Exp1:-To study about Basic Terms Used in

Web Development.

Introduction
Web development is the process of designing, building, and maintaining
websites and web applications that run on internet browsers. It involves
multiple disciplines, including front-end development (user interface and
experience), back-end development (server-side logic and database
management), and full-stack development (a combination of both).
Understanding the key concepts and technologies in web development is
essential for creating functional and visually appealing websites.

Basic Terms of Web Development

1.​ HTML (HyperText Markup Language) - HTML is the standard
language used to create the structure of web pages. It consists of
various elements such as headings, paragraphs, links, and images,
which define how content is displayed in a web browser.​

2.​ CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) - CSS is a stylesheet language used

to control the layout and design of web pages. It allows developers to
apply styles like colors, fonts, spacing, and animations to enhance
user experience.​

3.​ JavaScript - JavaScript is a powerful programming language used to

add interactivity and dynamic content to web pages. It enables
functions like form validation, image sliders, and interactive maps.​

4.​ Front-end Development - Front-end development involves designing

and coding the visual elements of a website that users interact with. It
includes technologies like HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and frameworks
like React or Angular.​

5.​ Back-end Development - Back-end development focuses on

server-side programming, database management, and application
logic. It ensures that the website processes data efficiently and
securely using languages like PHP, Python, or Node.js.​
6.​ Full-stack Development - Full-stack development combines both
front-end and back-end development. A full-stack developer can work
on all aspects of web development, from UI design to server
management.​

7.​ Frameworks and Libraries - Frameworks (e.g., Angular, Django) and

libraries (e.g., React, jQuery) provide pre-written code and best
practices to speed up development and maintain scalability.​

8.​ Database Management System (DBMS) - A DBMS is software that

stores and manages data for web applications. Popular databases
include MySQL, PostgreSQL, and MongoDB.​

9.​ Domain Name - A domain name is the web address (e.g.,

www.example.com) that users enter to access a website. It serves as
a human-readable representation of an IP address.​

10.​Hosting - Web hosting services provide storage and access to

websites on the internet. Hosting options include shared hosting, VPS,
dedicated hosting, and cloud hosting.​

11.​HTTP/HTTPS (HyperText Transfer Protocol/Secure) - HTTP is the

protocol for transferring web pages over the internet. HTTPS is a
secure version that encrypts data using SSL/TLS.​

12.​API (Application Programming Interface) - An API allows different

software applications to communicate with each other. It is commonly
used for integrating third-party services like payment gateways and
social media.​

13.​CMS (Content Management System) - A CMS like WordPress or

Joomla allows users to manage website content without extensive
coding knowledge, making website creation easier.​

14.​Responsive Design - Responsive design ensures that web pages

adapt to different screen sizes and devices, providing a seamless
experience on desktops, tablets, and mobile phones.​

15.​SEO (Search Engine Optimization) - SEO consists of techniques to

improve a website's visibility on search engines like Google. This
includes keyword optimization, backlinks, and site speed
improvements.​
 16.​Cookies and Sessions - Cookies store small amounts of user data
on a browser, while sessions store data temporarily on a server. Both
are used for user authentication and personalization.​

17.​Caching - Caching improves website performance by storing

frequently accessed data. It reduces load time and enhances user
experience by retrieving stored resources instead of making new
requests.​

18.​SSL Certificate - An SSL certificate encrypts data between the

browser and server to ensure secure transactions. It is essential for
e-commerce sites and sites requiring sensitive user data.​

19.​Version Control Systems (VCS) - A VCS like Git helps developers

track code changes, collaborate with teams, and revert to previous
versions when needed.​

20.​Web Accessibility - Web accessibility ensures that websites are

usable by people with disabilities. It includes features like screen
reader compatibility and keyboard navigation.​

Network Topologies
Network topology refers to the arrangement of different elements (links,
nodes, etc.) in a computer network. It defines how devices are connected and
communicate with each other. The choice of topology affects performance,
scalability, and fault tolerance.

1. Bus Topology

In a bus topology, all devices share a single communication line (bus). Data is
transmitted in both directions but can only be sent by one device at a time to
prevent collisions.

Example: A group of computers connected to a single coaxial cable in a local

office setup.

Advantages:

●​ Simple and cost-effective setup.

●​ Requires less cable compared to other topologies.
Disadvantages:

●​ A failure in the main cable disrupts the entire network.

●​ Network performance degrades as more devices are added.

Diagram:-

2. Star Topology

In a star topology, each device is connected to a central hub or switch, which

manages network communication.

Example: A typical home or office network where all computers connect to a

central router.

Advantages:

●​ Easy to manage and troubleshoot.

●​ Failure of one device does not affect the network.

Disadvantages:

●​ If the central hub fails, the entire network is down.

●​ More cabling is required compared to bus topology.

Diagram:-
3. Ring Topology

In a ring topology, each device is connected to exactly two other devices,

forming a circular network. Data travels in one or both directions.

Example: Token Ring networks used in older LAN setups.

Advantages:

●​ Reduces the chances of data collisions.

●​ Predictable network performance.

Disadvantages:

●​ A single break in the ring can disrupt the entire network.

●​ Slower performance compared to star topology.

Diagram:-

4. Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to multiple other devices,

ensuring multiple communication paths.

Example: A military communication network where redundancy is crucial.

Advantages:

●​ Provides high reliability and fault tolerance.

●​ Secure and private communication.

Disadvantages:

●​ Complex and expensive to implement.

●​ Requires extensive cabling and configuration.
 Diagram:-

5. Hybrid Topology

A hybrid topology is a combination of two or more topologies, offering

flexibility based on network needs.

Example: A corporate network using a mix of star and mesh topologies for
different departments.

Advantages:

●​ Scalable and adaptable to different needs.

●​ Optimizes network performance.

Disadvantages:

●​ Complex to design and maintain.

●​ Higher implementation costs.

Diagram:-

Conclusion
Understanding web development terms and network topologies is essential
for building efficient and scalable web applications. Web technologies like
HTML, CSS, and JavaScript form the foundation of web development, while
network topologies impact performance, security, and reliability.
Exp2:-To study about Internet, working,
advantage and disadvantage
What is the Internet?

The Internet is a global network that connects millions of computers

and devices worldwide, allowing them to communicate and share
information. It works using a set of rules (protocols) that help
computers talk to each other.

How Does the Internet Work?

The Internet works like a giant web of networks, where multiple devices
(computers, phones, servers, etc.) are connected using wires, cables,
satellites, and wireless signals. The data you send and receive travels in
the form of small pieces called packets.

Here’s how it works step by step:

1.​ Your Device Requests Data​

○​ When you open a website (like Google), your device sends

a request to a server.
2.​ Data Travels Through Networks​

○​ The request moves through different networks, like your

Wi-Fi router, Internet Service Provider (ISP), and undersea
cables.
3.​ Server Responds​

○​ The requested website's server receives the request,

processes it, and sends back the required data.
4.​ Data Reaches You​

○​ The data (webpage, image, video) travels back to your

device in small packets, reassembling to display what you
requested.
Internet Architecture (Structure)
The Internet follows a layered structure to make communication smooth
and organized. The main components are:

1. End Devices (Users & Servers)

●​ Users: Computers, smartphones, and other devices used to

browse the Internet.
●​ Servers: Computers that store websites, videos, emails, etc.

2. Network Devices (Routers, Switches, Modems)

●​ Router: Directs Internet traffic between different networks.

●​ Switch: Connects multiple devices within a local network (e.g., in
an office).
●​ Modem: Converts digital signals to allow Internet access through
telephone lines or fiber cables.

3. Internet Service Providers (ISPs)

●​ Companies that provide Internet access to homes and

businesses (e.g., Jio, Airtel, BSNL).

4. Data Centers & Cloud Servers

●​ Large facilities that store websites, apps, and cloud services like
Google Drive or Netflix.

5. Communication Protocols (Rules of Internet)

●​ IP (Internet Protocol): Assigns unique addresses to devices.

●​ TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures data is received
correctly.
●​ HTTP/HTTPS: Used for browsing websites securely.

6. Backbone of the Internet (Fiber Optic Cables, Satellites,

Submarine Cables)

●​ The Internet relies on high-speed fiber-optic cables and satellites

to connect countries worldwide.
Advantages of the Internet
✔ Fast Communication – Emails, video calls, and instant messaging
make it easy to connect with people worldwide.

✔ Unlimited Information – Google, Wikipedia, and other platforms

provide knowledge on any topic.

✔ Entertainment – Access to movies, music, games, and social media

(YouTube, Instagram, Netflix).

✔ E-commerce & Online Shopping – Websites like Amazon and Flipkart

allow online purchases.

✔ Remote Work & Online Learning – People can work or study from
anywhere using platforms like Zoom and Coursera.

✔ Cloud Storage & Backup – Services like Google Drive and Dropbox
help store files safely.

Disadvantages of the Internet

❌ Cybersecurity Risks – Hackers, viruses, and data theft can happen.
❌ Addiction & Time Waste – Social media and online gaming can be
addictive.

❌ Privacy Issues – Personal information can be misused if not

protected properly.

❌ Fake News & Misinformation – False information spreads easily on

social media.

❌ Internet Dependency – Many tasks require the Internet, and an

outage can cause problems.

Applications of the Internet

📌 Social Media – Facebook, Instagram, Twitter for communication and
networking.

📌 Banking & Payments – UPI, Paytm, Google Pay for digital

transactions.

📌 Online Education – Google Classroom, Udemy, and YouTube for

learning.

📌 Healthcare – Online doctor consultations, medical research, and

hospital management.

📌 Smart Homes & IoT – Controlling home appliances with the Internet
(e.g., Alexa, Google Home).

📌 E-Governance – Online services like Aadhaar, Passport applications,

and tax filing.

📌 Artificial Intelligence & Automation – AI-based services like ChatGPT,

self-driving cars, and smart assistants.

Conclusion
The Internet is a powerful tool that connects the world and makes life
easier in many ways. However, it also has risks, so using it responsibly
and securely is important. The future of the Internet will continue to
evolve with technologies like 5G, AI, and blockchain, making it even
more advanced and efficient.
Exp3:-To study about TCP and OSI Model

Introduction
The TCP/IP model and OSI model are conceptual frameworks that describe
how data is transmitted over a network. While the OSI model provides a
standardized approach with seven layers, the TCP/IP model is a more
practical four-layered architecture used for real-world networking, including
the internet.

TCP/IP Model
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) model is a
four-layer framework developed to standardize network communication over
the internet. It is widely used in real-world applications.

Layers of TCP/IP Model

1.​ Application Layer enables communication between software

applications and the network. It provides services such as file
transfers, email, and web browsing. Protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP,
and DNS operate at this layer to ensure seamless interaction between
users and applications.​

2.​ Transport Layer ensures the reliable transmission of data between

devices. It breaks messages into smaller segments, controls data flow,
and detects errors to maintain integrity. TCP provides
connection-oriented transmission, while UDP enables faster but less
reliable communication.​

3.​ Internet Layer is responsible for logical addressing and routing. It

determines the best path for data packets to travel across networks
and ensures they reach their destination. Protocols such as IP, ICMP,
and ARP facilitate addressing and error handling in this layer.​

4.​ Network Access Layer focuses on the physical connection between

devices. It converts data into electrical signals or radio waves for
transmission. This layer defines how data is formatted, transmitted,
 and received across physical media like Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and optical
fiber.​

OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a seven-layer
theoretical framework developed by ISO to standardize network
communication.

Layers of OSI Model

1.​ Application Layer provides services that directly interact with the
user, such as email, file transfer, and remote login. It ensures that
network processes run efficiently, utilizing protocols like HTTP, FTP,
and SMTP.​

2.​ Presentation Layer handles data formatting, encryption, and

compression. It ensures that data transferred between different
systems is readable and secure. Examples include SSL/TLS for
encryption and JPEG for image compression.​

3.​ Session Layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication

sessions between devices. It synchronizes data exchanges, ensuring
smooth communication. Protocols like NetBIOS and RPC facilitate
session management.​

4.​ Transport Layer ensures the complete and error-free transmission of

messages. It segments data into smaller packets, manages data flow,
and corrects errors. TCP ensures reliability, while UDP provides faster,
connectionless communication.​

5.​ Network Layer is responsible for logical addressing and routing of

packets across networks. It ensures that data reaches the correct
destination using IP addresses. Protocols such as IP, ICMP, and ARP
assist in addressing and path selection.​

6.​ Data Link Layer provides error detection, flow control, and MAC
addressing. It ensures that data is correctly formatted into frames
before transmission. Ethernet and PPP are key protocols operating at
 this layer.​

7.​ Physical Layer deals with the transmission of raw data bits over
physical media. It defines hardware components such as cables,
switches, and network interfaces, ensuring proper electrical and
mechanical data transmission.​

Differences between TCP/IP and OSI Model

Feature TCP/IP Model OSI Model

Number of 4 7
Layers

Developed DARPA ISO

By

Usage Practical (used for internet) Theoretical (used for

standardization)

Layer Combined layers (e.g., Presentation Separate layers for

Integration & Session in Application layer) better modularity

Protocols Defines standard internet protocols Does not define

standard protocols

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages of TCP/IP Model

●​ Well-suited for real-world networking.

●​ Supports a scalable and flexible network.
●​ Independent of underlying hardware and software.
●​ Ensures reliable communication via TCP.

Disadvantages of TCP/IP Model

●​ Does not clearly separate all functions (e.g., Application layer handles
multiple roles).
 ●​ Less adaptable to new technologies compared to OSI.

Advantages of OSI Model

●​ Provides a modular and structured approach.

●​ Clearly separates network functions into different layers.
●​ Standardized, making troubleshooting easier.

Disadvantages of OSI Model

●​ Theoretical model, not directly used in networking.

●​ Implementation complexity due to seven layers.
●​ Slower adoption in real-world applications compared to TCP/IP.

Conclusion
The TCP/IP model is the backbone of modern networking and is widely used
in the internet. The OSI model, though not used directly, is a valuable
conceptual framework that helps in understanding network communication.
Understanding both models helps in designing and managing efficient
network systems.

Exp:-4To study about Web server

Introduction
A web server is a system that processes and delivers web pages to clients
over the internet. It handles requests from web browsers and serves content
such as HTML pages, images, and other media. Web servers are essential
for hosting websites and web applications, allowing users to access content
online.

Functions of a Web Server

 ●​ Processing Client Requests: A web server receives HTTP/HTTPS
requests from clients (browsers) and processes them.
●​ Serving Web Pages: It retrieves and sends the requested web pages,
documents, or resources to the client.
●​ Handling Dynamic Content: Supports server-side scripting to
generate dynamic web pages using PHP, ASP, JSP, etc.
●​ Managing Security: Implements security protocols like SSL/TLS for
encrypted communication.
●​ Load Balancing: Distributes traffic across multiple servers to optimize
performance and prevent overload.
●​ Logging and Monitoring: Records server activity and errors for
maintenance and analysis.

Types of Web Servers

1.​ Apache HTTP Server: Open-source and widely used for hosting
websites.
2.​ NGINX: Known for high performance, load balancing, and reverse
proxy features.
3.​ Microsoft IIS: Developed by Microsoft for Windows-based servers.
4.​ LiteSpeed: Focuses on speed and efficiency in handling high-traffic
websites.
5.​ Tomcat: Specializes in serving Java applications and JSP pages.

How a Web Server Works

1.​ A user enters a website URL in their browser.
2.​ The browser sends an HTTP/HTTPS request to the web server.
3.​ The web server processes the request and retrieves the requested
content.
4.​ The server sends the response (HTML, CSS, JavaScript, or other
media) to the browser.
5.​ The browser renders the web page for the user.

Advantages of a Web Server

●​ Fast Content Delivery: Optimized for speed and efficiency.
 ●​ Scalability: Can handle multiple requests simultaneously.
●​ Security Features: Supports authentication and encryption.
●​ Reliability: Ensures continuous availability of web resources.
●​ Customizability: Allows configuration based on specific needs.

Disadvantages of a Web Server

●​ Resource Intensive: Requires hardware and network resources.
●​ Security Risks: Vulnerable to cyber threats like DDoS attacks.
●​ Complex Configuration: Requires expertise to set up and manage.
●​ Limited Dynamic Processing: Needs additional support for complex
web applications.

Conclusion
A web server is a crucial component of internet infrastructure, enabling users
to access websites and web applications. It efficiently processes requests,
serves content, and ensures secure communication between clients and
servers. Choosing the right web server depends on performance, security,
and application requirements.

Exp5:-To study about Web Browser

Introduction
A web browser is a software application that allows users to access, retrieve,
and display information on the internet. It acts as a bridge between the user
and the World Wide Web, interpreting and rendering web pages written in
HTML, CSS, and JavaScript. Web browsers enable users to navigate
websites, interact with online applications, and consume digital content such
as videos, images, and interactive elements. They are essential for everyday
internet use, facilitating communication, research, entertainment, and
e-commerce.

Functions of a Web Browser

 ●​ Fetching Web Pages: A web browser sends HTTP/HTTPS requests
to a web server to retrieve the requested content.
●​ Rendering Web Content: The browser processes and displays web
pages using its rendering engine, ensuring proper layout and visuals.
●​ User Interaction: Supports input fields, buttons, form submissions,
and various multimedia elements to enhance user engagement.
●​ Bookmarking and History: Allows users to save frequently visited
sites and track browsing history for quick access.
●​ Security and Privacy: Implements encryption protocols (SSL/TLS),
private browsing modes, and pop-up blockers to enhance user safety.
●​ Extensions and Customization: Offers additional features through
plugins and extensions for a personalized browsing experience.
●​ Tab Management: Allows users to open multiple web pages in
different tabs for efficient multitasking.
●​ Downloading Files: Provides the capability to download and manage
files from the internet.
●​ Syncing Across Devices: Many browsers offer synchronization
features to maintain bookmarks, passwords, and browsing history
across multiple devices.

Types of Web Browsers

1.​ Google Chrome: A widely used browser known for its speed, security,
and extensive extension support. It integrates seamlessly with Google
services.
2.​ Mozilla Firefox: An open-source browser focusing on privacy and
customization, with strong support for extensions.
3.​ Microsoft Edge: Based on the Chromium engine, it is optimized for
Windows users and offers enhanced security and performance
features.
4.​ Safari: The default browser for Apple devices, known for its efficiency,
speed, and seamless integration with macOS and iOS.
5.​ Opera: Features built-in ad-blocking, a free VPN, and a unique
sidebar for easy multitasking.
6.​ Brave: A privacy-focused browser that blocks ads and trackers by
default while rewarding users with cryptocurrency for viewing optional
ads.
7.​ Tor Browser: Specially designed for anonymous browsing, routing
traffic through the Tor network to protect user identity and location.
How a Web Browser Works
1.​ A user enters a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) in the browser's
address bar or performs a web search.
2.​ The browser resolves the domain name using DNS (Domain Name
System) to find the corresponding IP address of the web server.
3.​ It sends an HTTP or HTTPS request to the web server hosting the
requested web page.
4.​ The web server processes the request and responds with the required
web page data (HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and media files).
5.​ The browser’s rendering engine interprets the content and displays it
in a structured format for the user.
6.​ The user can interact with the page, navigate links, submit forms, or
view multimedia content.
7.​ If needed, the browser caches certain elements of the page for faster
future access.

Advantages of a Web Browser

●​ Easy Access to Information: Acts as a gateway to a vast amount of
online knowledge and resources.
●​ User-Friendly Interface: Designed with intuitive navigation controls,
search bars, and settings.
●​ Cross-Platform Compatibility: Functions on desktops, smartphones,
tablets, and smart devices.
●​ Secure Browsing: Includes features like SSL/TLS encryption,
phishing protection, and sandboxing.
●​ Customizable Experience: Supports themes, extensions, and
plugins to enhance usability and functionality.
●​ High-Speed Performance: Optimized for quick page loading and
efficient resource utilization.
●​ Offline Mode: Some browsers support offline access to saved web
pages.
●​ Developer Tools: Built-in tools for web developers to debug and
optimize websites.
Disadvantages of a Web Browser
●​ Security Vulnerabilities: Browsers are susceptible to cyber threats
like phishing, malware, and malicious scripts.
●​ Resource Consumption: Some browsers consume high RAM and
CPU, leading to system slowdowns.
●​ Compatibility Issues: Certain web pages may not function properly
on all browsers.
●​ Privacy Concerns: Some browsers collect and track user data for
advertising and analytics.
●​ Frequent Updates: Regular updates are necessary to maintain
security and functionality, which may require significant bandwidth.
●​ Addiction and Distraction: Easy access to social media and
entertainment can lead to decreased productivity.
●​ Dependency on Internet Connection: While some content is
available offline, most browser functions require an active internet
connection.

Conclusion
A web browser is an essential tool for accessing and interacting with online
content. It acts as a bridge between users and the internet, processing web
requests, rendering pages, and ensuring secure communication between
clients and web servers. With various browsers available, users can choose
one that best suits their needs based on factors such as speed, security,
privacy, and additional functionalities. Understanding how web browsers work
and their capabilities helps users make informed decisions to optimize their
browsing experience.