PARTICULATE NATURE OF MATTER

Introduction
 Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.
 Matter is not continuous but it is made up of every tiny particles hence participate nature of
matter.
 Particulate nature of matter therefore refers to the existence of matter in very tiny particles.
Experiment to demonstrate that Matter is made up of Tiny Particles
i) Use of a Piece of Paper
 A piece of paper can be cut continuously until when the small pieces cannot be cut into
pieces any further. This suggests that the sheet of paper is made of tiny pieces of paper.
Hence matter is made up of tiny particles.

ii) Diluting Potassium Permanganate Solution

 This suggests that the particles of potassium permanganate are spread evenly in water and
each dilution process spread them further. This is a proof that matter is made up of tiny
particles which can be separated.
iii) Crushing a piece of chalk into powder.
DISSOLVING A SOLID IN A SOLVENT
 Put 100g of salt into the flask and add water carefully using a pipette without shaking the
salt until it is full.
 Insert the stopper to the mouth of the flask and shake to dissolve the salt.

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OBSERVATION
The volume of the solution of salt is less.
CONCLUSION
Particles of salt are able to occupy some spaces between the water particles.
This suggests that the particles of salt differ in size.
The particles of the solution pack more closely in the available space, thus reducing the volume.
This further suggests that particles of salt are broken down to fit into spaces between water
particles.
Explain why it is possible to dissolve sugar in water without any noticeable increases in
volume of water. The sugar particles occupy the small intermolecular spaces of water
molecules. This behaviour of sugar suggests that matter is made up of very tiny particles.
Brownian motion
 Brownian motion refers to the random movement of particles suspended in liquid and gas
particles.
To Demonstrate Brownian motion in Liquids
Consider the set- up alongside in which chalk dust is sprinkled on the surface of water in
the beaker and the beaker covered using a transparent lid. The behaviour of chalk dust is
then observed with the help of a hand lens as shown below.

The chalk dust is observed to be in constant random motion. This is due to the continuous
collision of chalk dust particles with the water molecules which are in continuous random
motion.
To Demonstrate Brownian motion in Gases (The Smoke Cell Experiment)
Consider the set up below for the smoke cell experiment.

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 Note: The smoke is introduced into the smoke cell by burning the straw and letting the
smoke fill the smoke cell from the other end. Smoke is used here because smoke particles
are light and bright.
The converging lens is used to focus/ concentrate converge the light to the smoke cell
thereby illuminating the smoke. The microscope magnifies the smoke particles assisting
the observer see the illuminated smoke particles clearly. The candle produces light.
The bright specks are observed moving randomly in the smoke cell. The bright specks are the
smoke particles which scatter / reflect light shining on them. They move randomly due to
continuous collision with invisible air particles which are in continuous random motion. Increase
in temperature increases speed of the particles.
The Kinetic Theory of Matter
The above experiments on Brownian motion constitute the kinetic theory of matter which
states that matter is made up of tiny particles which are in continuous random motion.
Arrangement of Particles in Matter
Solids
Particles are closely packed together in an organized manner and in fixed position.
Particles in solid do not move randomly but instead vibrate about their fixed positions
(vibratory motion) because of very strong intermolecular force (cohesive force).This
explains why solids have fixed volume and definite shape.

Liquids
Particles in liquids are not closely fixed as in solids but move about randomly (Brownian
motion). This is because the intermolecular forces in liquids are weaker than those in
solids.
The same reason explains why liquids have no fixed shape but assume the shape of the
container.
The intermolecular force in liquids is stronger than in gases a reason as to why liquids
have fixed volume but gases don’t.

Gases

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 Particles in gases are further apart and have an increased random motion compared to
liquid particles.
This is because of very weak intermolecular forces in gases particles as compared to
liquids and solids. The same reason explains why gases have no definite shape and
volume.

Example
Using a block diagram and correct terminology show how one state of matter changes to
the other when the temperature is changed. Define all terminologies used.
i) Melting- is the process by which a solid changes to a liquid at fixed temperature.
ii) Evaporation - is the process by which a liquid changes to a gas at any temperature.
iii) Condensation - is the process by which a gas changes to a liquid at fixed temperature.
iv) Freezing - is the process by which a liquid changes to a solid at fixed temperature.
v) Sublimation - is the process by which a solid changes to gas directly without passing
the liquid state.
vi) Deposition - is the process by which a gas changes to solid directly without passing
the liquid state.
Diffusion
Diffusion refers to the process by which particles spread from region of high
concentration to a region of low concentration. Noticeable diffusion takes place in liquids
and gases due to their continuous random motion.
Demonstrating Diffusion in Liquids
Consider the set up below used to investigate diffusion in liquids. Concentrated copper
(II) sulphate (blue in colour) is carefully and slowly introduced into the beaker through a
funnel to obtain two layers.

After some time, it is observed that the boundary between the two liquids disappears and
a homogenous pale blue mixture is obtained. This is because there is a greater rate of
movement of water particles from the water layer to copper (II) sulphate layer. At the

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 same time there is greater movement of copper (II) sulphate particles from the copper (II)
sulphate layer to the water layer.
Note: If hot liquids are used, formation of the mixture will be faster because the particles move
faster due to increased kinetic energy.
Demonstrating Diffusion in Gases
Consider the set up below used to demonstrate diffusion in gases

When the cardboard is removed and the two jars pressed together, it is observed that a
homogenous pale brown mixture forms in the two jars. This is because bromine gas
spreads into gas jar containing air at a greater rate. At the same time air spreads into gas
jar containing bromine at a greater rate.
NB: performing the experiment with the jars horizontally is faster than if the jars were
vertical Because of the densities of the gases.
Note: Diffusion in gases is faster than in liquids because:
(a) Gases have low density.
(b) Gases have high kinetic energy.
(c) Gases very weak cohesive forces.
Rates of Diffusion of Gases
Different gases have different rates of diffusion depending on their density or relative
masses.
A gas with a higher density has heavier particles and therefore its rate of diffusion is
lower than the gas with lower density.
Example
In the figure below, ammonia gas and hydrochloric acid gas diffuse and react.

(a) State and explain the observation made after sometime.

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A white deposit is formed near the cotton wool soaked in concentrated in hydrochloric acid. The
ammonia gas is less dense and has light particles thus it will diffuse faster than the hydrochloric
gas which is dense.
(b) On the diagram, show the observation
(c) If the experiment was performed at a high temperature will you expect it to take longer
or shorter time to form white deposit? Explain.
Shorter time. This is because an increase in temperature increases the kinetic energy of the
particles of the gases and hence increased rate of diffusion of the gases.
Diffusion through Porous Materials

Initially, hydrogen gas diffuses into the porous pots at a faster rate than air diffusing out.
As a result, air bubbles out of water as shown in figure i).
When the gas supply is stopped hydrogen gas diffuse out of the pot through the fine holes
at a faster rate than air gets back into the pot. This decreases the gas pressure in the pot
and as a result the higher atmospheric pressure acting on the water surface in the beaker
to pushes water up the tube as in figure ii).
Note: The beaker is used to confine the hydrogen gas around the porous pot. It is obvious that air
is denser than hydrogen gas.