alleged

that he reached Gersesaul with a few ge-

nerals, still fewer proportionably of other

officers, and only four thousand men.

During this campaign he had learned the
bitter lesson, that Schamyl and his brave

Lesghians were formidable foes ; and that

their European opponents must often be
favoured by fortune, if in a conflict with

these mountaineers they could merely main-

tain their position, not to speak of gaining

any advantage.
In a conference that Woronzoff' held

with the Emperor Nicholas in 1845, he

announced his intention of changing his
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 171

system of warfare. Instead of undertaking

great expeditions against the heads of the

Circassian tribes, Woronzoif proposed to

weary them out by delay, isolation, and

exhaustion ; in short, to adopt Schamyl's

own plan of warfare, and in the meantime

gradually, if possible, to destroy the na-

tional unity and detach the smaller tribes

by compulsion or bribery, and so obtain

by stratagem the standing in the country

which he had been unable to secure by

force of arms.

The emperor seeing that WoronzofF, with

all his talents and the vast powers at his

command, had, under most favourable cir-

cumstances, considerable difficulty in retain-

ing, even nominally, his possessions in the

Caucasus, acquiesed in all these arrange-

ments. Unmolested by foreign powers, and

only engaged in suppressing the Caucasian

insurrection, he found that all his energies

172 THE CAUCASUS

were required for the task. Woronzoft"

spent some time in making the necessary

preparations for the capture of Dargo-

Vedenno, Schamyl's favourite residence,

and in 1846 the Russian detachments were

ready to march ; but again did Schamyl
anticipate their commander's plans, and
doom him to disappointment.

While Woronzoff was engaged in cutting

down and burning the Tchetchenian forest,

where the enemy had so often fallen unex-

pectedly on the Russians and made great

havoc among them, Schamyl, collecting all

his strength, made a forced march across the

mountains with a body of twenty thousand

horse and foot, took the Kabardines by

surprise, punished them for their defection,

ravaged their whole country, carried off a

number of prisoners, and returned laden

with plunder to his mountain fastness be-

fore the Russian troops could come up with
him at all.
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 173

Schamyl had gained his objects; by

boldly surprising the Russians within their

own lines, he had spread terror among the

tribes subject to Russia, and he had com-
pelled Woronzoff to refrain from advancing

to molest him in his mountain home.

In the following year he was less suc-

cessful, for he allowed himself to be per-

suaded by a Russian deserter to attack Fort

Golovine, from which he was obliged to

retire with great loss. A few months later

he made an attack on the enemy's centre,

and though he was forced to retreat and
disperse his forces, he carried off large

booty.

In 1850 the Czarowitch Alexander, the

present emperor, came to take part in

the Caucasian, war and re-animate the

sinking courage of the Russian army. In

1852 Prince Burietinsky, with a body of

fifteen hundred men, marched rapidly
174: THE CAUCASUS

through the " Devil's Pass," and leaving a

part of his troops to maintain that position,

attacked an aoul called Rauhkaleh, and cut

to pieces all they could meet with. But on

their return they found their rearguard

engaged with the foe, and it was with dif-

ficulty they could cut their way back to

the main body.

In 1853 Schamyl attacked the forts on

the Black Sea, from Kedout Kaleh to Na-

roquiskoi, and not without success ; and
throughout the autumn of that year and
the commencement of 1854, the Circassians

were more than usually active —probably

because the Russians, having other enemies

to contend with, afforded them a favour-

able opportunity.

In 1855 Schamyl made a descent upon

the Russian territories in Armenia, at the

head of twenty thousand of his mountain

warriors, and he gained a complete victory;

 AyD ITS PEOPLE. 175

for the Russians, according to tlie reports,

lost four thousand men, as well as all their

artillery, tents, and baggage.

During the Crimean war, Schamyl had
unlimited range across the isthmus from

sea to sea, and only fort Anapa, the largest

of the Russian forts, remained unmolested

by him. Even this fort was said in some

accounts to have been abandoned, in order

to strengthen Prince MenschikofF's army in

the Crimea ; but Schamyl seemed to have

become weary of the war. When the

Russian princesses who had been in capti-

vity in his hands were liberated by him, the

Russians in return restored to Schamyl his

eldest son, who had been taken from him

when a child and educated in the Russian

army. This son, it is said, has ever since

influenced Schamyl in their favour, and

induced him to refrain from assisting the
Turks.
 : —

176 THE CAUCASUS

Of the bravery of the Russian army,

both officers and men, —of their fortitude

amidst continual reverses, both from the

sword of the enemy and from sickness and

sufferings, such as were often of a nature

to disspirit the stoutest troops in the world,

too much cannot be said. Perhaps no

other army than the Russian could have
borne up with such an undaunted persever-

ance against a warrior surrounded by so

dazzling a prestige as Schamyl, and who

had in so extraordinary a degree the powder

of exciting the enthusiasm of his followers'.

Many specimens of his eloquent ad-

dresses have been preserved, —though they

cannot well be judged apart from the pecu-

liar and exciting circumstances under which

they were delivered. The following pas-

sages may serve to give some imperfect idea

of their style and tone
" Do not believe," he says on one occa-
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 177

sion, " that God favours the greater number.

God is on the side of the good, — and they

are always less numerous than the godless.

Are there not fewer roses than weeds ? Is

there not more dirt than pearls —more

vermin than useful animals? Is not gold

rarer than the ignoble metals'? And are

we not nobler than gold or roses, than

pearls or horses, or than all useful animals

together : for all the treasures of the world

are transitory, but to us eternal life is pro-

mised.
" If there are more weeds than roses,

shall we, instead of rooting out the weeds,

wait till they have quite overgrown and

choked the noble flowers 1 And if our

enemies are more numerous than we are,

shall we, therefore, allow ourselves to be

entangled in their nets 1

" Do not go on saying our enemies have

taken Tcherkey, besieged Achulko, con-

N
 !

178 THE CAUCASUS

quered all Avaria ! If the lightning strike a

tree, do all the other trees on that account

bow their heads before if? Do they fall

down for fear they should be struck also ?

O ye of little faith ! Follow the example

of the trees of the forest. Had they tongues

to speak they would put you to shame

" If the worm devours the fruit, does the

other fruit rot away for fear of being de-

voured ?

" Do not alarm yourselves because the

infidels increase so quickly, and continually

send forth fresh warriors to the battle-field,

in the place of those whom we have de-

stroyed. I tell you, a thousand poisonous

fungi spring out of the earth before one

good tree reaches maturity.

"I am the root of the tree of liberty.

My Murids are the trunk, and you are the

branches. But shall the rottenness of one
branch entail the destruction of the whole
 !

A^^D ITS PEOPLE. 179

tree ? God will lop off the rotten branches,

and cast them into eternal fire

" Enrol yourselves, then, among the

number of those who fight for the faith of

Mahomet, and you will gain my favour, and

I will be your protector.

" But if you persist in giving ear to the

seductive speeches of the Christian dogs,

instead of listening to my exhortations, I

will carry out what Kasi-MuUah formerly

threatened you with. My bands shall burst

upon your aouls like a thunder-cloud, and

take by force what you will not yield to

persuasion. I will wade in blood. Devas-

tation and terror shall follow me and what

;

the power of speech cannot obtain, shall be

!"
won by the edge of the sword

But Schamyl is not merely an impas-

sioned enthusiast : he is a most stern and

rigid disciplinarian, of which, among others,

one terrible instance is related.

180 THE CAUCASUS

His mother, whom he treated with the

greatest respect, and who exercised consi-

derable influence over him, had on one

occasion ventured to introduce to him some

messengers who came with proposals for a

dishonourable peace.

After hearing what she had to say, he

shut himself up in the mosque, and re-

mained there three days and nights. Then

he came forth, pale and haggard, with

his eyes swollen ; and calling his Murids

and the people around him, declared it to

be the will of Allah that his mother should

receive a hundred lashes, for liaving made
that vile proposal to him. The poor old

woman shrieked and begged for mercy, but

the Murids seized her, tore off her veil, and

Schamyl himself began to inflict the pu-

nishment. But at the fifth blow the unfor-

tunate creature fell dead, and Schamyl
flung himself on the ground with loud
 AND ITS TEOrLE. 181

lamentations ; but soon rising, he declared

that he would himself undergo the remain-

ing ninety-five lashes, which he accordingly

did ; and, though his body was covered

with bleeding wheals, he did not move a

muscle. The messengers were ordered to

depart, and say what they had seen ; and

no one ever appeared again at Dargo on
such an errand.

In the tribes under Schamyl's govern-

ment, every ten houses is obliged to furnish

and maintain one armed warrior ; and be-

sides the force thus composed, he has, under
the command of Hamsad Bey, a corps of

Russian and Polish troops (who have de-

serted from the enemy), as well as a small

park of artillery.

Prince WoronzofF endeavoured during

his reign to conciliate the proud Circas-

sians, not only by his condescending man-

ners, but also by friendly acts ; but it was

182 THE CAUCASUS

all ill vain. Neither his gracious words

nor his good deeds were appreciated by

the mountaineers ; and they never inspired

any confidence.
The condition of the Eastern Caucasus is

still less promising to the Russians, and

though the populations of the Kabarda, and

of the coast of the Caspian Sea, have be-

come ostensibly more friendly to Russia,

years must elapse before they can be de-

pended on.

It was during the administration of Prince

WoronzofF that Schamyl achieved his great-

est feat of arms, and by the defeat of his

apparently overwhelming forces, that the

mountain chief acquired the fame and in-

fluence which have caused the subjection

of several large districts of the Caucasus to

Russia to be merely nominal. They have

become so disaffected, that strong garrisons

are required to keep a vigilant watch on

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 183

their movements, and this is the case with

all the Western Lowlands on the Kouban,

and on the line between the Kouban and
Terek and the Black Sea coasts.
184 THE CAUCASUS

CHAPTER XI.

The grand Schamyl has had

objects view. — His
in

religious —Three stages of progress. —The

system.
Murids. — The Naibs. — The Murschids. — Personal
appearance of Schamyl. — His mode of —His life.

present abode. — The future prospects of the Cau-

casians.

Schamyl, though now past his prime — as

he is upwards of sixty years of age — is

acknowledged to have been, in his time of

vigour, a great soldier and a great man,
with an intellect capable of originating
grand ideas, and a character to develope

them into great deeds. The purpose he

had in view from the commencement of his

career, was not only to emancipate the

Caucasian races from the Russian dominion,

but to effect their thorough reform from

the vices which, for centuries, had enervated

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 185

and disgraced the followers of ^Mahomet.

Perhaps this object was too gigantic to be

accomplished in one human life ; decidedly

it was beyond the power of one individual,

and therefore Schamyl's recent inactivity

is the less surprising. From his mountain

throne he hoped to reign over all the dif-

ferent races of the Caucasus, both as prophet

and independent prince. But though he

has been very successful in reviving the

spirit of fanatical enthusiasm, among tribes

hitherto entirely sunk in apathy and indif-

ference; and though he can always swell

the ranks of his followers by impassioned

appeals and promises of future reward, he

has become aware that before his new em-

pire can be made permanently tenable, the

old state of things must be entirely abro-

gated, and this would require both unity

among the tribes, and a new development
of his own power.
186 THE CAUCASUS

To promote the accomplishment of this

purpose, therefore, he has adopted three

methods. First, that of encouraging the

revival of religious ardour ; secondly, the

exciting devotion to his own person ; and,

thirdly, effecting, as far as possible, the re-

conciliation of all the feuds between the

different tribes.

The religious system of Schamyl has

been partly derived from Hadji Ismael

Effendi, by whom he was instructed in his
youth, and still more from Kasi-MuUah.
It may in many respects be regarded as a

young and fresh offshoot from the aged and

decaying trunk of Islamism.

According to this system, it is supposed

that man must pass through four prelimi-

nary stages before he can rise to a condition

entitling him to the happiness of Paradise.

The first stage is that in which is required

the strict observance of all external ordi-

 AND ITS PEOPLE. 187

nances of Islam, such as prayer, pilgrimages,

almsgiving, honesty, truthfulness, and so

on. The second stage requires more than

mere obedience to positive ordinances ; it

demands virtue, and the elevation of the

character to the performance of good deeds.

In the third, man attains to self-know-

ledge and faith, and occupies himself with

the contemplation of nature and of the

Creator. This is the highest development

of mind.

Practically, Schamyl ranks in the first

class the great multitude of mankind, who,

being unable to think for themselves, must

be tied down by external forms —sometimes

persuasive, sometimes constraining. On
the second stage he places the Murids,

since they are striving to acquire virtue,

whose necessity they acknowledge. They

obey the dictates of the law, not for its

own sake, but for the sake of the fruit of

188 THE CAUCASUS

which it is the germ. The third stage is

occupied by the Naibs, who have a more

exalted sense of virtue than the Murids,

and are representatives of the Murschid,

Schamyl, whose position is the highest at-

tainable, and whose worth and accomplish-

ments entitle him to receive all revelations

and inspirations from above and to be one

with God.

Thus the Murschid is the sun, giving

light to the Naibs, his moons, who, with

the Murids, their stars, illuminate from
their height the people below. The Naibs
act as viceroys to Schamyl, govern the

several districts to which they are ap-

pointed, give judgment in the name of the

Murschid, decide cases of minor importance

on their own authority, and have command

over a thousand armed men, while the

Murids command only one hundred. In time

of need a Murid, clothed in a blood-red gar-
 AND ITS PEOPLE. 189

ment, rushes through the country, as the

bearer of the fiery cross formerly did in the

Highlands of Scotland, and calls on all who

are able to carry arms to rally round the

banner of the prophet.

To keep up the fanatical zeal of the

people, Schamyl also employs Dervishes,

who, with their Koran in one hand and

their staff in the other, wander about in all

directions, preaching and acting as physi-

cians. They are much beloved among the

mountaineers for their kindness and fruga-

lity of life, as well as admired for their

eloquence.

Schamyl himself is a fine old man, of

commanding stature and winning manners,

very strict in his observance of the precepts

of the Koran, and often confining himself

for weeks to the seclusion of the mosque.

Before the people, he never appears but

in state, surrounded by his Murids ; and

190 THE CAUCASUS

the multitude bow down before him in pro-

found veneration, anxiously desiring per-

mission to kiss the hem of his garment.

Besides his Murids, he is also attended

by his Mullahs, with their kalendas, or ink-

stands, who follow him to note down his

commands. His general mode of living is

extremely frugal; and his favourite resi-

dence, Dargo Vedenno, is a simple but

solid structure, situated on a lofty rock,

surrounded by impenetrable forests and

precipices, and protected at its foot by a
rapid river. It is a square fortress, en-

closed by walls and towers, in one of which

Schamyl occasionally resides, but at other

times he occupies a flat-roofed house on its

east side. The rooms of this house are

carpeted, and ornamented by arms of rare

beauty, captured from the enemy, while its

walls bear inscriptions from the Koran.

Before the fortress lies a village, occupied
 ;;

AND ITS PEOPLE. 191

chiefly by artisans ; water is supplied by a

stream that has been conducted from the

hills into an immense reservoir in the

middle of the fortress ; and at a short dis-

tance from it is situated the provision store,

where a large quantity of maize, corn, and

millet is laid up.

The Circassians of the "Western Caucasus,

though not subject to Schamyl's rule, and

in general not favourable to it, are largely

adopting the Mahometan faith, and would

probably be gained over to Schamyl's plans

without difficulty, were he young enough

to pursue them with activity.

He has succeeded among his own vassals,

in substituting the penalties of a strict law

for the terrible and destructive blood-

revenge hitherto prevalent among them

and, within a very short space of time, he

has composed an organised state out of a

multitude of mutually hostile robber-bands

192 THE CAUCASUS, ETC.

and this organisation will, in all proba-

bility, become the basis of their future

progress towards a civilization that will

carry them ultimately beyond the pale of

the crescent.

THE END.
 APPENDIX.

THE ASCENT OF MOUNT ARARAT BY

FIVE ENGLISHMEN.
(Times, Friday^ August 22, 1856.)

The following account of an ascent of

Mount Ararat, recently accomplished by fci

party of Englishmen, may be found of in-

terest.
" On the 11th of xlugust, 1856, a party,
consisthig of Major Alick J. Fraser, the
Rev. Walter Thursby, Mr. James Theobold,
jun., of Winchester, Mr. John Evans, of
Darley Abbey, Derbyshire, and myself,
started from Bayazid on this new expedi-
tion. We were accompanied by two ser-

vants and a zaptieh, or native policeman,

and by the kindness of the Kaimakam,
Hadjee Mustapha EfFendi, we were con-
signed to the special charge of Issak Bey, a
o
194 APPENDIX.

chief of the Ararat Kurds, under whose

safeguard we had nothing to fear from the
plundering habits of his followers. At Bay-
azid we had provided ourselves each with a
stout pole between five and six feet long,

furnished with a spike at one end and a

hook at the other.
" Crossing the plain of Ararat, we com-
menced the ascent through a wide ravine,
enclosed between vast ridges of volcanic
rock. For three hours we wound our way
through rugged defiles, occasionally tra-

versing fertile plateaux, verdant with grow-

ing crops of wheat and barley. Our sure-
footed little horses, accustomed to this sort
of work, picked their way through the most
breakneck places, and brought us in safety

to the black goats'-hair tents of our host,

which were ])itched on some pasture lands
on the southern slope of Greater Ararat,
about 8,000 feet above the level of the sea.

Hither the Kurds resort in summer with

their flocks and herds, returning to the vil-

lages of the plain at the approach of winter.

" A portion of the chief's tent was set
 APPENDIX. 195

apart for our use ; the floor was covered

with gay-coloured carpets, a fat sheep was
killed, and everything was supplied that
Kurdish hospitality could suggest.
" At 3 o'clock next morning we were on
the move, all except Mr. Thursby, who, to
our regret, was obliged by indisposition to
remain in the tent. Three hours of conti-
nued ascent on foot brought us to the base
of the cone. Here Major Fraser bore off to

the south-east, and took a line of his own,

while Mr. Theobold, Mr. Evans, and I,

commenced the ascent on the southern side,

keeping to the snow, which presented an
unbroken surface to the very summit.
" To my two friends, who are experienced
Alpine climbers, this was easy work, but it

soon began to tell unfavourably on my un-

accustomed limbs. For a time we kept
pretty well together ; by degrees, however,
Mr. Theobold began to forge ahead, fol-
lowed by Mr. Evans, while I brought up
the rear as well as I could. But my strength
was fast giving way, and when about half-
way up the cone, I found myself utterly un-
196 APPENDIX.

able to proceed any further. Accordingly,

there being no alternative but to descend, I
sat on the snow and shot down with the
velocity of an arrow, undoing in a few mi-
nutes the laborious toil of nearly three
hours. This was a keen disappointment,
amply repaid to me however, as will appear
by and bye.
"
At the foot of the cone I found Issak
Bey, who with a couple of his people had
come out to watch our progress. He looked
on my failure as a matter of course, and
seemed to think the others, too, must soon
give in ; but no, up they went higher and
higher, his interest and surprise keeping
pace with their ascent.
" For some hours we watched their up-

ward course, the sharp naked eye of the

Kurd plainly discerning what I was able to

see only with the aid of a telescope. At

length, at 1.45, Mr. Theobold crowned the
summit. Great was the astonishment of the
Chief. '
Mashallah !'
he exclaimed, ' God
is great !—What wonderful people these
English are ; a few of them come here, and
 APPENDIX. 197

without any difficulty walk to the top of

that holy mountain, a thing that never was
done by man before. Wonderful, won-
!'
derful
"
At 2.50 Mr. Evans reached the summit.
He and Mr. Theobold made the descent
together, by the same track that they
ascended, and returned to the tents about
sunset.
" We must now follow the movements of
Major Fraser, who, as already stated, took

a line of his own. Not being accustomed

like the others to snow work, he chose a
ridge of stone, which led up about two-
thirds of the ascent. Over this he made his
way without much difficulty, and then,
taking to the snow, he patiently toiled up-
wards till within a few hundred feet of the
summit. Here, in attempting to cross over
to what appeared a more practicable line,

he slipped on some thinly covered ice, and,

losing all control over himself, he shot down
with fearful velocity, now head, now foot
foremost, over a space of about a thousand
feet. By wonderful efforts and presence of
 ;

198 APPENDIX.

mind, he succeeded in arresting his perilous

descent, and, scrambling with difficulty to a
rocky ridge that protruded above the snow,
he climbed over it with immense labour
and thus recovering his lost way, he won
the height about 3.30, having been thrown
back full three hours by his mishap. He
descended on the traces of Messrs. Theobold
and Evans, and regained the tents at mid-
night, having been about twenty hours on
foot.
" On the 13th, about 2 p.m., Mr. Thursby
and I started from the tents, accompanied
by two Kurds, carrying rugs, greatcoats,
and a small supply of provisions. We pro-
ceeded slowly and leisurely until we reached
about one-third the ascent of the cone.
There we were obliged to dismiss the Kurds,
who, from religious fear, refused either to

proceed further or to spend the night on

the mountain ; but, to insure their return
in the morning for the rugs, etc., we thought
it expedient to detain their arms, the dearest
possession of these nomade people.
" As we had neither of us much fancy to
 APPENDIX. 199

try the ascent by tlie snow, wc chose a new

line of our own over a rocky surface, facing
nearly due south, which the wind and sun
had bared nearly to the summit.
" Left now to ourselves, we selected a
spot to pass the night, piled up stones to
windward as a shelter against the cold, and,
having dined heartily, we made ourselves as
comfortable as possible. We saw the sun
set in indescriba'ble glory, throwing the
shadow of the vast mountain far away oAer
Georgia and Aderbijan, and even darkening
the distant haze of the Eastern horizon.
" AVrapping ourselves in our rugs, we
passed the night as well as could be ex-
pected, and at peep of dawn on the 14th we
resumed the ascent. It certainly was toil-

some and slow, but was, nevertheless, satis-

factory.
" From an elevation of about 14,000 feet
above the sea, "we saw the sun rise in un-
clouded majesty, lighting up simultaneously
to our view vast tracts of the Russian, Per-
sian, and Turkish empires ; that was a glo-
rious sight never to be forgotten.
200 APPENDIX.

" About 1,200 feet from the summit, we

came upon an oak cross that had been fixed
there in the rock by Professor Abich in the
year 1845 ; it was in perfect preservation,
and the inscription, in Russian characters,

was still legible.

" This was the most difficult part of our
ascent, the obstructions were frequent, and
the climbing at times perilous ; but caution
and perseverance enabled us to overcome
everything, and at 9 a.m. we had the satis-
faction of standing on the highest point of
the mountain. Here I stuck to the hilt in
the snow a kama, or short double-edged
sword, which we found at the foot of
Abich's cross. Here, also, as loyal Britons,

we drank the health of our beloved Queen

in brandy. Her Majesty will perhaps deign
to accept this expression of allegiance on
considering that hers is probably the first

name that has been pronounced on that so-

lemn height since it was quitted by the great
patriarch of the human race ; for no record
or tradition exists of the ascent havino^ ever
been made before, although repeatedly tried
 APPENDIX. 201

by men of different countries, both Eu-

ropean and Asiatic. Professor Abich made
several attempts, but failed in all, as is

proved by the position of the cross, by the

testimony of the natives, and even by the
confession of his own countrymen.
" We descended on the tracks of the
others, and got back to the tents about
4 P.M.
" The whole surface of Mount Ararat
bears evidence of having been subjected to
violent volcanic action, being seamed and
scored with deep ravines. The rocky ridges
that protrude from the snow are either ba-
salt or tufa ; and near the summit we found
some bits of pumice on a spot which still

emits a strong sulphurous smell.

" The summit itself is nearly level, of a
triangular shape, the base being about 200
yards in length, the perpendicular about
300.
" The highest point is at the apex of the
triangle, which points nearly due west ; se-

parated from it by a hollow is another point

of nearly equal altitude, and the base of the
202 APPENDIX.

triangle is an elevated ridge, forming a

third eminence. These three points stand
out in distinct relief on a clear day.
" The snow on the top is almost as dry
as powder^ and in walking over it we did
not sink more than half-way to the knee.
The impression left on my mind is, that the
summit is an extinct crater filled with
snow. We experienced no difficulty of
respiration, except being sooner blown by
exertion than we should have been at a
lower level. The cold was intense ; and
though a perfect calm prevailed at the time

at the foot of the cone, as we afterwards

learnt, a keen wind was blowing from the
west,which raised a blinding mist of fine
snow that prevented us taking any distant
views.
" As may be supposed, our success has

created no small sensation throughout the

country ; the fame of it preceded us wher-
ever we went. It was announced as a sort

of wonder to the caravans travelling east-

ward ; and the Kaimakan of Bayazid has
made it the subject of a special report to
Constantinople.
 APPENDIX. 203

" From the sacred character of the

mountain, and the traditions associated

with it throughout the east, identical as

they are with scriptural records, I am in-

clined to think that a degree of importance

will attach to this performance, in popular
estimation, beyond what is due to a mere
exhibition of nerve or muscle, and this, no
doubt, will tell in favour of our national

prestige.

" Robert Stuart, Major,

" Special Service, Asia Major.
" Erzeroum, July 26."

The Russian Caucasian Calendar for

1846, which was taken from the library
of the Governor of Sebastopol, gives the
following statement of the administrative
arrangements of the provinces of the
Caucasus.
Tiflis (lat. 41 north ; long. 45 east) is

the seat of the chief military governor or

lord-lieutenant. Here the general staff is
 :

204 APPENDIX.

established, as well as military and gym-

nastic schools, etc. ; it is the head quarters
of the military police ; and here is also,

besides the civil governor's chancery and

other offices, the palace of the treasury, the
civil and criminal courts of justice, the
tribunal of public inspection, the exchequer
or palace of finance, etc. Tifiis is besides

the centre of all the military roads, and of

communication with the following places
Gori (lat. 41^), Thelaff, Achalzich, Eri-
van, Nachitchevan, Alexandropol, Eliza-
bethpol, Kutais, Schamachu, Schuscha,
Lankoran, Backu or Baku, Derbent, Sta-
vropol, Cignache, Nych, Kub, Patigorsk,
Kilsan. The last five places mentioned in
this list will probably not be found on any
map or chart, and must necessarily be of
recent date.

RICHAUDS, yj, GUEAT QUEEN STREET.

 University of California
SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY
305 De Neve Drive Parking Lot 17 • Box 951388
-

LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA 90095-1388

Return this material to the library from which it was borrowed.
 DK
511
58 00781 4709
-^ CIM85

UC SOUTHERN REGIONAL LIBRARY FACILITY

AA 000 904 099 9