Chapter

PROJECTIONS OF
11 SOLIDS

11.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter deals with the orthographic projections of three-dimensional objects called solids. However,
only those solids are considered the shape of which can be defined geometrically and are regular in nature.
The basic concepts of orthographic projections discussed in earlier chapters shall also apply here.

11.2 CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS

Solids are usually classified as given below:

Solid

Right solid Oblique solid

Polyhedron Solid of revolution

Regular Prism Pyramid Cylinder Cone Sphere

polyhedron

Tetrahedron Triangular Triangular

Cube Square Square

Octahedron Pentagonal Pentagonal

Dodecahedron Hexagonal Hexagonal

Icosahedron etc. etc.

Fig. 11.1 Classification of regular solids
 11.2 Engineering Drawing

11.2.1 Polyhedron
A polyhedron is a solid bounded by planes called faces, which meet in straight lines called edges. A regular
polyhedron has all the faces equal and regular as shown in Fig. 11.2.

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Fig. 11.2 Regular polyhedron (a) Tetrahedron (b) Cube (c) Octahedron (d) Dodecahedron (e) Icosahedron

1. Tetrahedron It has four equal equilateral triangular faces.

2. Cube It has six equal square faces.
3. Octahedron It has eight equal equilateral triangular faces.
4. Dodecahedron It has 12 equal pentagonal faces.
5. Icosahedron It has 20 equal equilateral triangular faces.

11.2.2 Prism
A prism is a polyhedron with two n-sided polygonal bases which are parallel and congruent, and lateral faces
are rectangles. All cross-sections parallel to the bases are congruent with the bases. An imaginary line that
joins the centre of the bases is called an axis. A right and regular prism has regular polygonal bases, axis
perpendicular to the bases and all the faces are equal rectangles, as shown in Fig. 11.3. Prisms are named
according to the shape of their base, so a prism with a triangular base is called a triangular prism; a square
base is called a square prism and so on.

Faces Longer edges Ends or Bases

Axis

Ends or Bases
Edges of base
(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 11.3 Prisms (a) Triangular (b) Square (c) Pentagonal (d) Hexagonal
 Projections of Solids 11.3

11.2.3 Pyramid
A pyramid is a polyhedron with n-sided polygonal base and lateral faces are triangles meeting at a point
called the vertex or apex. An imaginary line that joins the apex with the centre of the base is known as the
axis. A right and regular pyramid has a regular polygon base, axis perpendicular to the base and all the faces
are equal isosceles triangles, as shown in Fig. 11.4. Pyramids are named according to the shape of their base,
so a pyramid with a triangular base is called a triangular pyramid; a square base is called a square pyramid
and so on. The centre of gravity of pyramids lies on the axis at one-fourth of its height from the base.
Apex

Slant edges
Axis Faces

Base Edges of base Corners

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 11.4 Pyramids (a) Triangular (b) Square (c) Pentagonal (d) Hexagonal

11.2.4 Solid of Revolution

These solids are obtained by revolving a plane figure like rectangle, triangle or a semi-circle about a fixed line.
1. Cylinder A cylinder is a solid of revolution obtained by revolving a rectangle about one of its fixed
side called an axis. It can be imagined as a prism of infinite number of lateral faces. Any line on the surface
of a cylinder is called its generator. Thus, a cylinder has an infinite number of generators. A right cylinder
has all the generators and the axis perpendicular to the base, as shown in Fig. 11.5(a).
2. Cone A cone is obtained by revolving a triangle about its fixed side called an axis. A cone can be
imagined as a pyramid with infinite number of lateral faces. Any line on the surface of a cone is called its
generator. Thus, a cone has an infinite number of generators. A right cone has all generators of equal length
and the axis perpendicular to the base, as shown in Fig. 11.5(b).
3. Sphere A sphere is obtained by revolving a semi-circle around its diameter, as shown in Fig. 11.5(c).

Axis

Base
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11.5 Solids of revolution (a) Cylinder (b) Cone (c) Sphere
 11.4 Engineering Drawing

11.2.5 Oblique Solid

An oblique solid such as oblique prism, pyramid, cylinder or cone has its axis inclined to its base as shown
in Fig. 11.6. The faces of an oblique prism are parallelograms of different sizes. The faces of an oblique
pyramid are triangles of different sizes. The generators in an oblique cylinder have equal lengths whereas
those in an oblique cone have unequal lengths.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 11.6 Oblique solids (a) Square prism (b) Square pyramid (c) Cylinder (d) Cone

11.2.6 Frustum of Pyramid and Cone

When a regular pyramid or a cone is cut by a plane parallel to its base and the portion of the solid contain-
ing apex is removed, the remaining portion of the solid is called the frustum of that pyramid or cone, as
shown in Fig. 11.7.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11.7 Frustums of (a) Square pyramid (b) Hexagonal pyramid (c) Cone

11.3 RECOMMENDED METHOD OF LABELLING

It is recommended to label the corners of the solids in a manner as shown in Fig. 11.8.
11 10 9 O
12 8

1 7
O 1 4 2 6
3 4 5

2 3

K J I K J I
L H L H
A A D
O C A G A G
B F
B B C C D E B F
C D E
 Projections of Solids 11.5

1 6
3 5 5
4 4
1 O 1 O
O 1 O 4
3
2 2
2 2 3
3

A F
E E
C D
D
A O O A O
O A D
C
B B C
B
B C

O O O O

F E
E D
C A
D A O
A O O D
O A
C
B C
B B C B

Fig. 11.8 Suggested method of labelling

11.4 ORIENTATION OF SOLID

The solid may be in one of the following positions:
1. Axis perpendicular to the H.P.
2. Axis perpendicular to the V.P.
3. Axis parallel to both the H.P. and the V.P. (i.e., perpendicular to the profile plane)
4. Axis inclined to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P.
5. Axis inclined to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P.
6. Axis inclined to both the H.P. and the V.P.

11.5 AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO H.P.

This is one of the basic positions of the solid. It is evident that if the axis of a right solid is perpendicular
to the H.P., its base will be parallel to the H.P. The true shape and size of the base can be viewed in the top
view. Therefore, first obtain the top view of the solid and then project it to obtain the front view.

Problem 11.1 A square pyramid of base side 40 mm and axis 60 mm is resting on its base on the H.P.
Draw its projections when (a) a side of the base is parallel to the V.P., (b) a side of the base is inclined
at 30° to the V.P., (c) all the sides of the base are equally inclined to the V.P.
11.6 Engineering Drawing

o' o' o'

60

x y
a',b' c',d' a' d' b' c' a' b',d' c'

30°

45°
a d d d

o c
o o
a c
a
b c
40

b b
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11.9

Construction
1. Side of the base parallel to V.P. (Fig. 11.9(a)) Draw a square abcd keeping ad parallel to the xy.
Locate centre o and join it with all the corners a, b, c and d. This represents the top view. Project
points a, b, c and d on xy and obtain points a¢, b¢, c¢ and d¢. Project point o, 60 mm above xy and
mark it as o¢. Join o¢a¢b¢ and o¢c¢d¢. This is the required front view.
2. A side of the base inclined at 30° to V.P. (Fig. 11.9(b)) Draw a square abcd keeping dc inclined
at 30° to the xy. Locate centre o and join it with the corners a, b, c and d. This represents the top
view. Project a, b, c and d on xy to obtain a¢, b¢, c¢ and d¢. Project point o, 60 mm above xy and
mark it as o¢. Join a¢o¢, b¢o¢, c¢o¢ and d¢o¢. This is the required front view. It may be noted that d¢o¢
is not visible and should be shown using dashed narrow line.
3. All the sides of the base equally inclined to V.P. (Fig. 11.9(c)) Draw a square abcd keeping sides
inclined at 45° to the xy. Locate centre o and join it with the corners a, b, c and d. This represents
the top view. Project points a, b, c and d on xy and obtain points a¢, b¢, c¢ and d¢. Project point o,
60 mm above the xy and mark it as o¢. Join a¢o¢, b¢d¢o¢ and c¢o¢. This is the required front view.

Problem 11.2 A square prism of base side 40 mm and axis 60 mm is resting on its base on the
ground. Draw its projections when (a) a face is perpendicular to the V.P., (b) a face is inclined at 30°
to the V.P., (c) all the faces are equally inclined to the V.P.
Construction
1. Face perpendicular to the V.P. (Fig. 11.10(a)) Draw a square abcd keeping ab perpendicular
to xy. This represents the top view. Project all the corners of the top view on xy and obtain points
a¢, b¢, c¢ and d¢. Mark points 1¢, 2¢, 3¢ and 4¢, 60 mm above xy. Join all the edges and obtain the
required front view.
 Projections of Solids 11.7

60 1',2' 3',4' 1' 4' 2' 3' 1' 2',4' 3'

x y
a',b' c',d' a' d' b' c' a' b',d' c'

30°

45°
d,4 d,4
a,1 d,4

c,3
a,1 c,3
a,1
b,2 c,3
40
b,2 b,2
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 11.10

2. Face inclined at 30° to the V.P. (Fig. 11.10(b)) Draw a square abcd keeping cd inclined at 30°
to xy. This represents the top view. Project all the corners of the top view on xy and obtain points
a¢, b¢, c¢ and d¢. Mark points 1¢, 2¢, 3¢ and 4¢, 60 mm above xy. Join all the edges and obtain the
required front view. Edge D4 is not visible in the front view so d¢4¢ should be shown using dashed
narrow line.
3. All the faces equally inclined to the V.P. (Fig. 11.10(c)) Draw a square abcd keeping sides
inclined at 45° to xy. This represents the top view. Project all the corners of the top view on xy
and obtain a¢, b¢, c¢ and d¢. Mark points 1¢, 2¢, 3¢ and 4¢, 60 mm above xy. Join all the edges and
obtain the required front view.

11.6 AXIS PERPENDICULAR TO V.P.

This is another basic position of the solid. It is evident that if the axis of a right solid is perpendicular to
V.P., its base will be parallel to the V.P. The true shape and size of the base can be viewed in the front view.
Therefore, first obtain the front view of the solid and then project it to obtain the top view.

Problem 11.3 A pentagonal prism of base side 30 mm and axis 60 mm has one of its bases in the
V.P. Draw its projections when (a) a rectangular face is parallel to and 15 mm above the H.P., (b) a
face is perpendicular to the H.P., (c) a face is inclined at 45° to the H.P.
 11.8 Engineering Drawing

e',5' d',4'
e',5'
30 e',5'
a',1'

d',4'
a',1' d',4'
c',3'
a',1'
b',2'

45°
b',2' c',3' c',3' b',2'
15

a b e c d a,b c,e d a e b d c
X Y
60

1 2 5 3 4 1,2 3,5 4 15 2 4 3
(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 11.11

Construction
1. A rectangular face parallel to and 15 mm above H.P. (Fig. 11.11(a)) Draw a pentagon a¢b¢c¢d¢e¢
keeping b¢c¢ parallel to and 15 mm above xy to represent the front view. Project all corners from
the front view on the xy and obtain points a, b, c, d and e. Mark points 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, 60 mm
below xy. Join all the edges and obtain the required top view. Edges b2 and c3 are not visible and
should be drawn using dashed narrow lines.
2. A face perpendicular to the H.P. (Fig. 11.11(b)) Draw a pentagon a¢b¢c¢d¢e¢ keeping a¢b¢ per-
pendicular to xy to represent the front view. Project all corners from the front view on the xy and
obtain points a, b, c, d and e. Mark points 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, 60 mm below xy. Join all the edges and
obtain the required top view.
3. A face inclined at 45o to the H.P. (Fig. 11.11(c)) Draw a pentagon a¢b¢c¢d¢e¢ keeping b¢c¢ inclined
at 45° to the xy to represent the front view. Project all corners from the front view on the xy and
obtain points a, b, c, d and e. Mark points 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5, 60 mm below xy. Join all the edges and
obtain the required top view. Edge b2 is not visible and should be drawn using dashed narrow line.

11.7 AXIS PARALLEL TO BOTH H.P. AND V.P.

It is evident that if the axis of right solids is parallel to both H.P. and V.P., the base of the solid will be
perpendicular to the reference planes and parallel to the profile plane. The true shape and size of the base
can be viewed in the side view. Therefore, first obtain the side view of the solid and then project it to obtain
the front and the top views.
 Projections of Solids 11.9

Problem 11.4 A pentagonal prism of base side 30 mm and axis 60 mm is resting on one of its rect-
angular faces on the H.P. with axis parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections.

60
x1
d",4" d' 4'
30

c",3" c',e'
e",5" 3',5'

x y
a",1" b",2" a',b' 1',2'
c
3
b 2

d
4

a 1

e 5
y1

Fig. 11.12

Construction Refer to Fig. 11.12.

1. As the axis is parallel to both the planes, the true shape and size of the base is seen in the side
view. Therefore, draw a pentagon a≤b≤c≤d≤e≤ keeping a≤b≤ on xy.
2. Project the corners from the side view on x1y1 and produce to obtain the front view a¢1¢4¢d¢.
3. Project the corners from the side view on xy, rotate it through 90° and then extend them parallel
to xy. Project the front view to meet them and obtain e53c as the required top view. Edges a1 and
b2 are not visible and should be drawn using dashed narrow lines.

11.8 MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS

Problem 11.5 A hexagonal prism of base edge 30 mm and axis 70 mm has its axis parallel to and
50 mm above the H.P. Its base is parallel to the V.P. and an edge of the base is inclined at 45° to the
H.P. Draw its projections.
Construction Refer to Fig. 11.13.
1. Draw a hexagon a¢b¢c¢d¢e¢f¢ keeping o1¢ 50 mm above xy and side c¢d¢ inclined at 45° to xy to
represent the front view. Project all corners and obtain a14d as the top view.
11.10 Engineering Drawing

o'

f',6'

30
EX

45
e',5'
H

a',1' o',o1' f',6' e',5'

p' q'
d',4'
o1',o2'
a',1' d',4'
b',2'
50

c',3'
45°

x y
a b f o c e d b',2' c',3'
x y HEX25
a b,f o1 c,e d
70

60 p Ø40o q

1 2 6 o1 3 5 4 1 2,6 o2 3,5 4

Fig. 11.13 Fig. 11.14

Problem 11.6 A hexagonal prism of base side 25 mm and axis 60 mm is resting on one of its rect-
angular faces on the H.P. with the axis perpendicular to the V.P. A right circular cone of base 40 mm
diameter and axis 45 mm is placed centrally on the top of the prism. Draw the projections of the
composite solid.
Construction Refer to Fig. 11.14.
1. Draw a hexagon a¢b¢c¢d¢e¢f¢ keeping b¢c¢ on xy to represent the front view. Project the corners of
the hexagon and obtain a14d as its top view.
2. Locate o as the mid-point of the top face f65e. With centre o draw a circle of diameter 40 mm.
This is the top view of the cone. Project the ends of the circle and obtain p¢q¢o¢ as the front view
of the cone.

Problem 11.7 A tetrahedron of edge 65 mm has a face in the V.P. and an edge of that face is
perpendicular to the H.P. Draw its projections.
Construction Refer to Fig. 11.15.
1. Draw equilateral triangle a¢b¢c¢ keeping a¢b¢ perpendicular to xy. Locate d¢ as its centroid. Join d¢
with the corners a¢, b¢ and c¢. This is the front view.
2. Project a¢, b¢ and c¢ on xy and obtain points a, b and c.
 Projections of Solids 11.11

3. As c¢d¢ is parallel to xy, cd should be of true length. Therefore, draw an arc with centre c and radius
65 mm to meet the projector of point d¢ at point d. Join the edges and obtain the required top view.

a'

d' d'
65

c'

60
b'
a,b c
x y x y
a' c' b' h'

20
a b
65

h
d
60
d

Fig. 11.15 Fig. 11.16

Problem 11.8 A tetrahedron of edge 60 mm is resting on a face on the H.P. such that an edge is
parallel to and 20 mm in front of the V.P. Draw its projections.
Construction Refer to Fig. 11.16.
1. Draw equilateral triangle abc keeping ab parallel to and 20 mm in front of the xy. Locate d as the
centroid of the triangle. Join d with the corners a, b and c. This is the top view.
2. Project a, b and c on xy and obtain points a¢, b¢ and c¢.
3. Draw an arc with centre d and radius db to meet the horizontal line through d at point h. Project
point h on xy and obtain point h¢.
4. Draw an arc with centre h¢ and radius 60 mm to meet the projector of point d at point d¢. Join the
edges and obtain the required front view.

EXERCISE 11A
Axis perpendicular to H.P. 11.2 Draw the projections of a hexagonal prism, base side
11.1 Draw the projections of a pentagonal pyramid, base 30 mm and axis 70 mm, resting on its base on the
side 30 mm and axis 60 mm, rests on its base on the H.P. such that a side of the base is (a) parallel to the
H.P. with a side of the base (a) parallel to the V.P., V.P., (b) perpendicular to the V.P., and (c) inclined
(b) perpendicular to the V.P. and (c) inclined at 30° at 45° to the V.P.
to the V.P.
11.12 Engineering Drawing

11.3 A cone of base diameter 50 mm and axis 60 mm that (a) a rectangular face is parallel to the H.P., (b)
has its base parallel to and 10 mm above the H.P. two faces are inclined at 30° to the H.P., and (c) all
while the axis is parallel to and 40 mm in front of faces are equally inclined to the H.P.
the V.P. Draw its projections. 11.13 Draw the projections of a hexagonal pyramid, base
11.4 A square prism of base side 45 mm and axis 65 mm side 30 mm and axis 60 mm, resting on its base on
has its axis parallel to and 55 mm in front of V.P. An the V.P. with a side of base (a) parallel to the H.P.,
edge of its base is parallel to the H.P. and inclined (b) perpendicular to the H.P., and (c) inclined at 45°
at 30° to the V.P. Draw its projections. to the H.P.
11.5 Draw the projections of a frustum of a cone of base 11.14 A cylinder of base diameter 50 mm and axis 65 mm
diameter 60 mm, top diameter 30 mm and height 75 has its axis 40 mm above H.P. and perpendicular
mm resting on its base on the H.P. to V.P. Draw its projections when one of the bases
11.6 Draw the projections of the frustum of a square being 10 mm in front of the V.P.
pyramid base edge 50 mm, top edge 25 mm and 11.15 A cone of base diameter 50 mm and axis 65 mm
height 60 mm resting on its base on the H.P. with a has its apex in the V.P. Its axis is parallel to and 40
side of base inclined at 30° to the V.P. mm above the H.P. Draw its projections.
11.7 A cube of edge 45 mm is resting on the H.P. with 11.16 A tetrahedron of edge 60 mm is resting on one face
a vertical face inclined at 30° to the V.P. Draw its on the V.P. such that one of the edges is parallel to
projections. and 20 mm above H.P. Draw its projections.
11.8 An octahedron of edge 40 mm rests on an apex on 11.17 Draw the projections of a triangular prism of base
the H.P. Its axis perpendicular to H.P. and a hori- edge 50 mm and axis 65 mm is placed on one of
zontal edge is inclined at 30° to the V.P. Draw its its rectangular faces on the H.P. such that the axis
projections. is perpendicular to the V.P.
11.9 A square slab of base side 60 mm and thickness 20 11.18 A cube of edge 40 mm is resting on one of its edges
mm is resting on its base on the ground with an edge on the H.P. with the faces containing the resting edge
inclined at 30° to the V.P. A cone of base diameter equally inclined to H.P. and the two vertical faces
50 mm and axis 60 mm is placed centrally over the parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections.
slab such that axes of the solids coincide. Draw its 11.19 A pentagonal pyramid of base side 25 mm and axis
projections. 60 mm rests on an edge of the base on the H.P. with
11.10 A cone of base diameter 40 mm and axis 55 mm is axis perpendicular to V.P. Draw its projections when
resting centrally on a hexagonal slab of side 25 mm the base is 15 mm in front of V.P.
and thickness 15 mm. Draw the projections of the 11.20 A circular disc of diameter 60 mm and thickness 20
arrangement when one of the sides of the base of mm is resting on its base on the H.P. A hexagonal
the slab is inclined at 45° to the V.P. prism of side 25 mm and axis 80 mm is surmounted
11.11 A hexagonal prism of base side 30 mm and axis 50 centrally on the disc such that a face of the prism
mm is resting on its base on the H.P. with a side of lies on the top of the disc and the axis of the prism
base perpendicular to the V.P. A tetrahedron is placed is perpendicular to the V.P. Draw the projections of
on the top of the prism such that the three corners of the arrangement.
the tetrahedron coincide with the alternate corners of
Axis parallel to both H.P. and V.P.
the prism. Draw the projections of the arrangement.
11.21. A hexagonal prism of base side 30 mm and axis 70
Axis perpendicular to V.P. mm, rests on a rectangular face on the H.P. such that
11.12 Draw the projections of a square prism, base side 40 the axis is parallel to and 45 mm in front of the V.P.
mm and axis 65 mm, having its base in the V.P. such Draw its projections.
 Projections of Solids 11.13

11.9 INITIAL POSITION OF THE SOLID

Following are the general rules to decide the initial position of the solid when it is inclined to one or both
the reference planes:

S. No. Required final position of the solid Assume initial position of the solid

1.(a) Axis inclined to H.P. and parallel to the V.P. with an Base in H.P. with an edge of the base perpendicular
edge of the base in the H.P. to the reference line.

(b) Axis inclined to H.P. and parallel to the V.P. with a Base in H.P. keeping the line joining the corner and
corner of the base in the H.P. centre of the base parallel to the reference line.

2.(a) Axis inclined to V.P. and parallel to the H.P. with an Base in V.P. with an edge of the base perpendicular
edge of the base in the V.P. to the reference line.

(b) Axis inclined to V.P. and parallel to the H.P. with a Base in V.P. keeping the line joining the corner and
corner of the base in V.P. centre of the base parallel to the reference line.

3. Pyramid having one of its triangular faces in H.P. and Base in H.P. with an edge of the base perpendicular
axis parallel to V.P. to the reference line.

4. Pyramid having one of its triangular faces in V.P. and Base of the pyramid in V.P. with an edge of the base
axis parallel to H.P. perpendicular to the reference line.

5. Pyramid lying on one of its slant edges in H.P. and Base in H.P. keeping the line joining the corner and
axis parallel to V.P. centre of the base parallel to the reference line.

6. Pyramid lying on one of its slant edges in V.P. and Base in V.P. keeping the line joining the corner and
axis parallel to H.P. centre of the base parallel to the reference line.

7. Cone lying on one of its generators in H.P. or inclined Base of the cone in the H.P.
to the H.P. and parallel to V.P.

8. Cone lying on one of its generators in V.P. or inclined Base of the cone in the V.P.
to the V.P. and parallel to H.P.

11.10 IDENTIFY VISIBLE AND HIDDEN LINES

General rule adopted to identify and distinguish the visible and the hidden lines in the orthographic views
of the solid are as follows:
1. Outlines of an object are always visible, the outer edges of any view should be shown with continuous
lines (i.e., dashed narrow lines should never be used.)
2. The edges or faces in a view that are towards the observer (away from xy) are visible. The correspond-
ing edges or faces in the other view should be drawn using continuous lines.
3. The edges or faces in a view that are away from the observer (towards xy) are not visible. The cor-
responding edges or faces in the other view should be drawn using dashed narrow lines.
4. Two continuous lines never cross each other inside. Similarly, two hidden lines never cross each other.
5. When two lines representing the edges cross each other, one of them must be dashed narrow line.
These rules are applicable for only single solid. They do not apply for the solids with a hole or
combination of solids.
11.14 Engineering Drawing

11.11 AXIS INCLINED TO H.P. AND PARALLEL TO V.P.

When the axis of a right solid is inclined to the H.P. and parallel to the V.P., then the projections are drawn
in two stages. Consider the following problems.

Problem 11.9 A pentagonal prism of base edge 30 mm and axis 60 mm rests on an edge of its base
in the H.P. Its axis is parallel to V.P. and inclined at 45° to the H.P. Draw its projections.
Construction Refer to Fig. 11.17.
1. First stage Draw a pentagon 1'
abcde keeping side cd perpen- 1' 2',5' 3',4' 2',5'
dicular to xy. This represents the
top view. Project all the corners
and obtain a¢d¢4¢1¢ to represent 3',4'
the front view.
60

a'
2. Second stage Reproduce the
front view of the first stage keep- b',e'

45°
ing c¢d¢ on xy and c¢3¢ inclined
at 45° to it. Obtain a, b, c, d, e, x y
1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in the top view a' b',e' c',d' c',d'
as the intersecting points of the e,5 e 5
projectors from the front view d,4 d
4
of the second stage with the cor-
responding locus lines from the a,1 a 1
top view of the first stage.
3. Join the outlines ab, b2, 2-3, 3-4, 3
30

c,3 c
4-5, 5e and ae using continuous
lines. The corner 1¢ is towards the b,2 b 2
observer, therefore join 1a, 1-2
First stage Second stage (Final projections)
and 1-5 using continuous lines.
The edge c¢d¢ is on xy, therefore Fig. 11.17
join cd, cb, c3, de and d4 using dashed narrow lines.

Problem 11.10 A pentagonal prism of base side 30 mm and axis 70 mm has a corners on the H.P.
and the axis is inclined at 45° to the H.P. Draw its projection when the plane containing the resting
corner and the axis is parallel to the V.P.
Construction Refer to Fig. 11.18.
1. First stage Draw a pentagon abcde keeping side ab perpendicular to xy. This represents the top
view. Project the corners and obtain a¢d¢4¢1¢ to represent the front view.
2. Second stage Reproduce the front view of the first keeping d¢ on xy and the axis is inclined
at 45° to xy. Obtain a, b, c, d, e, 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 in the top view as the intersecting points of the
projectors from the front view of the second stage with the corresponding locus lines from the top
view of the first stage.
 Projections of Solids 11.15

1',2'
1',2' 3',5' 4'
3',5'

4'

70 a',b'

45°
c',e'
x y
a',b' c',e' d' d'
e,5 e 5
a,1 a 1

d,4 d
30

b,2 b 2
c,3 c 3

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 11.18

3. Join the outlines ab, bc, c3, 3-4, o'

4-5, e5 and ae using continuous o'
lines. Then edge 1¢2¢ is towards the
observer, therefore join 1-2, 1a, 1-5, a',b'
2b and 2-3 using continuous lines.
60

The corner d¢ is on xy, therefore join c',f'

dc, de and d4 using dashed narrow
30°

lines.
x y
a',b' c',f' d',e' d',e'
Problem 11.11 A hexagonal pyramid
f f
of base side 30 mm and axis 60 mm has
an edge of its base on the ground. Its axis a e a e
is inclined at 30° to the ground and paral-
HEX30

lel to the V.P. Draw its projections. o o

Construction Refer to Fig. 11.19.
1. First stage Draw a hexagon abcdef b d b d
keeping side de perpendicular to
xy. Join the corners of the hexagon c c
with the centroid o. This represents First stage Second stage (Final projections)
the top view. Project the corners and
Fig. 11.19
obtain b¢d¢o¢ to represent the front
view.
11.16 Engineering Drawing

2. Second stage Reproduce the front view of first stage keeping d¢e¢ on xy and d¢a¢ at 45° to xy.
Obtain a, b, c, d, e, f, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 in the top view as the intersecting points of the projectors
from the front view of the second stage with the corresponding locus lines from the top view of
the first stage.
3. Join the outlines ab, bc, co, fo and af using continuous lines. The face a¢b¢o¢ is towards the observer,
therefore join ao and bo using continuous lines. The corner/edge d¢e¢ is towards xy, therefore join
de, dc, do, ef and eo using using dashed narrow lines.

Problem 11.12 A hexagonal pyramid of base edge 30 mm and axis 60 mm, has a triangular face
on the ground and the axis parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections.

o'

a',b'
60

c',f'

d',e' o' y
x
a',b' c',f' d',e'
f f

a e e a
HEX30

o o

b d d b

c c

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 11.20

Construction Refer to Fig. 11.20.

1. First stage Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping side de perpendicular to xy. Join the corners of the
hexagon with the centroid o. This represents the top view. Project all the corners and obtain b¢d¢o¢
to represent the front view.
2. Second stage Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping line e¢d¢o¢ on xy. Obtain a, b,
c, d, e, f and o in the top view as the intersecting points of the projectors from the front view of
the second stage with the corresponding locus lines from the top view of the first stage.
3. The face o¢d¢e¢ is on xy (away from observer), therefore join od and oe using dashed narrow lines.
Join the remaining edges using continuous lines.
 Projections of Solids 11.17

Problem 11.13 A hexagonal pyramid of base edge 30 mm and axis 60 mm, is lying on a slant edge
on the ground with the axis parallel to the V.P. Draw its projections when the face containing the rest-
ing edge are equally inclined to the H.P.

o'
a'

b',f'
60

c',e'

x y
a' b',f' c',e' d' d' o'
f e e f

a o d d a o

b c c b
HEX30

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 11.21

Construction Refer to Fig. 11.21.

1. First stage Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping diagonal ad parallel to xy. Join the corners of the
hexagon with the centroid o. This represents the top view. Project all the corners and obtain a¢d¢o¢
to represent the front view.
2. Second stage Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping slant edge o¢d¢ on xy. Obtain
a, b, c, d, e, f and o in the top view as the intersecting points of the projectors from the front view
of the second stage with the corresponding locus lines from the top view of the first stage.
3. Join the outlines using continuous lines. The corner a¢ is towards observer, therefore join ao, ab and
af using continuous lines. Join oe and oc using dashed narrow lines because they are intersecting
the continuous lines ab and af.

Problem 11.14 A cylinder of base diameter 50 mm and axis 70 mm has a generator in the V.P. and
inclined at 45° to the H.P. Draw its projections.
Construction Refer to Fig. 11.22.
1. First stage Draw a circle abcdefghijkl touching xy and divide into 12 equal parts to represent the
top view. Project the points of the top view and obtain a¢g¢7¢1¢ to represent the front view.
2. Second stage Reproduce the front view of first stage keeping generator j¢10¢ at 45° to the xy.
Obtain a, b, c, d, etc., and 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., in the top view as the intersecting points of the projectors
from the front view of the second stage with the corresponding locus lines from the top view of the
first stage. Join visible edges with continuous lines and hidden edges with dashed narrow lines.
11.18 Engineering Drawing

1'
2',12'

3',11'
1' 2',12' 3',11' 4',10' 5',9' 6',8' 7'
4',10'

5',9'

6',8'
7'
70

a'
b',l'
c',k'

d',j'

e',i'
f',h'
a' b',l' c',k' d',j' e',i' f',h' g' g'
45°

j,10 j 10
x k,11 i,9 y
k i 11 9
l,12 h,8 l h 12 8

g,7 a g 1
a,1 7
Ø50

b,2 f,6 b f 2 6

c,3 e,5 c e 3 5
d,4 d 4

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 11.22

Problem 11.15 A pentagonal pyramid of base side 30 mm and axis 60 mm has an edge of base
parallel to H.P. Its axis is parallel to V.P. and inclined at 45° to the H.P. Draw its projections when the
apex lies in the H.P.
Construction Refer to Fig. 11.23.
1. First stage Draw a pentagon abcde keeping cd perpendicular to xy. Join the corners of the pentagon
with the centroid o. This represents the top view. Project the corners and obtain a¢d¢o¢ to represent
the front view.
2. Second stage Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping apex o¢ on xy and the axis
inclined at 45° to xy. Obtain points a, b, c, d, e and o in the top view as the intersecting points of
the projectors from the front view of the second stage with the corresponding locus lines from the
top view of the first stage.
3. Join the outlines using continuous lines. The corner a¢ is towards observer, therefore join ab, ae
and ao using continuous lines. The face o¢c¢d¢ is towards xy, therefore join oc and od using dashed
narrow lines.
 Projections of Solids 11.19

o' a'

b',e'

60
c',d'

45°
x y
a' b',e' c',d' o'
e e
d d

a o a o
30

c c
b b

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 11.23

Problem 11.16 Draw projections of a cube of edge 45 mm, resting on one of its corners in the H.P.
with a solid diagonal vertical.

1'

2',4'
1' 2',4' 3' a'

3'
b',d'
45

x y
a' b',d' c' c'
d,4 d 4

a,1 c,3 1 c 3
a
45

b,2 b 2

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 11.24
11.20 Engineering Drawing

Construction Refer to Fig. 11.24.

1. First stage Draw a square abcd keeping diagonal ac parallel to xy to represent the top view. Project
the corners and obtain a¢c¢3¢1¢ to represent the front view. Mark c¢1¢ as one of the solid diagonals.
2. Second stage Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping c¢ on xy and c¢1¢ perpendicular
to xy. Obtain a, b, c, d, 1, 2, 3 and 4 in the top view as the intersecting points of the projectors
from the front view of the second stage with the corresponding locus lines from the top view of
the first stage. Join visible edges with continuous lines and hidden edges with dashed narrow lines.

Problem 11.17 A tetrahedron of edge 70 mm has an edge on the ground and the faces containing
that edge are equally inclined to the H.P. Draw its projections when the edge lying on the ground is
perpendicular to the V.P.

d'
a' d'
70

X Y
a' b',c' b',c'
c c

a d
d a

70

b b

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 11.25

Construction Refer to Fig. 11.25.

1. First stage Draw an equilateral triangle abc keeping bc perpendicular to xy. Join the corners of
the triangle with the centroid o. This represents the top view. Project a, b and c on xy and obtain
points a¢, b¢ and c¢. As ad is parallel to xy, its front view a¢d¢ is of true length. Therefore, draw an
arc with centre d¢ and radius 70 mm to meet the projector of point d at point d¢. Join and obtain
a¢b¢d¢ to represent the front view.
2. Second stage Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping b¢c¢ on xy and the inclination of
faces a¢b¢c¢ and b¢c¢d¢ with xy equal. Obtain points a, b, c and d in the top view as the intersecting
points of the projectors from the front view of the second stage with the corresponding locus lines
from the top view of the first stage. Join visible edges with continuous lines and hidden edges with
dashed narrow lines.
 Projections of Solids 11.21

Problem 11.18 A hexagonal pyramid of base side 25 mm and axis 60 mm is freely suspended from
one of the corners of the base. Draw its projections when its axis is parallel to the V.P.

o' a'
b',f'

g'
H = 60

c',e'

g' d'
H/4=15

o'

90
°
x y
a' b',f' c',e' d'
f e e f

d d a,g
a o

o
b HEX25 c c b

First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 11.26

Note
1. Centre of gravity (g¢) of a pyramid and a cone lies on its axis at a height ¼ of the axis length from
the base of the solid.
2. On suspending the solid, line joining the point of suspension and centre of gravity (g¢) becomes
perpendicular to the ground.
Construction Refer to Fig. 11.26.
1. First stage Draw a hexagon abcdef keeping diagonal ad parallel to xy. Join the corners of the
hexagon with the centroid o. This represents the top view. Project all the corners and obtain a¢d¢o¢
to represent the front view. Mark point g¢ on the axis at a height one-fourth of the axis length (=15
mm) from the base. Let the pyramid is to be hanged from corner a. Join a¢g¢.
2. Second stage Reproduce the front view of the first stage keeping a¢g¢ perpendicular to xy. Obtain
a, b, c, d, e, f and o in the top view as the intersecting points of the projectors from the front view
of the second stage with the corresponding locus lines from the top view of the first stage. Join
visible edges with continuous lines and hidden edges with dashed narrow lines.

11.12 AXIS INCLINED TO V.P. AND PARALLEL TO H.P.

When the axis of a right solid is inclined (at f) to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P., then the projections are
drawn in two stages. Consider the following problems.
11.22 Engineering Drawing

Problem 11.19 A hexagonal prism of base edge 30 mm and axis 70 mm has an edge of its base
in the V.P. such that the axis is inclined at 30° to the V.P. and parallel to the H.P. Draw its projections.
Construction Refer to Fig. 11.27.
1. First stage Draw a hexa- f',6' f' 6'
gon a¢b¢c¢d¢e¢f¢ keeping
side d¢e¢ perpendicular to a',1' e',5' a' e' 1'
5'
xy, to represent the front

HEX30
view. Project the corners
and obtain ad41 to repre-
sent the top view. 4'
b',2' d',4' b' d' 2'
2. Second stage Reproduce
the top view of the first c',3' c' 3'
stage keeping ed on xy and a,b c,f d,e d,e
d4 inclined at 30° to xy. x y

30°
Obtain a¢, b¢, c¢, d¢, e¢, f¢,
1¢, 2¢, 3¢, 4¢, 5¢ and 6¢ in the
c,f
front view as the intersect-
70

ing points of the projec- 4,5

tors from the top view of a,b
the second stage with the
corresponding locus lines 3,6
from the front view of the
1,2 3,6 4,5
first stage.
1,2
3. Join the outlines a¢b¢, b¢c¢,
c¢3¢, 3¢4¢, 4¢5¢, 5¢6¢, 6¢f¢ and First stage Second stage (Final projections)
a¢f¢ using continuous lines. Fig. 11.27
The edge 1-2 is towards the
observer, therefore join 1¢2¢, 1¢a¢, 1¢6¢, 2¢b¢ and 2¢3¢ using continuous lines. The edge de is towards
xy, therefore join d¢e¢, d¢c¢, d¢4¢, e¢f¢ and e¢5¢ using dashed narrow lines.

Problem 11.20 A pentagonal pyramid of base side 30 mm and axis 55 mm has a triangular face
in the V.P. and the base edge contained by that triangular face is perpendicular to the H.P. Draw its
projections.
Construction Refer to Fig. 11.28.
1. First stage Draw a pentagon a¢b¢c¢d¢e¢ keeping c¢d¢ perpendicular to xy. Join the corners of the
pentagon with the centroid o¢. This represents the front view. Project all the corners and obtain ado
to represent the top view.
2. Second stage Reproduce the top view of the first stage keeping cdo on xy. Obtain a¢, b¢, c¢, d¢, e¢
and o¢ in the front view as the intersecting points of the projectors from the top view of the second
stage with the corresponding locus lines from the front view of the first stage.
3. Join the outlines b¢c¢, c¢d¢, d¢e¢, e¢o¢ and o¢b¢ using continuous lines. The corner a is towards the
observer, therefore join a¢b¢, a¢e¢ and a¢o¢ using continuous lines. The face cdo is on xy, therefore
join c¢o¢ and d¢o¢ using dashed narrow lines.
 Projections of Solids 11.23

e' e'
d' d'

30
o' a'
a' o'

c' c'
b' b'
a b,e c,d o
x y
c,d
55

b,e

o
First stage Second stage (Final projections)

Fig. 11.28

Problem 11.21 A cone of base diameter 50 mm and axis 60 mm has a generator in the V.P. and the
axis parallel to the H.P. Draw its projections.

j' j'
k' i' i' k'
l' h' h' l'
g' g' a'
a' o' o'
0
Ø5
b' f' f' b'
c' e' e' c'
d' d'
a b,l c,k d,j e,i f,h g g o
x y
f,h
e,i

d,j
60

c,k
b,l
a

o
First stage Second stage (Final projections)
Fig. 11.29

Construction Refer to Fig. 11.29.

11.24 Engineering Drawing

1. First stage Draw a circle adgj and divide into 12 equal parts to represent the front view. Project
the front view and obtain aog to represent the top view.
2. Second stage Reproduce the top view of the first stage keeping generator og on xy. Obtain points
a¢, b¢, c¢, d¢, e¢, f¢, g¢, h¢, i¢, j¢, k¢, l¢ and o¢ in the front view as the intersecting points of the projec-
tors from the top view of the second stage with the corresponding locus lines from the front view
of the first stage. Join visible edges with continuous lines.

Problem 11.22 A pentagonal prism of base side 30 mm and axis 60 mm has one of its rectangular
faces on the H.P. and the axis inclined at 60° to the V.P. Draw its projections.

e',5' e' 5'

30

d',4' a' 1' d'

a',1' 4'

x y
b',2' c',3' b' c' 2' 3'
°
60

d
c
a b e c d
e
b
a
60

4
3
5
1 2 5 3 4 2
1
First stage Second stage (Final projections)
Fig. 11.30

Construction Refer to Fig. 11.30.

1. First stage Draw a pentagon a¢b¢c¢d¢e¢ keeping b¢c¢ on xy to represent the front view. Project the
corners and obtain ad41 to represent the top view.
2. Second stage Reproduce the top view of the first stage keeping e5 inclined at 60° to xy. Obtain
a¢, b¢, c¢, d¢, e¢, 1¢, 2¢, 3¢, 4¢ and 5¢ in the front view as the intersecting points of the projectors from
the top view of the second stage with the corresponding locus lines from the front view of the first
stage.
3 Join the outlines using continuous lines. The corner 1 is towards the observer, therefore join 1¢a¢,
1¢2¢ and 1¢5¢ using continuous lines. The corner d is towards xy, therefore join d¢c¢, d¢e¢ and d¢4¢
using dashed narrow lines.