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GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION
SYSTEM

 Prepared by
 Aryasree Madhukumar
 Assistant Professor
 Department of Civil Engineering

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CONTENT
❖ Introduction

❖ Definition of GIS

❖ Why we used GIS ?

❖ Components of GIS

❖ Geographical Data

❖ Types and characteristics of Geographical

Data
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❖ Application Areas of GIS
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INTRODUCTION

 A geographic information system (GIS) is A computer system for

capturing, storing, analyzing, and displaying data that is spatially
referenced to the earth. GIS can be used to create maps, analyze
patterns of the geographical elements, and identify relationships. It
is a powerful tool that can be used for a variety of purposes.

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DEFINITION OF GIS

GIS is define as the process of collecting

geographical data, Storing
,Manipulating, Analyzing , as well as
provide a output result of the real world

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Uses GIS
We use GIS (Geographic Information System) for many reasons. Here are some of the most common ones:

► To visualize data: GIS can be used to create maps and charts that help us visualize data in a way that is easy to

understand. This can be helpful for understanding patterns, trends, and relationships in data.

► To analyze data: GIS can be used to perform spatial analysis on data. This can help us to understand how different

variables are related to each other in space. For example, we can use GIS to analyze the relationship between crime rates

and poverty rates in a city.

► To manage data: GIS can be used to store, organize, and manage large amounts of data. This can be helpful for

businesses, governments, and other organizations that need to track and analyze large amounts of data.

► To make decisions: GIS can be used to support decision making by providing us with insights into spatial data. For

example, a city planner can use GIS to identify areas that are most in need of new parks or schools.
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6 COMPONENTS OF GIS
❖ Hardware : Hardware is the computer system on which the GIS software runs. It can range
from a desktop computer to a powerful server farm. The hardware is basically physical part of
the computer.

❖ Software: Software is the programs that allow users to create, store, manage, analyze, and

visualize geographic data. There are many different GIS software packages available, each

with its own strengths and weaknesses.

❖ Data: Data is the heart of a GIS. It can include spatial data (such as maps and satellite

images), attribute data (such as land use data or population data), and metadata (information

about data)

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❖ User: User are the ones who use GIS to solve problems and make decisions.

They need to have the skills to collect, manage, and analyze data, as well as

the ability to communicate their findings to others.

❖ Methods: Methods are the techniques that are used to analyze and visualize

geographic data. These methods can range from simple queries to complex spatial

analysis

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❖ Geographic data:
Geographic data, also known as geospatial data or GIS data ,it is data that has a
location on Earth. It can be used to represent features of the Earth's surface,
such as roads, buildings, rivers, and lakes. It can also be used to represent
information about these features, such as their names, types, and attributes.

❖ The three types of GIS Data are

1. Spatial
2. Attribute Data or Non-Spatial Data
3. Metadata

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 ❖ Spatial Data: spatial Data can be define as the data which is used to represent the locational
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information of the Earth Surface.

Vector Data
Raster Data
TIN
Images

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11 Vector data:
Vector data can be defined as spatial data in GIS. A vector data can be
represented by point, line as well as polygon also.
❖ Points Data:
Point data represented the location of any geographical element such as location
of a building, location of a tree, location of an ATM etc.
❖ Line Data:
The line data used to represent the linear geographical features of the earth
surface such as River, transport system and any kind of linear features.
❖ Polygon Data:
The polygon data used to represent the area of any geographical features such
as Administrative boundary, Soil types etc.

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 12 Raster Data

► The raster data can be defined as

the data which consists of a matrix
of cells (or pixels) organized into
rows and columns (or grid) where
each cell contains a particular value
(DNvalue)representing information
such as elevation, temperature are
known as Raster data.

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Triangulated Irregular Network
► A TIN (Triangulated Irregular Network) is a digital data structure used in GIS to
represent the surface of a 3D object. It is a vector-based data structure, which means
that it is composed of a set of points, lines, and polygons. The points in a TIN are
called nodes, and they represent the location of data points on the surface of the
object. The lines in a TIN are called edges, and they connect the nodes to form
triangles. The polygons in a TIN are called faces, and they are formed by the union of
triangles.

Image:
An image is a visual representation of something. It can be a two-dimensional (2D) representation,
such as a drawing, painting, or photograph, or a three-dimensional (3D) object, such as a carving or
sculpture. 3/4/2025
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Attribute Data or Non-Spatial Data.
► Attribute data can be define as the data which is used

to represent the characteristics of the spatial data. It mainly organized in a tabular

format
Example…
name of the block.
Population of a particular block
Condition of the Road

Metadata: The metadata can be define as the information about

data 3/4/2025
15 Application Areas of GIS

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To plan a new transportation system
16 Application Areas of GIS
❖ Mapping and navigation:

GIS is used to create maps and other spatial data products. This can be used for
navigation, planning, and other purposes. For example, GIS can be used to create street maps,
even underwater maps.

❖ Environmental management:

GIS can be used to manage natural resources, track environmental changes, and plan for
sustainable development. For example, GIS can be used to monitor deforestation, track wildlife
populations, and plan for flood control.

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 Application Areas of GIS
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❖ Urban planning and transportation:

GIS can be used to plan and design cities, analyze traffic patterns, and plan for
transportation systems. For example, GIS can be used to identify areas for
development, plan new roads and transit lines, and track traffic congestion
❖ GIS Disaster management:

 can be used to assess the impact of disasters, plan for disaster response, and track
recovery efforts. For example, GIS can be used to identify areas at risk of flooding,
plan evacuation routes, and track the distribution of relief supplies

❖ Business and marketing:

 GIS can be used to analyze market share, target customers, and plan sales
territories. For example, GIS can be used to track customer demographics, 3/4/2025

identify potential customers, and plan new store locations.

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Application Areas of GIS

❖ Health and human services:

GIS can be used to track disease outbreaks, plan for healthcare delivery, and manage
public health resources. For example, GIS can be used to identify areas with high rates
of disease, plan new hospitals and clinics, and track the distribution of vaccines.

❖ Tourism

 GIS can be used to plan and develop tourism destinations, market tourism
products, and track tourist traffic. For example, GIS can be used to identify
potential tourism destinations, plan new attractions, and track tourist spending.

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 Application Areas of GIS
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Oil and gas:

GIS can be used to explore for and develop oil and gas resources, track pipelines, and manage environmental impact.
For example, GIS can be used to identify potential oil and gas reserves, plan drilling operations, and track the impact
of pipelines on the environment.

Astronomy:

GIS can be used to track the movement of celestial objects, plan astronomical observations, and study the impact of
climate change on the Earth's atmosphere. For example, GIS can be used to track the movement of planets and stars,
plan new observatories, and study the impact of climate change on the Earth's climate.

Banking and finance:

GIS can be used to analyze financial data, track assets, and manage risk. For example, GIS can be used to analyze
mortgage foreclosure rates, track the movement of money, and manage the risk of fraud. 3/4/2025
Disaster Management
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 Application Areas of GIS
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Crime and defense:
GIS can be used to track crime trends, plan for law enforcement operations, and manage
homeland security. For example, GIS can be used to identify areas with high crime rates,
plan police patrols, and track the movement of terrorists.

Education:

GIS can be used to teach geography, environmental science, and other subjects. For
example, GIS can be used to create interactive maps, conduct spatial analysis, and
simulate real-world scenarios.

These are just a few of the many application areas of GIS. GIS is a powerful tool
that can be used to solve a wide variety of problems. As GIS technology continues to
develop, we can expect to see even more innovative and creative applications for this
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technology in the future.
22 BASIC SPATIAL CONCEPTS

 LOCATION
 DISTANCE
 NETWORK
 NEIGHBORHOOD AND REGION
 SCALE
 SPATIAL HETEROGENEITY
 SPATIAL DEPENDENCE
 OBJECTS AND FIELDS
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23 LOCATION

 Every type of spatial data has two components: a location and some
attribute(s).
 There are two types of locations:
1.Absolute : Ex: Street addresses and latitude/longitude
coordinates
2. Relative: Ex: CIT’s relative location is 300m SW from
KR Puram

 The method of determining or measuring location is called

georeferencing
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 2.Distance
Distance describes the measurement or separation of
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two objects or places
3. Network
A network is a physical or conceptual system of
linkages among entities. Networks offer an
infrastructure for representing the anisotropic
relationships of various constituents and constituent
attributes.
4. Neighborhoods and regions
Neighborhoods and regions define areas surrounding
and containing spatial data. They may be formal in
nature, such as state and country boundaries, and
informal, such as the colloquial use of terms like
“downtown.” Regions may also be defined in terms of
a particular function. For example, the functional
region for a pizza restaurant may be the area within a
city to which it delivers.

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26 5.Scale
In spatial reasoning, scale describes the dimensional relationship between a
representation and reality. Due to the large variation of all space, scale is used
to project reality to more useful and meaningful sizes. For large expanses,
scale is reduced (e.g., fitting the entirety of earth‟s surface on to a paper map),
and for miniscule distances, scale is increased (e.g., enlarging and
schematizing chemical reactions). Often, scale is denoted as a fraction where
a unit of measure in reality is compared to the same unit on the projection. For
instance, a paper map of a landscape showing a scale of 1:10,000 would mean
that a drawn unit on the map represents 10,000 of the same unit in reality.

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6.Spatial heterogeneity
Spatial heterogeneity refers to the degree of
variation in some attribute across places and
region. For example, a satellite image of the
Pacific Ocean would show little variation and
thus would have a low level of spatial
heterogeneity; whereas, an image of the
patchwork of agricultural fields in the
Midwestern U.S. may be considered highly
spatially heterogeneous. In the same way that
biodiversity defines species variation in biology,
spatial heterogeneity defines variation of an
attribute in spatial studies.
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 7.Spatial dependence:
28 Spatial dependence is the manifestation of Tobler‟s first
law of geography, which states, “Everything is related to
everything else, but near things are more related to
each other.” This seemingly simple principle applies to
many types of spatial attributes.
For example, one would expect the temperature of Santa
Barbara to be more similar to the temperature in Los
Angeles than to the temperature in Seattle. This
relatedness between data based on the distance is also
termed spatial autocorrelation. If spatial data were truly
random, there would be zero spatial autocorrelation.
Applying this idea to the previous example would mean
that no inference of similarity could be made between the
temperatures in Santa Barbara and Los Angeles.
Fortunately, most attributes in the world are not
distributed in this manner and thus display a certain
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degree of spatial dependence.
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8.Objects and fields
Objects and fields are two ways to think about
space.
•Objects are separate, well-defined things like
points, lines, and shapes. They exist in empty
space, and we describe them using attributes
(like color, size, or type).
•Fields treat space as continuous, where every
location has a value. Instead of focusing on
individual objects, fields describe how
attributes (like temperature or elevation)
change across space.

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GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE SYSTEM (GCS)

•A system used to locate positions on Earth’s surface.

•Defines locations using latitude and longitude.
•Based on a spherical or ellipsoidal model of the Earth.
Components of GCS
1.Latitude and Longitude – Coordinate values used to define locations.
2.Datum – A reference model for Earth’s shape.
3.Prime Meridian – The zero line for longitude.
4.Equator – The zero line for latitude.
5.Units of Measurement – Degrees, minutes, and seconds.

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31 Datum in GCS
•A datum defines the shape of the Earth for mapping
purposes.
•Types of Datum:
• Geocentric (global): WGS 84 (used in GPS)
• Local: NAD 27, NAD 83 (specific regions)
•Different datums can slightly shift location values.

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32 PROPRIETARY AND OPEN-SOURCE GIS
SOFTWARE
Proprietary GIS Software
1.ArcGIS (by Esri)
• One of the most widely used GIS software.
• Offers powerful spatial analysis, mapping, and 3D visualization tools.
• Supports integration with various databases and cloud platforms.
2.AutoCAD Map 3D (by Autodesk)
Combines CAD and GIS functionalities.
Useful for engineers and planners working on infrastructure projects.

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33 3.MapInfo Professional (by Precisely)
• Used for location intelligence and spatial analysis.
• Often applied in business analytics and urban planning.
4.Global Mapper (by Blue Marble Geographics)
• Known for its ability to handle a wide range of data formats.
• Offers terrain analysis and LiDAR data processing.
5.Bentley Map (by Bentley Systems)
A GIS tool tailored for civil engineering and infrastructure management.

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Open-Source GIS Software
1.QGIS (Quantum GIS)
1. A leading open-source GIS software with extensive plugins.
2. Supports vector, raster, and database integration.
3. User-friendly interface with advanced geospatial processing tools.
2.GRASS GIS (Geographic Resources Analysis Support System)
1. Advanced spatial analysis and geostatistics capabilities.
2. Used extensively in research and academia.
3.Whitebox GAT
1. Primarily used for terrain analysis and remote sensing.
2. Has a strong LiDAR processing framework.
4.OpenJUMP GIS
1. Simple yet effective for spatial analysis and data editing.

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5.PostGIS (Extension of PostgreSQL Database)
1. A spatial database system for managing geospatial data.
6.gvSIG
1. Offers desktop, mobile, and online GIS solutions.
2. Supports multiple GIS formats and geoprocessing tools.
3. Used in web GIS applications and large-scale spatial data storage.
7.uDig
u stands for user-friendly interface
D stands for desktop (Windows, Mac or Linux).
You can run uDIG on a Mac.
I stand for internet oriented consuming standard (WMS, WFS or WPS) •
G stands for GIS-ready for complex analytical capabilities.

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 Attribute Data Models
36 • A separate data model is used to store and maintain attribute data for GIS
software.
• These data models may exist internally within the GIS software, or may be
reflected in external commercial Database Management Software (DBMS).
A variety of different data models exist for the storage and management of
attribute data. The most common are:
• Tabular
• Hierarchical
• Network
• Relational
• Object oriented

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 1. Tabular Model
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• Stores attribute data as sequential data files.
• Fixed formats or comma-delimited for ASCII data.
Limitations:
• Outdated in GIS.
• Lacks data integrity checks.
• Inefficient storage and limited indexing
2. Hierarchical Model
• Organizes data in a tree structure.
• Each child has one parent; unlimited children.
Limitations:
• Not widely accepted in GIS.
• Suitable for stable datasets.
• Restrictive parent-child relationships

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 3. Network Model
38 • Organizes data in a network or plex structure.
• Allows multiple parents for children.
Limitations:
• Complexity can lead to loss of control over relationships.
• Similar acceptance issues as hierarchical models.
4.Relational Model
• Data organized in tables (rows and columns).
• Each table has a unique name.
Importance in GIS:
• Each row linked to a spatial feature.
• Supports complex queries and data manipulation.
5.Object-Oriented Model
• Manages data as objects (data + operations).
Advantages:
• Natural querying and data bundling.
Current Status:
• Emerging acceptance in GIS, with potential operational benefits. 3/4/2025
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 TYPES OF ATTRIBUTE DATA
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• Attribute data can be stored as one of five different field types in a
table or database: character, integer, floating, date, and BLOB.
1.Character Data
•Text-based values (e.g., street names).
•Sorted alphabetically; no numeric calculations allowed.
2. Numeric Data
•Types: Integer (short/long) and Floating.
•Supports calculations (sum, average)
3. Date/Time Data
•Stores date and time values.
4. BLOB Data
•Stores images, multimedia, or code.
•Object linking and embedding (OLE)

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 SCALE OF MEASUREMENT/LEVEL OF MEASUREMENTS
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Types of Attribute Data:
Nominal Data:
Nominal data describe different kinds of different categories of data such as land use
types or soil types.
Ordinal Data:
Ordinal data differentiate data by ranking relationship. For example-cities may be
grouped into large, medium and small cities by population size.
Interval Data:
Interval data have known intervals between values such as temperature reading. For
example- a temperature reading of 700 F is warmer than 600 F by 100 F.
Ratio Data:
Ratio data are the same as interval data except that ratio data are based on a
meaningful or absolute zero value. Population densities are an example of ratio data,
because a density of 0 is an absolute zero. 3/4/2025
 • Measurement scale (or level) of attribute can be broadly divided into two
categories. Some attribute are measured in a numerical scale (such as job
accessibility) whereas others are not (such as world language)
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 Nominal scaling
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Only has a value either 0 or 1 (false or true) Suppose we have two values
say region A and region B; we can‟t determine if A > B or A < B, but we
can determine if A=\=B or A = B. e.g. agricultural region (corn regions,
wheat regions, soy-bean regions) Political party affiliation (Democrat,
Republican, Independent) Sex (male, female) Response (yes, no)
Ordinal scaling
Value is arranged in a hierarchy of rank
Can determine if A > B or A < B, but can‟t determine how much they are
different e.g. social power (more, less) agreement (strongly agree,
strongly disagree) 3/4/2025
45 Interval scaling
• Ranked
• Know the distance between ranks
• But it is not measured in an absolute scale; they are relative
(has no natural origin)
Ratio scaling
• Ranked
• Know the distance between ranks
• It is measured in an absolute scale (has a natural origin) e.g.
weight, elevation convey more information and permit more
analytical treatment

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Thank you

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