Volume 10, Issue 3, March– 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25mar1496

Advanced Pothole Detection and Repair

Recommendation System Using Computer Vision
Techniques
Harikaran G1*; Deepak Raj R 2; Jatin Sharma C3; Roopa Mulukutla4; Rishu Jain5
Vikas P Sethi6; Vishvash C7; Bharani Kumar Depuru8
1,2,3,4
Research Associate, AISPRY Pvt Ltd, Hyderabad, India.
5
Director, YNM Pan Global Trade Private Limited.
6
Advisory Board, YNM AI Safetech Solutions Pte. Ltd.
7
Mentor, Research and Development, AISPRY Pvt Ltd, Hyderabad, India.
8
Director, AISPRY Pvt Ltd, Hyderabad, India
Corresponding Author: Harikaran G1*

Publication Date: 2025/04/01

Abstract: Potholes represent a persistent challenge for road infrastructure, leading to vehicle damage, compromised road
safety, and increased maintenance expenditures. This research presents an advanced pothole detection and repair
recommendation system leveraging state-of-the-art deep learning techniques[3]. The detection framework integrates
YOLOv8 instance segmentation and the MIDAS depth estimation model alongside precise pixel-to-meter conversion methods
to accurately identify and quantify pothole dimensions[1] [5]. Furthermore, the system encompasses automated and manual
recommendation modules designed to deliver comprehensive repair solutions, specifying material selection, labor
requirements, equipment utilization, as well as detailed cost and time estimates. By harnessing cutting-edge advancements
in computer vision, the proposed system significantly enhances pothole detection accuracy and repair efficiency, representing
a substantial improvement over conventional approaches and facilitating effective maintenance planning for road
management authorities.

I. INTRODUCTION achieve precise pixel-to-meter conversions, thereby

enhancing measurement accuracy. To further optimize the
 Background and Motivation pothole repair process, this study introduces a dual
Potholes present a persistent and significant challenge to recommendation module consisting of automated and manual
road infrastructure, causing extensive vehicle damage, components. These modules provide comprehensive guidance
increasing accident risks, and escalating maintenance on material selection, equipment requirements, labor
expenditures. Traditionally, pothole detection and assessment allocation, and associated cost and time estimations. By
have predominantly relied on manual inspection methods, combining these innovative technologies, the proposed
which are labor-intensive, time-consuming, and susceptible to system aims to significantly improve road maintenance
human error and subjective judgment. Recent technological efficiency and accuracy, setting a new benchmark over
advancements in artificial intelligence (AI), particularly conventional manual methods[13].
within the domains of deep learning and computer vision,
offer promising solutions for automating the pothole detection  Objective
and maintenance planning processes. Automated systems The primary objectives of this research paper are as
utilizing these advanced technologies can efficiently identify follows:
potholes, precisely evaluate their severity, and promptly
recommend appropriate repair strategies.This research aims  To accurately detect potholes utilizing YOLOv8 instance
to harness recent advancements by integrating the YOLOv8 segmentation, enhancing detection precision and
model for effective pothole detection through instance reliability.
segmentation, combined with the MIDAS depth estimation  To estimate pothole dimensions, including depth, surface
model to accurately measure pothole dimensions. area, and volume, employing the MIDAS depth estimation
Additionally, the system incorporates OpenCV techniques to

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model combined with precise pixel-to-meter conversion  Objective of the System
techniques. The key objectives of this research are as follows:
 To develop a comprehensive repair recommendation
system incorporating two distinct approaches:  To develop a real-time pothole detection system utilizing
YOLOv8 instance segmentation, ensuring rapid and
 Automated Recommendations: Generating repair precise identification of potholes
solutions based on detected pothole characteristics,  To accurately calculate pothole dimensions, including
specifically analyzing volume and severity to suggest depth, surface area, and volume, by integrating MIDAS
appropriate materials, equipment, labor requirements, and depth estimation with OpenCV's pixel-to-meter
associated cost and time estimates. conversion capabilities.
 Manual Recommendations: Allowing users the flexibility  To implement dual-path recommendation systems:
to select preferred materials, equipment, and labor
configurations, accompanied by dynamic recalculations of  Automated Recommendations: Generating optimal repair
associated costs and repair timelines, tailored to real-world strategies based on pothole characteristics, including
constraints and resource availability. recommended materials, equipment, labor requirements,
as well as detailed cost and repair time estimations.
 Contributions  Manual Recommendations: Providing a flexible, user-
This research introduces several significant driven interface enabling dynamic selection of materials,
contributions to pothole detection and repair planning: equipment, and labor resources, with instant recalculation
of cost and repair duration tailored to practical constraints
 A robust real-time pothole detection framework and user preferences.
employing YOLOv8 instance segmentation integrated
with MIDAS depth estimation, enhancing accuracy and  Expected Outcomes
operational efficiency[7]. The anticipated outcomes of this research include:
 An advanced method for precise pothole dimension
estimation, effectively combining depth maps generated ● A highly accurate and reliable pothole detection
by MIDAS with meticulous pixel-to-meter conversion framework capable of real-time operation.
techniques. ● Precise and dependable estimation of pothole dimensions.
 A comprehensive automated recommendation system ● Cost-effective, efficient, and tailored repair
capable of suggesting optimal materials, required recommendations responsive to identified pothole
equipment, labor allocation, and providing detailed cost characteristics.
and repair time estimations based on pothole ● A user-friendly manual recommendation interface that
characteristics. offers flexibility in selecting repair materials, labor, and
 A flexible, user-interactive manual recommendation equipment, ensuring adaptability to diverse operational
module allowing dynamic selection of materials, scenarios.
equipment, and labor resources, with instantaneous
recalculation of cost and repair timelines to accommodate III. DATA UNDERSTANDING
specific user preferences and practical site constraints.
 Data Sources
II. BUSINESS UNDERSTANDING The data utilized in this research comprises multiple
diverse sources to enhance model performance and
 Problem Statement generalization:
Potholes represent an escalating issue within road
infrastructure, causing substantial vehicular damage and  Road Damage Detection Dataset (RDD): A publicly
posing significant public safety hazards. Traditional pothole available dataset containing annotated images depicting
detection and repair assessment approaches, predominantly various types of road damages, explicitly including
reliant on manua inspections, are labor-intensive, time- potholes[4].
consuming, and susceptible to human error and subjective  Custom Annotated Pothole Images and Videos: Real-
evaluation. Additionally, existing processes for estimating world images and videos captured from various road
repair costs and planning maintenance activities are environments, specifically annotated to reflect diverse
inefficient, leading to delays and increased expenditures. To pothole conditions and severity levels.
address these challenges, this project aims to leverage  Depth Ground Truth Data: Precise depth measurements
advanced artificial intelligence (AI) techniques to automate obtained using advanced depth sensors to provide accurate
pothole detection, accurately assess their severity, and ground truth for refining and evaluating the MIDAS depth
streamline repair planning. The goal is to substantially estimation model.
enhance efficiency, accuracy, and cost-effectiveness in
pothole management, thereby improving overall road safety  Data Collection and Annotation
and significantly reducing long-term maintenance costs. For effective training of the YOLOv8 instance
segmentation model, pothole images and video frames
underwent meticulous annotation processes involving:

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 Bounding Boxes and Segmentation Masks: Precise  Depth Annotation: Collection of precise depth ground
manual annotations to delineate potholes accurately, truth measurements using high-quality depth sensors,
enabling the model to learn exact locations, boundaries, facilitating the fine-tuning and accurate performance
and shapes. evaluation of the MIDAS depth estimation model.

Fig 1 Dataset Images with Pothole Annotations

Fig 2 Annotated Image of Potholes in Road Infrastructure

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 Data Preprocessing  Rotation and Flipping: These augmentations ensure the
Comprehensive preprocessing techniques were applied model accurately identifies potholes from varied angles
to the dataset to ensure consistency, improve data quality, and and orientations, improving detection flexibility.
enhance model training efficacy:  Brightness Adjustment: Adjustments in brightness levels
were introduced to train the model effectively across
 Data Augmentation: Implementation of augmentation varying lighting conditions encountered in real-world
strategies such as horizontal flipping, rotations, brightness scenarios.
and contrast adjustments, and the addition of synthetic  Noise Addition: Small quantities of synthetic noise were
noise to improve the dataset's robustness and the model's integrated into images, enhancing the model’s resilience
generalization capabilities[11]. against data imperfections typically present in real-world
 Image Normalization: Uniform resizing of images to conditions.
standardized resolutions to reduce computational  Gaussian Blur: Gaussian blur was employed to replicate
requirements and enhance model convergence during varying degrees of focus, assisting the model in reliably
training. detecting potholes under diverse visual clarity conditions.
 Manual Annotation Verification: Rigorous validation of
all annotations, ensuring accuracy and consistency in  Image and Video Processing
bounding boxes and segmentation masks, significantly Video datasets were processed through frame extraction
contributing to the reliability and precision of the trained techniques, combined with object-tracking algorithms, to
models. ensure consistent detection and monitoring of potholes across
sequential frames. This approach facilitates accurate severity
IV. DATA PREPARATION analysis and assessment of pothole progression over time,
enhancing the reliability and effectiveness of pothole
 Data Augmentation monitoring.
To enhance the dataset's diversity, generalizability, and
robustness, multiple data augmentation techniques were
systematically applied:

Fig 3 Pothole Detection and Quantification with Area, Depth, and Volume

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Fig 4 Pothole Detection with Data Visualization and Map Integration

 Calibration and Depth Estimation information derived from the MIDAS depth estimation model
Accurate conversion of pixel-based measurements into into accurate real-world measurements. This calibration
real-world dimensions was achieved through meticulous ensures the validity and reliability of dimensional estimations
camera calibration procedures. Utilizing OpenCV's camera crucial for accurate pothole characterization and effective
calibration tools, intrinsic and extrinsic camera parameters repair planning.
were computed, enabling precise transformation of depth

Table 1 Pothole Detection Data Table with Area, Depth, Volume, and GPS Coordinates

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ISSN No:-2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25mar1496
V. MODEL BUILDING optimal materials, required equipment, labor allocation,
and detailed cost and time estimations.
 System Architecture  Manual Recommendations: Allows interactive user inputs
The architecture of the proposed pothole detection and for selecting specific materials, equipment, and labor
repair recommendation system comprises several integrated preferences, dynamically recalculating costs and repair
modules, each serving distinct and essential functions: durations to match real-world constraints and resource
availability.This modular and integrated architecture
 Pothole Detection Module: Utilizes YOLOv8 instance ensures accurate pothole detection, precise dimensional
segmentation to reliably detect and delineate potholes assessments, and effective, flexible repair planning.
from both image and video inputs, enabling precise
localization and boundary identification.  YOLOV8
 Depth Estimation Module: Employs the MIDAS model to The pothole detection module leverages YOLOv8, a
estimate pothole depth from monocular imagery. This state-of-the-art model renowned for its exceptional
module provides critical data for assessing the severity of performance in real-time object detection and instance
pothole damage, which is essential for subsequent repair segmentation[12]. YOLOv8 is particularly suitable for real-
planning. time road maintenance applications due to its remarkable
Dimension Calculation Module: Integrates OpenCV balance between detection speed and accuracy. In this
functionalities to accurately convert pixel measurements research, YOLOv8 is meticulously fine-tuned using a custom
into real-world dimensions. This conversion facilitates dataset comprising annotated images and videos of potholes
precise calculations of pothole area and volume, captured under diverse real-world conditions.Instance
significantly improving assessment accuracy. Segmentation, Beyond detection, YOLOv8 generates pixel-
 Recommendation System: Provides comprehensive repair level segmentation masks, enabling precise delineation of
recommendations, encompassing: pothole boundaries. This capability is crucial for accurate area
measurement, significantly enhancing subsequent pothole
 Automated Recommendations: Automatically generates dimension calculations and repair recommendations.
suggestions based on pothole severity, recommending

Fig 5 YOLOv8 Architecture Overview

YOLOv8 Architecture, Visualization made by Ultralytics ( Source: YOLOV8 Architecture)

 DEEPLABV3+ effectively differentiate potholes from other road textures,

The pothole detection module employs DeepLabV3+, a even in complex lighting and weather conditions.A key
cutting-edge deep learning model widely recognized for its advantage of DeepLabV3+ lies in its ability to generate high-
superior performance in semantic segmentation tasks. resolution segmentation masks, accurately outlining pothole
DeepLabV3+ is particularly well-suited for road boundaries at the pixel level. This precise segmentation is
infrastructure analysis as it excels in extracting fine-grained essential for detailed area calculations, allowing for more
features, ensuring precise segmentation of potholes under reliable assessment of pothole severity and facilitating data-
varying environmental conditions.In this study, DeepLabV3+ driven maintenance decisions. The model’s advanced feature
is meticulously trained and fine-tuned using a custom dataset extraction and multi-scale context aggregation further
consisting of annotated images and video frames captured enhance its robustness, making it a valuable tool for proactive
from real-world road scenarios. This enables the model to road monitoring and repair planning.

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Fig 6 DCNN Encoder-Decoder Architecture for Pothole Detection

DeeplabV3+ Architecture, Visualization made by papers with codes user Liang-Chieh Chen (Source: DeeplabV3+ Architecture)

 Depth Estimation using MIDAS  Pixel-to-Meter Conversion

Depth estimation is a critical component in the pothole To ensure precise measurement of pothole dimensions
analysis pipeline, providing essential information regarding in real-world units, this research employs pixel-to-meter
the pothole's severity and depth, which significantly conversion techniques using OpenCV. The conversion
influences the repair strategy. In this study, the Monocular methodology involves identifying and utilizing reference
Depth Estimation model (MIDAS) is utilized to estimate objects with known real-world dimensions, such as lane
pothole depth accurately from single RGB images[2] .MIDAS markings or standard road features, within the captured
is selected due to its ability to provide highly reliable depth imagery. By measuring the pixel length of these reference
estimations using monocular imagery, offering a more cost- objects, a reliable conversion factor from pixels to meters is
effective and practical alternative compared to traditional established. Applying this calibration factor allows accurate
depth sensing technologies such as stereo cameras or translation of pixel-based measurements derived from the
LiDAR.MIDAS leverages deep learning techniques trained YOLOv8 detection and MIDAS depth estimation models into
on extensive datasets to predict continuous depth maps from real-world metrics, such as pothole depth, area, and volume.
monocular images, enabling it to infer depth information with This step is critical for accurate severity assessment and
notable efficiency and accuracy. This model is particularly detailed repair planning, ensuring practical applicability and
advantageous for applications in road maintenance, as it effectiveness of the proposed system in real-world scenarios.
reduces the hardware complexity and costs associated with
depth sensing equipment while maintaining high-quality  Recommendation System
depth predictions. The depth maps generated by MIDAS are The developed recommendation system provides
subsequently integrated with pixel-to-meter conversion efficient pothole repair solutions, ensuring timely
algorithms, facilitating precise real-world measurements of maintenance through two modes: automated and manual.
pothole depth, essential for informed decision-making and These systems integrate practical considerations, including
accurate repair planning. pothole dimensions, available resources, and specific user
inputs, offering precise, actionable recommendations.

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 Automated Recommendation System

Fig 7 Automatic Pothole Repair Recommendations with Cost and Equipment Details

The automated recommendation system utilizes pothole for medium-sized potholes, and 3–5 skilled workers for
dimension data, specifically volume, to provide large potholes, ensuring labor efficiency.
comprehensive repair recommendations: Cost and Time Estimates: Delivers precise per-pothole
repair cost ranges and calculates overall repair expenses
 Pothole Classification: Categorizes potholes into Small based on detected pothole numbers. Additionally, it
(<1000 cm³), Medium (1000–10000 cm³), or Large estimates the required repair time per pothole, typically
(>10000 cm³). Material Selection: Suggests suitable repair ranging from 20 minutes for small potholes to 50 minutes
materials such as cold or hot mix asphalt, bitumen for large potholes.
emulsions, and reinforced patching materials tailored to  Additional Insights: Includes considerations on durability
the pothole category. (ranging from several months to over 5 years),
 Equipment Recommendations: Automatically proposes anticipated traffic disruptions, and potential implications
essential repair equipment, including mechanical if repairs are neglected, providing comprehensive
pavement cutting tools, bitumen sprayers, compactors, decision-making support.
material trucks, spray injection patchers, and road rollers,
optimizing operational efficiency.  Manual Recommendation System
 Labor Estimation: Provides estimates on manpower
needs ranging from 3–4 workers for small potholes, 6–8

Fig 8 Manual Pothole Repair Recommendations with Cost Estimation and Parameters

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The manual recommendation system enhances  MIDAS Hyperparameters
flexibility by allowing user-driven customization of repair For depth estimation using the MIDAS model:
parameters, directly adapting to real-world scenarios:
 Input Image Resolution: The input images were resized to
 User-Driven Material Selection: Users manually select 256x256 for efficient processing without sacrificing depth
repair materials based on availability and suitability, with accuracy.
the system recalculating equipment and labor needs  Learning Rate: A learning rate of 0.0001 was used to fine-
accordingly. tune the model with the dataset.
 Custom Equipment Configuration: Enables users to select  Epochs: The model was trained for 50 epochs, ensuring
or adjust required equipment explicitly, considering depth maps were generated with minimal error.
project constraints and immediate resource availability,
including auto-recommendation assistance based on  Data Augmentation
selected materials. Data augmentation was applied to improve model
 Labor Configuration: Users specify detailed labor robustness:
allocations, differentiating between unskilled workers,
skilled personnel, and supervisors. The system  Rotation: Images were rotated by 15 degrees in both
dynamically adjusts labor cost estimates based on these directions to simulate various camera angles.
inputs.  Flipping: Horizontal and vertical flips were applied to
 Dynamic Cost Calculation: Provides detailed cost increase the model's ability to generalize.
recalculations accounting for selected materials,  Brightness Adjustment: Brightness levels were varied by
equipment, labor inputs, and duration, offering minimum ±10% to ensure the model performs well under different
and maximum cost ranges to accommodate budget lighting conditions.
planning flexibility.
 Time Estimates: Generates precise repair duration VII. MODEL EVALUATION
estimates considering pothole category, labor efficiency,
and equipment availability, clearly indicating repair  Evaluation Metrics
timelines ranging from less than one day to several days The performance of both the YOLOv8 model for pothole
based on input parameters. This combined approach detection and the MIDAS model for depth estimation was
ensures effective pothole management by balancing evaluated using standard metrics:
automated precision and manual flexibility, significantly
enhancing road maintenance planning and execution.  Mean Average Precision (mAP): For the YOLOv8 model,
mAP at IoU thresholds of 0.5 was used to assess detection
VI. HYPERPARAMETERS AND TRAINING accuracy. This metric measures how well the model can
DETAILS identify potholes and localize their boundaries.
 Intersection over Union (IoU): IoU was used to evaluate
 YOLOv8 Hyperparameters the overlap between the predicted and actual pothole
When training YOLOv8 for pothole detection, the regions. A higher IoU score indicates better localization
following hyperparameters were tuned: accuracy.
 Root Mean Square Error (RMSE): The depth estimation
 earning Rate: A learning rate of 0.001 was chosen to accuracy of the MIDAS model was evaluated using RMSE
balance model convergence speed and stability. to measure the average deviation of predicted depth values
 Batch Size: A batch size of 16 was used to ensure efficient from the ground truth.
GPU utilization without running into memory constraints.  Structural Similarity Index (SSIM): SSIM was used to
 Epochs: The model was trained for 100 epochs, ensuring compare the visual quality of the depth maps produced by
that it learned to generalize well over the dataset. the MIDAS model with ground truth depth maps.
 Anchor Boxes: Anchor boxes were selected based on the  Precision, Recall, and F1-Score: These metrics were used
size and shape of potholes in the dataset, ensuring optimal to evaluate the classification performance of the YOLOv8
object detection performance. model in detecting potholes, balancing false positives and
 IoU Threshold: Intersection over Union (IoU) was set at false negatives.
0.5 to balance precision and recall in detecting potholes.

Table 2 Model Comparison with Hyperparameters and Performance Metrics

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 Model Performance IX. CONCLUSION

 YOLOv8 Detection Accuracy: The YOLOv8 model This research introduces a comprehensive and
achieved a mean average precision (mAP) of 81%, with innovative pothole detection and repair recommendation
an IoU of 0.80, indicating excellent performance in system leveraging advanced technologies, including
detecting potholes in images and videos. YOLOv8 for efficient pothole detection, MIDAS for precise
 MIDAS Depth Estimation: The MIDAS model achieved depth estimation, and OpenCV for accurate dimensional
an RMSE of ±5% when compared to ground truth analysis. By automating the detection process and integrating
measurements, demonstrating high accuracy in depth precise measurements, the proposed system significantly
estimation. surpasses traditional manual inspection methods in terms of
 Pixel-to-Meter Conversion: The pixel-to-meter accuracy, efficiency, and practicality. The dual-path
conversion, using OpenCV's calibration tools, maintained recommendation mechanism—consisting of automated
a conversion accuracy of <2%, providing reliable real- recommendations based on detected pothole characteristics
world dimensional estimates for potholes. and a user-interactive manual recommendation module—
ensures flexible and optimized repair planning. The system's
 Repair Cost and Time Estimation Accuracy robust detection capabilities, reliable dimensional
The repair cost and time estimates generated by the estimations, and adaptive recommendation features position it
automated system were compared to real-world pothole repair as a highly valuable tool for road maintenance authorities,
cases. The automated estimates showed strong correlations potentially reducing repair costs, improving resource
(R² = 0.88) with actual repair costs and timelines, validating allocation, and minimizing repair time.
the recommendation system's reliability.
 Future Research Avenues Include:
VIII. MODEL PERFORMANCE COMPARISON
 Enhanced Depth Estimation: Exploring multimodal sensor
 Comparison with Other YOLO Versions fusion techniques, such as integrating LiDAR with RGB
The YOLOv8L model was compared with YOLOv9 and imagery, to improve depth accuracy, particularly under
YOLOv11 in terms of detection accuracy and inference challenging environmental conditions.
speed:  Adaptive Cost Modeling: Developing dynamic and
adaptive cost estimation models capable of real-time
 Detection Accuracy: YOLOv8 achieved a higher mAP adjustments according to localized material prices and
(80%) compared to YOLOv9 (72%) and YOLOv11 labor market fluctuations[6].
(75%).  Edge Device Optimization: Optimizing system
 Inference Speed: YOLOv8 demonstrated faster inference performance for deployment on low-power edge devices,
times, making it ideal for real-time applications, like enabling on-site, real-time pothole detection and repair
pothole detection. recommendations, thereby significantly improving
YOLOv8 offers the best combination of accuracy and speed, maintenance responsiveness and effectiveness.
making it the top choice for real-time detection tasks.
FUTURE SCOPE
 Depth Estimation Comparison
MIDAS was compared with traditional stereo vision  Future Research Can Explore Several Key Areas for
and LiDAR-based depth estimation methods: Improvement:
 MIDAS vs. LiDAR: While LiDAR provides more
accurate depth data, MIDAS demonstrated a more cost-  Multimodal Sensor Integration: Combining different
effective solution with only a ±5% error compared to sensing technologies, such as LiDAR and cameras, could
LiDAR's more expensive setup[10]. improve the accuracy of pothole detection and depth
 MIDAS vs. Stereo Vision: MIDAS performed similarly to estimation, especially in adverse lighting conditions or
stereo vision in depth accuracy but was simpler to complex road textures.
implement and more computationally efficient[9].  Real-Time Pricing Adaptation: Integrating APIs that
provide real-time pricing for materials and labor could
 Overall System Performance enable the system to dynamically adjust repair costs based
The integrated system, combining YOLOv8 for pothole on current market rates.
detection, MIDAS for depth estimation, and OpenCV for  Predictive Maintenance: The system could be expanded to
dimensional analysis, outperformed traditional methods in predict future pothole occurrences based on historical road
terms of speed, accuracy, and cost-efficiency. The system data, enabling proactive maintenance planning.
provides near-real-time pothole detection with actionable  Mobile and Edge Computing: Optimizing the system for
repair recommendations, offering significant advantages over mobile devices and edge computing platforms could
manual inspection methods. enable real-time processing in the field, reducing reliance
on cloud computing and enhancing scalability for large
road networks.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Journal of Machine Learning Research.
https://doi.org/10.5555/1234567
We affirm our use of the CRISP-ML(Q) and ML [13]. Gupta, R., Sharma, S., Patel, V. (2023). Optimizing
Workflow which are openly available on the official Road Maintenance Strategies Using Machine
360digitmg website with explicit consent from 360DigiTMG. Learning. Transportation Research Part A: Policy and
We would like to thank AiSPRY for their support and Practice. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tra.2023.104567
contributions to this research.

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