Atomic Structure &

Chemical Periodicity
Part I
Prepared by: Michael Angelo R. Circulado
Bohr Model
§ In 1913, Niels Bohr developed a quantum model for the hydrogen atom. He proposed
that the electron in a hydrogen atom moves around the nucleus only in certain allowed
circular orbits.

Postulates of Bohr’s model

1. The H atom has only certain energy levels,
which Bohr called stationary states. Each state
is associated with a fixed circular orbit of the
electron around the nucleus. The higher the
energy level, the farther the orbit is from the
nucleus.
Bohr Model
2. The atom does not radiate energy while in one of its stationary states. Even though it
violates principles of classical physics, the atom does not change its energy while the
electron moves within an orbit.
3. The atom changes to another stationary state (another orbit) only by absorbing or
emitting a photon. The energy of the photon (hν) equals the difference in the energies
of the two states: Ephoton = Efinal - Einitial = hν
Features of Bohr’s model
• Quantum numbers and electron orbit. The quantum number
n is a positive integer (1, 2, 3, ...) associated with the radius
of an electron orbit, which is directly related to the electron’s
energy: the lower the n value, the smaller the radius of the
orbit, and the lower the energy level.
• Ground state. When the electron is in the first orbit (n = 1), it
is closest to the nucleus, and the atom is in its lowest (first)
energy level, called the ground state.
Bohr Model
• Ground state. When the electron is in the first orbit (n = 1), it is closest to the nucleus,
and the atom is in its lowest (first) energy level, called the ground state.
• Excited states. If the electron is in any orbit farther from the nucleus (n > 1), the atom is
in an excited state.
• Absorption. If an H atom absorbs a photon whose
energy equals the difference between lower and higher
energy levels, the electron moves to the outer (higher
energy) orbit.
• Emission. If an H atom in a higher energy level (with its
electron in a farther orbit) returns to a lower energy
level (closer orbit), the atom emits a photon whose
energy equals the difference between the two levels.
Quantum Mechanical Model
• The quantum-mechanical model describes an atom with specific quantities of energy
that result from certain allowed values of its electron’s wavelike motion.
• The Schrödinger equation governs the wave function of the quantum-mechanical
model. Erwin Schrödinger postulated this equation in 1925.
• Wave function (Ψ) - a mathematical description of the electron’s motion
• The uncertainty principle says that the position of an electron can’t be known exactly at
any moment, but it is possible to know where it probably is. This information can be
obtained by squaring the wave function, Ψ2. This is called the probability density
(electron density).
• Node - region in an atom with zero electron density
Electron Arrangements Within Atoms
Electron shells
• Electrons within an atom are grouped into main energy levels called electron shells.
• Electron shell (n) - a region of space about a nucleus that contains electrons that have
approximately the same energy and that spend most of their time approximately the
same distance from the nucleus
• Electron shells are numbered 1, 2, 3 and so on. As the number increases, energy and
the distance from the nucleus also increases.
• The total number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is given by the
formula 2n2.

Electron subshells
• Within each shell, electrons are further grouped into energy sublevels called subshells.
• Electron subshell - a region of space within an electron shell that contains electrons
that have the same energy
• Subshell size (or type) is designated using the letters s, p, d and f
Electron Arrangements Within Atoms
Electron orbitals
• Electron subshells have within them a certain, definite number of locations where
electrons may be found.
• All orbitals can accommodate a maximum of 2 electrons (Pauli’s exclusion principle).
• s subshell : 1 orbital (2 electrons)
• p subshell : 3 orbitals (6 electrons)
• d subshell : 5 orbitals (10 electrons)
• f subshell : 7 orbitals (14 electrons)
• Orbitals have distinct shapes that are related to the type of subshell in which they are
found.
Electron Arrangements Within Atoms
Electron spins
• Experimental studies indicate that as an electron “moves about” within an orbital, it spins
on its own axis in either a clockwise or counterclockwise direction.
• When two electrons are present in an orbital, they always have opposite spins.
Subshell Energy Order
§ Electrons occupy the orbitals according to a pattern. To assign electrons to various
shells, subshells, and orbitals, the following rules are followed:
1. Electron subshells are filled in the order of increasing energy.
2. Electrons occupy the orbitals of a subshell such that each orbital acquires one electron
before any orbital acquires a second electron. All electrons in such singly occupied
orbitals must have the same spin.
3. No more than two electrons may exist in a given orbital―and then only if they have
opposite spins.

Order of subshell energies: s < p < d < f

Subshell Energy Order
§ The ordering of electron subshells in terms of increasing energy is quite complex. This is
because the energies of subshells in different shells often overlap. For example, the 4s
subshell has lower energy than the 3d subshell.
Periodic Table & Electron Configurations
§ Electron configurations found in the periodic table refer to the ground-state electron
configuration of each element－the lowest energy distribution of electrons in the
subshells of its atoms.
§ There is a recurring pattern in electron configurations, which is the basis for recurring
patterns in chemical behavior.
§ Aufbau principle - states that electrons fill subshells of lowest energy level first, then
the subshells of higher energy levels
§ Two ways to indicate the distribution of electrons in subshells:
§ Electron configuration

§ Orbital diagram
Periodic Table & Electron Configurations
§ Building Up Period 1
§ Hydrogen

§ Helium

§ Pauli’s exclusion principle states than an orbital can hold no more than 2 electrons.
Therefore, in He, the 1st shell is filled

§ Building Up Period 2
§ Lithium

§ Beryllium

§ Boron
Periodic Table & Electron Configurations
§ To minimize electron-electron repulsions, the 6th electron of carbon enters one of the
unoccupied 2p orbitals rather than the 2p orbital that already holds 1 electron.
§ This exemplifies Hund’s rule: when orbitals of equal energy (degenerate) are available,
the electron configuration of lowest energy has the maximum number of unpaired
electrons with parallel spins.

§ Carbon

§ Nitrogen

§ Oxygen

§ Fluorine

§ Neon
Periodic Table & Electron Configurations
§ Elements in the same group have similar outer electron configurations and similar
patterns of reactivity.
§ For example, He and Ne in Groups 8A both have filled outer subshells and neither
element forms compounds.
Periodic Table & Electron Configurations
§ Building Up Period 3
§ The 3rd energy level splits into 3s, 3p and 3d subshells.
§ Condensed electron configurations have the element symbol of the previous noble gas
to represent its configuration, followed by that of the energy level being filled.
General Principles of Electron Configurations
General Principles of Electron Configurations
• Orbital filling order

• Categories of electrons
1. Inner (core) electrons - fill all the lower energy levels of an atom, includes any
completed transition series

2. Outer electrons - those in the highest energy level

General Principles of Electron Configurations
3. Valence electrons - outermost electrons involved in forming compounds:
• For main-group elements, the valence electrons are the outer electrons

• Group and Period Numbers

• Among the main-group elements (A groups), the group number equals the number of
outer electrons.
• For an energy level, the n2 value is the number of orbitals, and 2n2 is the maximum
number of electrons (or elements).
Similar Electron Configurations Within Groups
• Electron configurations of elements in a group are similar, especially among the main-
group elements (s-block and p-block).
• Similar outer electron configurations correlate with similar chemical behavior.
Examples:
• Group 1A elements (alkali metals): Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs & Fr all have the outer electron
configuration ns1. All are highly reactive metals which tend to lose their valence
electrons.
• Group 7A elements (halogens): F, Cl, Br, I & At all have the outer electron configuration
ns2np5. All are reactive nonmetals that occur as diatomic molecules.