100% found this document useful (3 votes)
19 views89 pages

The Kluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science Natural Language Processing and Machine Translation SECS 41 1st Edition by Robert Frederking ISBN 0898382556instant Download

The document discusses various textbooks and resources related to natural language processing and machine translation, including notable works by Robert Frederking and others. It highlights the availability of digital downloads in multiple formats and provides links to specific titles. Additionally, it introduces the computational system PSLI3, which integrates natural language understanding and generation within conversational contexts.

Uploaded by

xikioodiboh
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
100% found this document useful (3 votes)
19 views89 pages

The Kluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science Natural Language Processing and Machine Translation SECS 41 1st Edition by Robert Frederking ISBN 0898382556instant Download

The document discusses various textbooks and resources related to natural language processing and machine translation, including notable works by Robert Frederking and others. It highlights the availability of digital downloads in multiple formats and provides links to specific titles. Additionally, it introduces the computational system PSLI3, which integrates natural language understanding and generation within conversational contexts.

Uploaded by

xikioodiboh
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 89

The Kluwer international series in engineering

and computer science Natural language processing


and machine translation SECS 41 1st Edition by
Robert Frederking ISBN 0898382556 download
https://ebookball.com/product/the-kluwer-international-series-in-
engineering-and-computer-science-natural-language-processing-and-
machine-translation-secs-41-1st-edition-by-robert-frederking-
isbn-0898382556-19860/

Instantly Access and Download Textbook at https://ebookball.com


Get Your Digital Files Instantly: PDF, ePub, MOBI and More
Quick Digital Downloads: PDF, ePub, MOBI and Other Formats

Machine Translation From Real Users to Research Lecture Notes in


Computer Science 3265 Lecture Notes in Artificial Intelligence 6th
edition by Jeffrey Allen, Robert Frederking, Kathryn Taylor ISBN
3540233008 Â 978-3540233008
https://ebookball.com/product/machine-translation-from-real-
users-to-research-lecture-notes-in-computer-science-3265-lecture-
notes-in-artificial-intelligence-6th-edition-by-jeffrey-allen-
robert-frederking-kathryn-taylor-isbn-35402/

Wideband Low Noise Amplifiers Exploiting Thermal Noise Cancellation


The Springer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science
840 2005th Edition by Federico Bruccoleri, Eric Klumperink, Bram Nauta
ISBN 1402031874 9781402031878
https://ebookball.com/product/wideband-low-noise-amplifiers-
exploiting-thermal-noise-cancellation-the-springer-international-
series-in-engineering-and-computer-science-840-2005th-edition-by-
federico-bruccoleri-eric-klumperink-bram/

Natural Language Processing With Python Analyzing Text With the


Natural Language Toolkit 1st Edition by Steven Bird, Ewan Klein,
Edward Loper 0596516495 9780596516499

https://ebookball.com/product/natural-language-processing-with-
python-analyzing-text-with-the-natural-language-toolkit-1st-
edition-by-steven-bird-ewan-klein-edward-
loper-0596516495-9780596516499-17160/

Speech and Language Processing An Introduction to Natural Language


Processing Computational Linguistics and Speech Recognition 1st
Edition by Daniel Saul Jurafsky, James Martin 0130950696 9780130950697

https://ebookball.com/product/speech-and-language-processing-an-
introduction-to-natural-language-processing-computational-
linguistics-and-speech-recognition-1st-edition-by-daniel-saul-
jurafsky-james-martin-0130950696-9780130950697/
Neural Network Methods for Natural Language Processing 1st Edition by
Yoav Goldberg ISBN 9783031021657 3031021657

https://ebookball.com/product/neural-network-methods-for-natural-
language-processing-1st-edition-by-yoav-goldberg-
isbn-9783031021657-3031021657-15608/

Neural Network Methods for Natural Language Processing 1st edition by


Yoav Goldber 9783031021657 3031021657

https://ebookball.com/product/neural-network-methods-for-natural-
language-processing-1st-edition-by-yoav-
goldber-9783031021657-3031021657-18712/

Natural Language Processing in Action Understanding analyzing and


generating text with Python 1st Edition by Hannes Hapke, Cole Howard,
Hobson Lane 1617294632 9781617294631

https://ebookball.com/product/natural-language-processing-in-
action-understanding-analyzing-and-generating-text-with-
python-1st-edition-by-hannes-hapke-cole-howard-hobson-
lane-1617294632-9781617294631-18676/

Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing 1st Edition by


Christopher Manning, Hinrich Schutze ISBN 9780262303798 0262303795

https://ebookball.com/product/foundations-of-statistical-natural-
language-processing-1st-edition-by-christopher-manning-hinrich-
schutze-isbn-9780262303798-0262303795-15622/

Natural Language Processing With PyTorch Build Intelligent Language


Applications Using Deep Learning 1st edition by Delip Rao, Brian
McMahan 9781491978184 149197818X

https://ebookball.com/product/natural-language-processing-with-
pytorch-build-intelligent-language-applications-using-deep-
learning-1st-edition-by-delip-rao-brian-
mcmahan-9781491978184-149197818x-18728/
Integrated Natural Language Dialogue presents a unique com-
putational system, PSLl3, that uses a uniform framework of a
production system architecture to carry out natural language
understanding and generation in a well-integrated way. Most
computational systems using natural language treat individual
utterances as separate entities while PSLl3 integrates such dialogue
phenomena into the conversational context to allow for a natural
means of resolving complex elliptical utterances.

The researchers and students of natural language and linguistics will


find this innovative material to be a valuable reference. The work is
well documented and a complete index is provided.

SECS41

0-89838-255-6

Q.CD

CC

... -. Q)

... (QCD C. Z Q) ... C ... Q) -

Integrated Natural Language Dialogue A Computational Model


r- Q) ::s CC c Q) CC CD C -- Q) - o CC C CD

Robert E. Frederking

III :1 .. I I II .. - 11- . II I II. 11II .. -- II - - --- . .. - .... - -

Kluwer Academic Publishers

Distributors for North America: Kluwer Academic Publishers 101


Philip Drive Assinippi Park Norwell, Massachusetts 02061 USA

Distributors for the UK and Ireland: Kluwer Academic Publishers MTP


Press Limited Falcon House, Queen Square Lancaster LAI IRN,
UNITED KINGDOM

Distributors for all other countries: Kluwer Academic Publishers


Group Distribution Centre Post Office Box 322 3300 AH Dordrecht,
THE NETHERLANDS

Librar'y of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data


Frederking, Robert E. Integrated natural language dialoque / by
Robert E Frederking. p. cm.. - (The Kluwer international series in
engineering and computer science; SECS 41. Natural language
processing and machine tr anslation) Bibliography: p Includes index
ISBN 0-89838-255-6 : $45 00 (est) I Psli3 (Computer system) 2,
Linguistics-Data processing. I Title II Series: Kluwer international
series in engineering and computer science; SECS 41 III Series:
Kluwer international series in engineering and computer science
Natural language processing and machine translation. P98 . F68
1988 410' 28 '5-dc19

87-26857 CIP

Copyright @ 1988 by Kluwer Academic Publishers

All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced,


stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any
means, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without
the prior written permission of the publisher, Kluwer Academic
Publishers, 101 Philip Drive, Assinippi Park, Norwell, Massachusetts
02061.

Printed in the United States of America

To Barb and Blanche


ing. and :I1achine

:onal

n-26857 CIP

ed, stored in a retrieval system or opying, recording, or otherwise,


Academic Publishers, 101 Philip

Table of Contents

List of Figures List of Tables Preface 1. Introduction 1.1 Ellipsis in


natural language 1 2. Ellipsis in natural language interfaces 1 3.
Computational architecture 1 4. Outline of the book 2. Relevant
Previous Work 2.1 Work on ellipsis resolution 2 1 1 Semantic
grammar ellipsis resolution 212 Case frame ellipsis resolution 2 1 3.
PSLI3 ellipsis resolution 2.2 Work on dialogue modelling 2 2.1.
Syntactic focusing in discourse 2.22. Task-oriented focusing in
dialogue 223 Formal discourse representation 2.2.4. Speech acts and
dialogue modelling 2.2.5 Discourse grammar 22.6 Dialogue
modelling in Psli3 2.3 Work on chart parsing
xi xiii

xv

5 7 11 13 13 14 15 16 16 17 18 18 19 20 20 21

2.4. How Psli3 differs from other systems 3. An Analysis of Natural


Language Dialogue 3..1. An Analysis of intersentential ellipsis 3.1.1.
Top-level taxonomy of intersentential ellipsis 3.1.2.. Understanding
elliptical utterances 3 1 3 Other factors in intended effects 3.1.4
Analysis of short story dialogues 3..2. Other dialogue phenomena
3.2 1. Noun phrase references 3.2 2. Interactive recovery from user
errors 3.3. Relationship of theory to implementation 4. The
Implementation 4.1 Top-level organization 4..2. Semantic chart
parsing 421 An example parse 4 2 2 Current syntactic coverage 4.23
Verb and noun phrase reference 4.2.4 Error recognition and recovery
4..2.5. Natural language generation 4.3. Ellipsis handling in the chart
4 3.1 Verb phrase reformulation ellipsis 4.3.2. Noun phrase ellipsis
resolution 4 4. Correction, elaboration, and dialogue charts 4.4.1.
Correction ellipsis 4.4.2. Elaboration ellipsis 4.4 3, Dialogue charts
4.5.. The response phase 4.6. Future chart developments 5. The
Program in Action 5..1. Introduction 5,2. The initial full sentence 5.3
Functional verb phrase ellipsis 5.4. Constituent verb phrase ellipsis
5..5. Another functional verb phrase ellipsis 5.6. Conclusion 6.
Conclusion 6..1. Contributions 6 1 1 Ellipsis coverage 6.2. Future
work

25 25 26 28 35 36 38 39 41 42 45 46 46 51 59 63 69 74 77 78 86
89 90 91 93 94 101 103 103 105 122 132 141 154 157 157 160 161

gue

22 25 25 26 28 35 36 38 39 41 42 45 46 46 51 59 63 69 74 77 78
86 89 90 91 93 94 101 103 103 105 122 132 141 154 157 157 160
161

tial ellipsis

)rs

rts

6.2.1. Straightforward extensions 6,2.2 Extensions within the


framework 6..2.3. Extensions of the current framework References
Index
Figure 1-1: Figure 1-2: Figure 1-3: Figure 1-4: Figure 3-1: Figure 3-
2:

Figure 3-3:

Figure 3-4: Figure 3-5: Figure 4-1: Figure 4-2: Figure 4-3: Figure 4-
4:

Figure 4-5: Figure 4-6: Figure 4-7: Figure 4-8: Figure 4-9:

List of Figures

Our processing taxonomy of dialogue ellipsis Example dialogue with


Psli3 (first third) Example dialogue with Psli3 (second third) Example
dialogue with Psli3 (conclusion) Steps in understanding an elliptical
utterance Case frame diagram for antecedent: Display a large disk
drive. Case frame diagram for elliptical utterance: A large tape drive.
Case frame diagram for resolved utterance Our processing taxonomy
of dialogue ellipsis Production rule defining imperative show Sample
lexicon frame from semantic network Chart built for Show me xn
[sic] irregular bone Actual representation of state t6655 in working
memory Bone frame in semantic network Bone frame in working
memory Production rule defining direct object English version of rule
defining direct object Case frame diagram for Show me an ir.regular
bone
4 6 7 8 28 30

30

30 33 49 50 52 53

57 57 60 61 62

Figure 4-10:

Figure 4-11: Figure 4-12: Figure 4-13:

Figure 4-14: Figure 4-15: Figure 4-16: Figure 4-17: Figure 4-18:

Figure 4-19:

Figure 4-20:

Figure 4-21:
Figure 4-22:

Figure 4-23:

Figure 4-24:

Figure 4-25:

Figure 4-26: Figure 4-27: Figure 4-28: Figure 4-29: Figure 4-30:
Figure 5-1: Figure 5-2: Figure 5-3: Figure 5-4: Figure 5-5: Figure 6-
1: Figure 6-2: Figure 6-3:

Case frame diagram for: Display an irregular' bone in the face Chart
built for *Show display a rib Chart built during reference error repair
(first half) Chart built during reference error repaIr ( conclusion)
Case frame diagram for Which ribs

Sample nominal lexicon frame Production rule for generating


irr'egular bone Chart built for Some flat bones Production rule for
unmarked, initial, verb phrase functional ellipsis English version of
rule for unmarked, initial, verb phrase functional ellipsis Case frame
diagram for antecedent: Show me an irregular bone Case frame
diagram for resolved ellipsis: (Show me) Some flat bones Case frame
diagram for incorrectly resolved ellipsis: * (Show) Some flat bones
(an irregular bone) Case frame diagram for resolved ellipsis: Show
Mar'k (an irr'egular bone) Case frame diagram for antecedent: Show
me some flat bones Case frame diagram for resolved ellipsis: (Show
me some flat bones) In the face Case frame diagram for (Show) Rich
(a rib for me) Case frame diagram for (Show Phil a rib for) Rich
Chart built for a correction ellipsis Production rule for displaying
generics English version of rule for displaying generics Interaction
between Psli3 and user Chart of first sentence in dialogue Chart of
second sentence in dialogue Chart of third sentence in dialogue
Chart of fourth sentence in dialogue Case frame diagram for
extended case frames Case frame diagram for action representations
Case frame diagram for dialogue relations

68

70 72 73

75 75 76 79 80

81

82

83

84
TT

85

87

TTTT

88

91 91 92 97 98 104 105 122 132 141 163 166 167

irregular' 68 70 first half) 72 .r repair 73 75 75 bone 76 79

rb phrase 80 itial, ver b 81 w me an 82 ,: (Show 83

d ellipsis: 84 . bone) '. Show 85 how me 87 (Show me 88 b for me)


91 'or) Rich 91 92 97 lCS 98 104 105 122 132 141 s 163 lS 166 167

Table 3-1: Table 3-2:


Table 3-3: Table 4-1: Table 4-2: Table 4-3:

List of Tables

Partial list of types of ellipsis/antecedent matches Statistics compiled


on naturally occurring dialogue elli psis Literary ellipsis statistics
broken down by short story Syntactic coverage Coverage of noun
phrase reference Rules written for display action

35 37

38 59 64 95

reface

Natural language dialogue is a continuous, unified phenomenon


Speakers their conversational context to simplify individual
utterances through a of linguistic devices, including ellipsis and
definite r eferences. Yet most computational systems for using
natural language treat individual as separate entities, and hav

distinctly separate processes for ellipsis, definite references, and


other dialogue phenomena
This book, a slightly revised version of the PhD dissertation that I
completed in December 1986, describes a different approach It
presents a computational system, Psli3, that uses the uniform
framework of a production system architecture to carry out natural
language understanding and generation in a well-integrated way
This is demonstr ated primarily through intersentential ellipsis
resolution, in addition to examples of definite reference resolution
and inter active error correction The system's conversational context
arises naturally as the result of the persistence of the internal
representations of previous utterances in working memory Natural
language input is interpreted within this framework using a
modification of the syntactic technique of chart parsing, extended to
include semantics, and adapted to the production system
architecture This technique, called semantic chart parsing, provides
a graceful way of handling ambiguity within this architecture, and
allows separate knowledge sources to interact smoothly across
different utterances in a highly integrated fashion.

xvi

Integrated Natural Language

The design of this system demonstrates how flexible and natural


user interactions can be carried out using a system with a naturally
flexible control structure. In addition, a processing-based taxonomy
for ellipsis resolution that we developed is used to analyze our
coverage of intersentential ellipsis. The semantic chart parser is
further extended to allow several closely related sentences to be
treated in a single chart. This allows the relationship between the
sentences to be used in a simple way to select between competing
alternate interpretations, and provides a natural means of resolving
complex elliptical utterances.

The resulting system is described in detail, and extensive examples


of the system's processing of user interactions are presented The
major advantage of this book over the dissertation is the presence of
an index, which frees the reader from having to memorize the whole
work in order to find something again later

It is now my pleasure to thank those who helped make this work


easier, or even possible:

· my advisor, Jaime G. Carbonell, a continuous source of inspiration


and detailed comments, despite his impressive number of
commitments. I will be pleased if I approach the level of any one of
his many achievements.

· my thesis committee: Phil Hayes, Rich Thomason, and Herb Simon.


This work has been distinctly improved in response to their
comments

· other technical influences: John Anderson, Allen Newell, Dana


Scott, David Evans, Jon Doyle, Lori Levin, and others who
commented on my thesis proposal, or influenced my approach to
production systems and artificial intelligence.
· Steve Clark, Doug Reece, and a number of people at Siemens AG,
especially my coworkers at the Corporate Laboratories for
Information Technology in Munich, for help and support in producing
this book from the dissertation. Siemens also helped motivate me to
finally finish my degree, with an overseas job offer.

r F ']

ae

:uage

natural user urally flexible "y for ellipsis coverage of : extended to e


chart. This 5imple way to des a natural

amples of the jor advantage hich frees the nd something

ork easier, or
lrce of number I of any

d Herb onse to

" Dana rs who )ach to

nsAG, les for )ort in helped

as job

xvii

. Rene Nuijens, a Dutch graphic artist working in Munich, for the


cover drawing, which is a stylized representation of a banyan tree, a
tropical tree with many trunks

. friends at Carnegie Group Inc: Peggy Andersen, Scott Safier,


Monica Cellio, Sean Winters, Peter Neuss, and Thelma McGough.
Artificial intelligence for fun and profit Who would have thought it
possible?
. friends in the XCALIBUR project: Steve Monisson, Marion Kee, Mark
Boggs, Ira Monarch, Michael "Fuzzy" Mauldin and Ben MacLaren My
first involvement with ellipsis in natural language

. the folks in the Intelligent Systems Lab of the Robotics Institute


when I was there: Mark Fox, Donald Kosy, Brad Allen, Mark Wright,
Gary Strohm, and Joe Mattis Psli3 was born there

. my wife Barb and our rabbit Blanche, for affection and intellectual
stimulation

. my family, for constant emotional support; Bill Marx, Gregg Podnar,


Nelson Oliver, and other friends; and the CMU CSD comm unity, still
the best place in the wor ld to do computer science research

And last but not least:

This research was supported by the Digital Equipment Corporation


XSEL project, the National Library of Medicine under contract NOI-
LM-4-3529, and the Office of Naval Research under contract
NOOOI4-82-C-0767 This research was also supported by a fellowship
from the National Science Foundation under contracts SPI-8019116,
SPI-8166315, and SPE-8264136 The views and conclusions
contained in this document are those of the author and should not
be interpreted as representing the official policies, either expressed
or implied, of the sponsoring agencies or the United States
Government
Munich, \Vest Germany June 1987

Chapter 1 In trod uction

Natural language dialogue is a continuous, unified phenomenon, not


simply a series of unrelated sentences and phrases Unfortunately,
most computational systems for interpreting natural language treat
individual utterances as isolated events. A comprehensive
computational system for participating in natural language dialogue
should be designed so that it can apply a well-integrated set of
operations in a uniform fashion, with a continuous context that easily
reaches across individual utterances. This work describes such a
system, Psli3 (pronounced "sly 3"), and the analysis behind it,
concentrating primarily on the computational architecture required
for uniform processing of contextual phenomena such as elliptical
utterances

Integrated Natural Language

1.1. Ellipsis in natural language


Elliptical utterances are those utterances in which the speaker leaves
part of an utterance unsaid, resulting in a phrase that is locally
syntactically or semantically incomplete The hearer is expected to
infer the missing portions, either from general knowledge, or, more
typically, from the preceding conversational context Elliptical
utterances occur frequently in many kinds of dialogues, including
those involving natur al language interfaces to data bases, expert
systems, and other software packages They are one of a number of
linguistic devices speakers use to simplify individual utterances that
depend on the coher ence of natur al language dialogues Definite
references are another such device touched upon in this work; these
allow very short references to objects that are already in the current
conversational context These linguistic devices are used in a highly
integrated fashion to produce and comprehend simple, clear
utterances based on the conversational context

Since ellipsis and other dialogue phenomena are so frequent in


natural dialogues, it is important for natural language understanding
systems to be able to handle them [Carbonell 83] The users of
natural language systems tend to use elliptical utter ances even
when told not to do so In addition, these utterances are useful in
their own right for the brevity they allow in communication. A
system that can interpret these utter ances allows the user to
communicate more naturally and less self-consciously, as well as
allowing shorter utterances for the user to type and the system to
interpret While some earlier methods of understanding elliptical
utterances required more time to interpret an elliptical fragment than
a full sentence, we feel that elliptical utterances should be easier to
interpret than full ones, as is true in our system

Elliptical utter ances can be classified using sever al kinds of criteria


We have developed a taxonomy based on the type of processing
needed in order to interpret, or resolve, the elliptical utterance This
is a novel categorization, different from those used by linguists, due
to its motivation by the processing constr aints discussed in chapters
3, 4, and 5 The first distinction is between elliptical utterances that
are resolved based on a previous utterance, or antecedent, and
those that are resolved using non- linguistic methods An example of
the latter category, a non-antecedent elli psis, is: Roll call!

s'

II b

tJ T

e:

sp
lage

r leaves part 1tactically or the missing y, from the frequently in . al


language kages They fy individual

e dialogues ; work; these the current in a highly :rances based

t in natural ystems to be Jage systems In addition, hey allow in :ows


the user I as allowing pr et While :quired more we feel that as is
true in

:riteria We :ded in order is a novel s motivation The first based on a


I using non- n-antecedent

it is understood from the general context that someone is taking a


roll and expects other people to respond when their names are
stated. Non- ellipsis is further divided according to whether the
utterance can without any reference to the current position in the as
in the example above, or whether the context is used in a way, as in
a follow-on to the above command: Smith! could in general have
several interpretations, but here is clearly meant indicate that the
person named Smith should simply indicate his or her An example of
the other major category, antecedent ellipsis, is: Open the window.
All the way
Half way. the second utterance 1 does not have a clear
interpretation without the provided by the first utterance. Similarly,
the third utterance on the preceding conversational context for
interpretation Elliptical that have an antecedent are classified as
either intrasentential or depending on whether the antecedent is in
the current sentence or a previous one. Weare only concerned here
with the richer and more common of the two classes: intersentential
ellipsis These in turn can be further classified as being either
coreferential with their antecedents or non-coreferential. The
example above is coreferential, since exactly the same physical
action is being referred to. In the example Open the window. Now
the door. the utterances are non-coreferential, since they refer to
two different actions The entire taxonomy is illustrated with
examples in figure 1-1, and is explored in detail in chapter 3

IThroughout this work, indenting a quoted utterance indicates that it


is spoken by the other speaker

Integrated Natural Language Dialogue

. Non-antecedent ellipsis o Context-freejTask-dependent-While sitting


at a dinner table: Salt

o Context-dependent-In response to the above request: Empty!


. Antecedent ellipsis

o Non-coreferential

. Reformulation-A parent speaking to a child: Please. wash your


hands. When child returns: Show me your hands. The other side.

o Coreferential

. Elaboration-A parent again: Please clean up your room. As child


continues to walk towards the door: Before you go out to play.

. Correction-A customer III a restaurant: I'll have. the salmon steak.


The waitress: I wouldn't. The customer again: The tuna sandwich.

· Echo-Another customer: I'll have a cup of chowder. The waitress:


Chowder

The customer: Chowder;

Figure 1-1: Our processing taxonomy of dialogue ellipsis


.2.

incor work

Pre with systel hand: such dialol systeJ can I apprc mech

ThE reforl first. a fail ellipt more the s: is tak taken desigl funct:

lage

at a

:equest:

child:

The

l.n up
'Jefore

r have.

1: The

'.£p of

vder;

)sis

Ellipsis in natural language interfaces

two main lines of previous work on ellipsis resolution are the one
semantic grammar systems [Hendrix 77] and the one within case
frame parsing [Carbonell 83] The work in the semantic grammar
paradigm a separate style of parsing for elliptical inputs, bottom-up
rather top-down, and has a number of problems associated with its
reliance on identity between the syntactic form of the elliptical
utterance that of its antecedent The case frame based technique is
more flexible general, since it relies on semantic unification of the
representations of ellipsis and antecedent. The case frame method
has been extended and incorporated in a more integrated form in
the handling of ellipsis in this work This and other relevant previous
work will be discussed in chapter 2.

Previous computational approaches to ellipsis resolution have dealt


only with reformulation of previous requests by the same speaker
Our Psli3 system takes advantage of the uniformity and integration
of its design to handle several other conversational situations in
addition to reformulation, such as cross-speaker ellipsis Figures 1-2,
1-3, and 1-4 give an example of a dialogue fragment that this
system can handle; the current domain of the system is information
retrieval from a medical database No other system can handle the
range of ellipsis phenomena handled in Psli3, nor is any approach as
uniform and extensible, since they all require special-purpose
mechanisms.

The first pair of utterances in figures 1-2, 1-3, and 1-4 shows a
typical reformulation ellipsis, where a second query is produced by
modifying the first The next interaction shows the system generating
a question to resolve a failed reference, and interpreting the elliptical
answer. Then there is an elliptical utterance where the missing part
is a constituent rather than the more common missing
superstructure. The last two interactions show how the system can
interpret multiple part utterances in different ways: the first is taken
to be a clarification of a single requested action, while the second is
taken to be a reformulation resulting in two requested actions. The
general design of the system is described briefly below, and details
of its internal function are provided in chapter 4.

Integrated Nal tt "II Language

Show me some ribs. RIB NUMBER 7 (IS-A (VALUE TRUE_RIB))

RIB _NUMBER _ 6 (IS-A (VALUE TRUE_RIB))

RIB _ NUMBER _ 5 (IS-A (VALUE TRUE_RIB))

Some other ribs. < Comment: Understanding the semantics of


"other" is required > RIB _ NUMBER _ 4 (IS-A (VALUE TRUE_RIB))

RIB NUMBER 3 - - (IS-A (VALUE TRUE_RIB))

RIB NUMBER 2 - - (IS-A (VALUE TRUE_RIB))


Display the irr'egular bones. <Comment: Definite reference without
a referent requires clarification interaction Both parties use ellipsis. >
WHICH IRREGULAR BONES? Any ir'regular' bones. ETHMOID (IS-A
(VALUE IRREGULAR_BONE)) (PART-OF (VALUE CRANIUM))

HYOID (IS-A (VALUE IRREGULAR_BONE)) (BILATERAL (VALUE F))


(LOCATED-IN (VALUE NECK))

INCUS (IS-A (VALUE IRREGULAR_BONE)) (LOCATED-IN (VALUE


HEAD))

Figure 1-2: Example dialogue with Psli3 (first third)

;uage

rd)

Mark. <Comment: Syntactically ambiguous, but not semantically. >


ETHMOID (IS-A (VALUE IRREGULAR_BONE)) (pART-OF (VALUE
CRANIUM»
HYOID (IS-A (VALUE IRREGULAR_BONE)) (BILATERAL (VALUE F))
(LOCATED-IN (VALUE NECK)

INCUS (IS-A (VALUE IRREGULAR_BONE)) (LOCATED-IN (VALUE


HEAD»

Display some ster'nal r'ibs. To Phil. <Comment: Two actions are


merged into one> RIB NUMBER 7 - - (IS-A (VALUE TRUE_RIB»

RIB NUMBER 6 - - (IS-A (VALUE TRUE_RIB»

RIB NUMBER Ii - - (IS-A (VALUE TRUE_RIB))

Figure 1-3: Example dialogue with Psli3 (second third)

.3. Computational architecture

We first describe our general approach to understanding elliptical


and then explain the architecture within which we have our system
The processing of an elliptical utterance begins the system
encounters an input it cannot interpret as a complete Conceptually,
there are four steps in the process:
. Recognize the elliptical fragment-The system must decide that the
input is an elliptical fragment, as opposed to a spelling error or
extragrammatical utterance.

Integrated Natural Language

Display some asternal ribs. Some flat bones. <Comment: Two


actions are left separate due to case role conflict. > RIB _ NUMBER
_ g (IS-A (VALUE FALSE_RIB»

RIB _ NUMBER _ 8 (IS-A (VALUE FALSE_RIB»

RIB _ NUMBER _10 (IS-A (VALUE FALSE_RIB»

VOMER (IS-A (VALUE FLAT_BONE» (PART-OF (VALUE FACE»


(BILATERAL (VALUE T)

STERNUM (IS-A (VALUE FLAT_BONE» (BILATERAL (VALUE F»


(LOCATED-IN (VALUE TRUNK»
SCAPULA (JOINED-BY (VALUE SHOULDER_JOINT» (IS-A (VALUE
FLAT_BONE» (LOCATED-IN (VALUE SHOULDER TRUNK» (BILATERAL
(VALUE T»

Figure 1-4: Example dialogue with Psli3 (conclusion)

. Match the antecedent-The antecedent of the elliptical fragment


must be identified. This is generally the preceding utterance, which
may have been uttered by either speaker.

. Instantiate the new full utterance-The antecedent and the elliptical


utterance must be merged. This is where the case frame based
ellipsis resolution technique is used.

. Determine the intended effect-The communicative purpose of the


utterance must be ascertained. This is done using the type of case
frame match, any reference relationship that exists between the
utterances, and the conversational context.

PT'"('p",,inp' ('''.n t.hAn ""nt.innp "s it. would with a ull sentence

o
respo

and outPl an 01 lengt avail: This natur

An< high envir,

'1juage

le

:ion)

elliptical preceding r.

and the ase frame

purpose : the type .at exists

9
system has been implemented in a production system language The
production system language is used here to mean a programming in
which the program, or pT'Oduction system, consists of a large of
production rules These rules each specify one or more actions be
taken when a specified set of conditions occur The conditions in the
rule's left hand side, and the actions in the right hand The state of
the system is stored in one or more working memories, of which is
normally an unordered set of working memor'y elements It working
memory that the conditions test, and that the actions modify, to
doing input and output The language's actual execution is out by a
production system interpreter, which tests the rules against current
state of the system, determines which rules have their left hand
satisfied, and then selects one or more rules and executes their right
sides This repeats in a cycle, as long as the system is running The
production system language we have used, OPS5, will be discussed
in detail in section 4 2.

One of the reasons we chose to use a production system


architecture is that feel it is easier to design a natural language
dialogue system that follows how human beings handle natural
language dialogue Such a allows one to use intuitions about how
dialogue works. Also, the will be talking with human beings, so at
some level it is necessary to the course of thought of its
conversational partner Production systems widely used for cognitive
modelling in cognitive psychology, and so are obvious choice A
production system engaging in dialogue naturally to be carrying out
a single, continuous event The production rules to an input by
creating data structures in working memory that represent its
understanding of the input, respond to the existence of this by
generating goals representing decisions about what to do next, and
then respond to these goals by generating the representation of an
output in working memory, which then causes other rules to actually
produce an output All of these data structures persist in wor king
memory for some of time after the input and output actions, and ar
e thus natur ally available as a context for further input
understanding or decision making This system is by far the most
extensive work to date on building an actual natural language
interface in a true production system

Another reason we have used a production system architecture is to


allow a high degree of integration among different kinds of
operations in a unifOl m environment. Because there is no fixed
control str uctur e, rules containing

10

Integrated Natural Language Dialog

knowledge about parsing natural language input, natural language


semantics the domain lexicon, domain knowledge base access,
ellipsis resolution, err() repair, and other types of knowledge can
interact in a highly integrate fashion, bringing their knowledge to
bear wherever it is needed The domai knowledge base is a separate
entity from the production system, and is a unmodified copy of a
pre-existing medical knowledge base built for anothe project. There
is a set of productions that accesses it on demand, not only retrieve
information in response to user requests, but also to carry 0
semantics checks on proposed interpretations of those requests, loc
referents of noun phrases that requires domain-dependent class
membershi knowledge, and to look up frame names that are not in
the lexicon. Th' shows that it is not necessary to place all the
declarative knowledge production system in the production system's
rules. In contrast, lexicoIl entries are compiled into production rules
at system start-up time from lexicon frames in the knowledge base.
This prevents the system from having to search through all the
lexicon frames at run-time to find the entries f01' the words in the
input

The lack of a fixed control structure also allows new rules to make
use of old rules that are already present in an additive way. If there
are already rules that elaborate a particular structure, a new rule
only has to create this structure, and the others will automatically
elaborate it. Adding new variations of existing features is made quite
easy; the rule for handling elaboration ellipsis (page 91) was written
and debugged in less than one day, even though it involved creating
a small set of case role conflict checking rules This added a whole
new category of ellipsis to the system's capabilities

The technique we use to interpret natural language within this


architecture is called semantic chart parsing It is based on chart
parsing, adapted to fit the production system approach and to allow
semantic, as well as syntactic, information in its states and rules.
The technique, and the data structures it generates, fit the
production system architecture well, and contribute to the smooth
integration of different functions It also extends natur ally to form
multiple-sentence charts, so that where several sentences are
closely related they can be interpreted as a single entity. The simple
natural language generation capabilities of the system are designed
to use the same internal data structures as the chart, which also
enhances the system's integration These features are all explained in
great detail in chapters 4 and 5
11

anguage semantics is resolution, err() highly integrate eded The


domai system, and is a e built for anothe emand, not only also to
carry 0 e requests, loc , class membershi the lexicon. Th' ve
knowledge r contrast, lexicoIl tart-up time from ystem from having
'ind the entries fOl'

of the book

first chapter has been an overview of the whole project Chapter 2


the relevant prior war k in ellipsis resolution, dialogue modelling, and
Chapter 3 gives an analysis of ellipsis and other dialogue that the
system incorporates Chapter 4 describes in detail the as it has been
implemented, with example rules, data structures, and Chapter 5
presents a fine-grained, annotated trace of the system a sequence
of four utterances The final chapter, number 6, our conclusions
about this effort and suggestions for future work

les to make use of , there are already , has to create this it. Adding
new rule for handling less than one day, conflict checking to the
system's

n this architecture ling, adapted to fit i well as syntactic,

data str uctur es it I contribute to the natur ally to form are closely
related natural language the same internal stem's integration 1 and
5

Chapter 2 Relevant Previous Work

Here we review previous work related to the current project, and


indicate it compares with our work. The three areas examined are
ellipsis dialogue modelling, and chart parsing

. Work on ellipsis resolution

Two main lines of research on understanding elliptical utterances


have been undertaken The first occurred in the context of semantic
grammar parsing systems, beginning with Hendrix's LADDER system
[Hendrix 77] and continuing with the SOPHIE [Burton 75] and
PLANES [Waltz 77] systems The other previous effort began more
recently with Carbonell's DYP AR-II system [Carbonell 83] and has
continued with DYP AR-IV and PLUME™ [Cellio 84]

14

Integrated Natural Language

2.1.1. Semantic grammar ellipsis resolution


This technique in its initial form consisted of parsing an fragment
bottom-up as a non-terminal in the semantic grammar, and replacing
the part of the previous par se tr ee corresponding to the same non-
terminal with the new elliptical parse tree. Not only did this require
different parsing strategy for ellipsis than for full utterances, since
normal parsing was top-down, but this method was very sensitive to
quirks in construction of the grammar, since the use or non-use of a
non-terminal in a gr ammar rule would affect whether or not a
certain class of ellipsis could handled Some classes simply could not
be handled at all, such as utter ances consisting of sever al disjoint
nonterminals, and those where syntactic form of the elliptical
utterance did not match that of antecedent

The following example illustrates the first problem In order to handle


phrase disk with two ports, a semantic grammar could include a
complex version of either of the following two grammar fragments:

<disk> --> <disk> <prep> <disk-property>

<disk> --> <disk> <prep-disk-property> <prep-disk-property> -->


<prep> <disk-property>

where the non-terminals <disk>, <prep>, and <disk-property> can


expand to the words disk, with, and two ports, respectively Using
the original LADDER algorithm, the elliptical utterance With two
ports could only handled using the second grammar fragment. If the
first grammar used, the phrase in question would not correspond to
any single non-terminal.

This method was later improved somewhat by allowing an utterance


to match a sequence of non-terminals that occurred in a segment of
a grammar rule, thus producing a set of possible corresponding to a
larger set of non-terminals than the specifically defined ones Using
this stronger version, the example above could be handled either of
the grammar fragments, since with the first, it would correspond to
a contiguous pair of non-terminals This also solved the most
common forms of the problem of elliptical utterances consisting of
several truly pieces. It still could not handle situations where the
elliptical utterance had a different syntactic form from the
antecedent.

the

req In po gra to,

T to tec: tak eIIi

cas onl hea oth hea

uage
lar, and ;he same non- ;his require since normal quirks in -terminal
in a ipsis could :h as )se where that of

to handle lclude a ltS:

rammar non-terminal.

an na

fically defined handled correspond to

ommon forms truly utterance had

Previous Work

15

SOPHIE system [Burton 75] and the PLANES system [Waltz 77] each
the weaker form of this algorithm within a semantic grammar type

Case frame ellipsis resolution


DYPAR [Carbonell 83] and PLUME™ [Cellio 84] parsers combine case
and semantic grammar techniques, using the semantic grammar
style pattern matching to match the input string to a case frame
grammar. frame grammars specify which case frame representations
of natural inputs are allowable for this domain These representations
consist nested structures of case frames, each of which has a header
indicating type of case frame it is, and an unordered set of cases,
each with a case and a filler, which is either another case frame, a
special symbol, or a The ellipsis resolution is done at the case frame
level, allowing a fine-grained and less syntactic matching of the
ellipsis to the This solves the following problem Given the example:
Show me all fixed pack disks with two ports. Disks with one port. the
semantic grammar ellipsis resolution technique would produce a
non- corresponding to <disk>, so that the phrase disks with one
port replace the entire phrase fixed pack disks with two por.ts the
intended reference is to fixed pack disks with one port, requiring a
finer-grained division of the semantic components of the phrase. In
addition, although different syntactic forms of an ellipsis, such as
single port vs with one port, should not affect the outcome, a
semantic grammar approach will handle them differently, since they
must correspond to different non-terminals in a context-free
grammar.

The case frame ellipsis resolution technique avoids both these


problems, due to its more detailed, more purely semantic internal
representation. In this technique, the antecedent utterance and the
elliptical fragment are merged by taking the antecedent, overwriting
any of its cases that are present in the ellipsis with the fillers from
the ellipsis, retaining any of the antecedent's cases that are not
present in the ellipsis, and adding any new cases present only in the
ellipsis. In some versions of this system, replacement of the case
header causes wholesale replacement of all its subcomponents,
whereas in other versions, only those subcomponents that are
incompatible with the new head are replaced..
16

Integrated Natural Language

2.1.3. PSLI3 ellipsis resolution All of these systems have been


restricted to understanding an utterance that refers to a previous
utterance by the user, as opposed to that refers to an utterance
generated by the system, and all have used combination of syntax
and semantics. The first similarity is due no doubt the lack of a
suitable internal representation of the system's output, the second is
due to the necessity of using both sources of information to achieve
any kind of reasonable results.

Ellipsis resolution in our system essentially follows the DYP AR recast


into the production system framework A more recent" version of the
DYP AR system uses a modified version of the KAFKA [M

t'i1€lin 84] based case fr ame tr ansfor mation system to carry out
the ellipsis resolution, so that its ellipsis resolution is fairly similar to
ours, except that the control of the conversational situations in
which ellipsis would be attempted is still in Lisp, and is restricted to
reformulation ellipsis (see chapter 3). Using a production system
allows more flexibility to be built into the system relatively easily, so
that ellipses in other conversational situations can be handled; for
example, in responses to questions, or in multiple-part utterances
where follow-on sentences are elliptical Additionally, ambiguity and
possibly complex semantic checking are easily handled through a
combination of the production system architecture and chart
representations (see section 2.3). While such features could
probably be added to any of these systems, they fit in naturally and
easily with the production system approach, as we have
demonstrated in our Psli3 implementation (see chapter 4)

2.2. Work on dialogue modelling

The topic of dialogue modelling has included a wide variety of


approaches to the problem of handling natural language interactions
at levels beyond the individual sentence These range from concrete
systems for handling specific discourse phenomena [Sidner 79,
Grosz 77] to more abstract attempts to handle higher-order effects
[Allen 80, Reichman 85]

Fr SOl

, lik n ot] sp' str SYI da str

va

rm rei trE

an
m

In

the

lage

an Jposed to have used e no doubt )utput, lformation to

ffi rersion of the '€lin 84] ;is resolution, Lt the control mpted is still
3). Using a the system tions can be multiple-part y, ambiguity i
through a presentations ed to any of .ction system l (see chapter

>f approaches ls beyond the dling specific attempts to

Previous Work

17
Syntactic focusing in discourse her work on comprehending definite
anaphora in discourse [Sidner 79], defines a computational model
for focus shifting.. The current, and potential foci determine how
objects can be referenced; the type reference actually used, such as
pronominalization, changes what is in and what is available as a
potential focus. Several variables, lists, and stack are used to keep
track of which phrases are available as objects in different situations.
A rule-based algorithm is presented calculating the current focus at
any point in the discourse, and other are presented for determining
what different types of references refer to

Although this is probably the best work yet on general, concrete


discourse it does have some problems. While the rules presented
cover cases, they clearly do not handle all relevant situations 2 . It
has not shown that this approach can be extended to correctly cover
all cases From our point of view, the main problem with this
approach is that it is somewhat too syntactic; while semantics are
used, they take a second place to syntactic focus mechanisms

While the discourses examined in Sidner's work are single speaker, it


is likely that the rules for focus shift could be adapted to a dialogue
context. The main change involved in incorporating them into a
system such as ours, other than placing more emphasis on
semantics, would be to replace the special-purpose data structures
for handling focus shift with the use of data structures that already
exist in working memory In other words, in a system based on a
production system architecture, rather than having special data
structures that exist solely for handling linguistic focus shifts, the
structures already existing in working memory would simply be
accessed as variables, lists, or stacks, depending on the rules used
to access them. For instance, in our system definite references make
a stack-like use of possible referents, while the different cases in a
single antecedent case frame are treated in a list-like way by the
ellipsis resolution rules. These differences are not implemented by
any special data structures, but simply by the manner in which the
productions in question are written This is presented in detail in
chapter 4.

2Donald Kosy (personal communication) found a number of


unresolved problems in applying th m t.n th", N>o.:IrJincr ,,1' '.;tn
o.:i........t\1 nt'-nO' t.pvt.h{){)k

18

Integrated Natural Language

2.2.2. Task-oriented focusing in dialogue Another real system that


deals with surface linguistic phenomena is work on focus in task-
oriented dialogues [Grosz 77] Here focus spaces defined, using
contexts that are part of the semantic network of the task to be
accomplished, in the main example the assembly of a The focus
spaces are ordered hierarchically, and the system tracks its
conversational partner as the dialogue goes from one subtask to
another Objects in the current focus space or its parent can be
referred to definite references, and references by the participants to
objects in focus spaces are used to indicate when the dialogue
moves on to a subtask This type of focusing is at a larger grain than
the focusing described by Sidner.
Grosz points out that these techniques are most applicable to wher e
there is some task structur e available In the database access
dialogues she examined, there did not appear to be a useful task
structure on which to base a division into focus spaces If our system
were to be applied to domain with significant task structure, this
type of focusing could be incorpor ated through the loading of fr
ames from the semantic netwOl k into working memory, and their
subsequent deletion when the corresponding subtask was no longer
relevant The current system loads frames into working memory, as
will be described in chapter 4, but there is no provision for deleting a
context; the system cannot forget anything during an execution

2.2.3. Formal discourse representation

There has been a fair amount of work on formal semantics for


natural language, including that of Appelt [Appelt 82] and Barwise
and Perry [Barwise 83] The formal discourse work by Webber
[Webber 78] concentrates on formally representing all the objects
generated by the current sentence that could possibly be referents
of future utterances, through the use of an extension of first-order
predicate logic. This extension involves the use of restricted
quantification, lambda-abstraction, and some new oper ators. There
is also a special pr edicate evoke S, x that indicates that x is the
description evoked by an utter ance S, and not a differ ent one of
the same form

While it is important to have a precise characterization of the


phenomena
In

In t] trair

to w

two the I

Ev prob searl seare infor This

reas( plan be e: plan rs pr

As of r: conc

Previous Work

19

.ge
a IS

wishes to handle for design purposes, it is not at all clear that first-
order calculus is an adequate representation for natural language,
even a purely logical point of view [Barwise 83] From a
computational of view, the data structures used are often at least as
important as the statements they correspond to. Still, it is interesting
to note that the predicate corresponds closely to the use of a unique
object ill in our

o ss dialogues ::m which to pplied to s could be etwOl k into II


esponding frames into to prOVISIOn during an

Speech acts and dialogue modelling In their work on planning and


speech acts [Allen 80], Allen and Perrault to recognize a speaker's
underlying plans, and use that information produce helpful
responses They attempt to infer the speaker's plan from actions,
reasoning about his beliefs and desires. One of their desired is the
ability to recognize the intentions behind elliptical utterances In the
example they give, a person goes up to the information booth at a
train station, and asks The train to Windsor

to which the person in the booth replies It leaves at 3:15 from


gate 7 system goes through a plan inference process to deduce that
there are two possible things the first speaker might need to know,
and then generates the answer to both

for natural ,rWlse and N ebber 78] the current ugh the use [yes the
use oper ators. at x is the )f the same
Even in the very limited domain they have chosen, plan inference is
a hard problem, and their reasoning process uses a variety of
heuristics to reduce its search Since their planning process uses
task-dependent information in its search heuristics already, it would
seem simpler to provide the system with information about what a
user would want to know about particular trains. This could
conceivably be stored knowledge that was produced off-line by a
reasoning process such as the one they describe On-line reasoning
about plans would only really be necessary in very unusual cases,
although it might be easier simply to ask the user what is wanted.
The main point here is that plan inference is in general too difficult
to carry out on-line, and therefore it is probably not often invoked in
the course of ordinary dialogue.

phenomena

As we describe in chapter 3, task-dependent ellipsis requires a


different type of processing than the linguistically-oriented ellipses
with which we are concerned. If a computation ally feasible method
of inferring user plans were

20

Integr ated Natural Language


Other documents randomly have
different content
Mr. Anthony, who joined the Mission in March last, to take especial
charge of the mill and other industrial work at Avery, has already
proved to be a valuable addition to the band. And the Committee
have just commissioned and sent out another recruit to strengthen
the hands, we trust, of those already in the field. His name is
Nathaniel Nurse. He was born in the island of Barbadoes, West
Indies; immigrated to Liberia, Africa, where he spent five years;
came to the United States; spent nearly two years in the cities of
New York and Boston; was converted to Christ in the latter city nine
years ago. He returned to Barbadoes, visiting also various other
West Indian islands. In 1875 he went to England, visiting Liverpool,
and spending a year in London. While in the latter city he was
engaged in missionary work.
He was sent, about two years ago, by the Freedmen’s Missions Aid
Society, of London, assisted by Belmont Church, Aberdeen, Scotland,
and several individual Christians, to Fisk University, Nashville, Tenn.,
where he has been studying with a view to devoting himself to
missionary work in Africa.
These young men are in a very trying position, and need the prayers
of all good people that they may have wisdom and grace and
patience from the Giver of all good and perfect gifts.
THE ARTHINGTON MISSION.
Let it not be thought by any of the friends of the Association,
because we have not had more to say in the Missionary, that we
have given up the hope of yet being able to accept the noble offer of
Mr. Robert Arthington, and of establishing and sustaining the Mission
proposed by him. We have already fully and formally recognized the
importance of the work, the accessibility of the field and its peculiar
claims upon our body. Equatorial Africa is our sphere. It is in that
that we have labored for over thirty years, and to that that we desire
to confine ourselves. This Eastern Mission will be a proper balance
and complement to the Mendi Mission on the Western coast. But we
have tried to make haste slowly.
The condition precedent made by Mr. Arthington, that the debt of
the Association should be extinguished, is now fully and fairly met.
That is an obstacle out of the way. The only other condition is one
on our part of prudent anticipation. It will take a large amount—
though it has been more often over than underestimated—to provide
the men and the outfit and to put them on the ground. It will require
at least an amount annually equal to that we are expending on the
Western Mission to sustain this in the East. And the Executive
Committee have thought it wise to assure themselves of $50,000,
which they would have in hand to devote to this work as it might be
required, before they should take the first step towards beginning it.
There are several things within our horizon to-day which conspire to
give us hope of a speedy realization of this plan. Mr. Arthington’s
offer still holds good. There is $15,000 for the work to begin with.
Dr. O. H. White, the indefatigable Secretary of the Freedmen’s
Missions Aid Society in Great Britain, is enthusiastic on the subject of
this Mission, and reports to us that the interest of the English and
Scotch people in it is deep and deepening. Already he has secured
considerable sums to be devoted to this work. Recently he has
written us asking for a definite agreement on the part of the
Association as to what it will do in the way of providing from this
country a portion of the fund deemed necessary to the inception of
the Mission, if he shall raise from the mother country a second
$15,000. The Committee has answered him that they will agree to
provide the $20,000 to make the needed $50,000 for the start, and
will then, “with the blessing of God and the assistance of the friends
of the African race in Great Britain and America, perpetually maintain
the Mission.”
The Committee felt free to make this pledge, in the present financial
condition of the Association, and especially as final receipts from the
Avery estate have recently come to hand, amounting to a
considerable part of this sum, and which are devoted by the donor
to the evangelization of the African race in Africa.
It is a great step for us to take; but we have felt that it would be a
great mistake, a great failure in duty, for us not to take it. God bless
Robert Arthington, of Leeds! God bless Dr. White in his efforts to
raise this second fund! God bless every man and woman on either
side the sea who shall join hands and put together their resources to
carry the light of the gospel of love and liberty into the thick
darkness of Eastern Equatorial Africa! Who will help us on this side
the water?
SELF-PROTECTION.
[We extract from the valuable address given at the Boston
anniversary, by the Rev. Albert H. Heath, of New Bedford, Mass.,
his second division (all we can find room for), in which he treats
forcibly of one most important aspect of our home work. In
other portions of the address he spoke at length of our special
obligations to these people and of the work in the light of a
genuine Christian philanthropy. We commend these strong
words to careful reading and thought.]

Self-protection is to be taken into consideration in this work. What


effect, we may well inquire, is it going to have upon the beloved
institutions of our land if these races are not Christianly educated? It
is possible that many will feel that the Indian, whatever our
treatment of him, can never offer any serious menace to our civil
life; we may safely let him go, as his fathers have gone before him,
marching before our fixed bayonets toward the setting sun. And if
this military policy is to prevail, we shall all be glad when he has
made his last trail across the plain and echoed his last shrill war-
whoop amid the mountains’ fastnesses. But, after all, friends, it may
be there is a God in Heaven who will remember and avenge the red
man’s wrong. “They that take the sword shall perish with the sword,”
is not alone to be found in Scripture. It is written in our
constitutions; it is a fundamental law of our being; and history bears
abundant testimony that it is no dead letter. We ought to remember
this law as we press the Indian from his God-given right. It may be
that we, the children of the Pilgrims, may yet find ourselves driven
from our Eastern homes and the institutions which the century has
helped us to build, while the red hand of Nihilism holds sway over
the graves of our fathers, and crowds us, as we are to-day crowding
the Indian, into the track of the setting sun.
But whatever may be the result of our treatment of the Indian, there
can be no doubt what will be the effect if the Negro and the
Chinaman are left uneducated and unchristianized. Already do we
feel the hand of the black man in our politics; our ears have
distinctly heard the low rumbling, and we have felt the shudder
beneath our feet which betokens an eruption. Before we know it
Vesuvius may be belching forth its fiery flood, darkening the sky and
spreading far and wide its river of death. Nor will the exodus greatly
change the matter. The demagogue and the office-seeker are a
genus that thrives in all climes. They may be more poisonous at the
South, as most reptiles are that breed under a tropical sun; but the
frosts of the North do not kill them any more than they kill the larvæ
of the insects which every April sun hatches into life. It only needs
the warmth of an election to quicken them and bring them in
buzzing swarms around your ears. There will be corrupt politicians in
Kansas who will rob them of their political rights as readily as those
in the South. It matters little where they dwell; even in New York or
Boston they would find themselves still in the reign of demoniacal
possession. While they remain an ignorant class they will be a
dangerous class. To be shot and intimidated may not be, after all,
their worst political fate; to be corrupted with bribery would be
equally bad. The electioneering purse, in the hand of the Northern
office-seeker, might prove as potent in robbing them of their rights
as the pistol which Southern chivalry may point at their devoted
heads. Let us not, therefore, cheer ourselves, nor encourage these,
our colored friends, that there is any holy land in these United States
to which they may go in solemn exodus and be safe. Wherever they
may be, ignorance is their greatest curse; nothing but education and
Christianization will dispel this shadow that is darkening their lives,
and lift this yoke of bondage that is now galling their necks, and in
no other way can they be converted into useful citizens. They are an
element of danger to the Republic, until, like our Northern children,
they grow up under the shadow of the school-house. It is possible
that all are not aware how great is the weight of this ignorance,
which is like loose ballast in the ship of State, ready at any sudden
lurch to change sides and carry us to the bottom. We and our
legislators have been most thoughtless in our treatment of this
question. In a single day, by legislative enactment, we put the ballot
into the hand of a million men, not one of whom knew a letter of the
alphabet. A more suicidal blow has seldom been aimed at the heart
of this Republic. We have given, almost indiscriminately, the right of
suffrage to these Southern States, and yet in sixteen of them
seventy-five out of every hundred of the population, according to the
census of 1870, are growing up entirely without school advantages.
At the present moment a majority of the voters in Alabama, Florida,
Georgia, Mississippi and South Carolina are without the ability either
to read or write. In either of these States, or in all of them, any
election can be carried by sheer weight of ignorance. Seventeen
hundred thousand men, according to a statistical report which has
been put into my hands, at the last national election cast the ballot
which they could neither read nor write. No wonder we were
plunged into confusion. Had not a kindly Providence been on our
side we should have been plunged into anarchy. And this scene
waits to repeat itself in 1880. The next President of these States will
be elected to his high position by sheer force of ignorance—
ignorance manipulated and controlled by men whose hearts are as
black with treason to-day as they were in ’61. No thoughtful man
can look upon these facts and not tremble for the safety of his
country.
So, also, is the ignorant and unchristianized Chinaman making
himself felt in our politics. He casts no ballot, he holds no office. He
does not come to the polls to drink and smoke and sell himself to
the highest bidder on election day; and yet his political influence
already is as wide as the continent; his unwelcome ghost stalks
through the halls of Congress, and broods over every political or
religious convention that is holden between the two oceans. Already
have we seen one sovereign State changing the terms of its
constitution and revolutionizing its laws out of pure regard for the
Chinaman. And, still more significant, we have seen our great
National Congress voting to change the very genius of the
Government, and to shut the doors that have for a hundred years
stood open, and which we mean shall not be closed for a hundred
years to come; and we will write over these open doors in letters of
fire, so that the most distant islands of the sea may read: “This is
the world’s asylum, free to the oppressed of all nations.” Now, I
doubt not there are evils connected with the coming of the heathen
Chinaman. There is oppression and sorrow brought home to many
hearts. I feel that there must be more or less of pollution in his
touch. I pity the State into which this old world sewerage empties
itself. But the remedy is not in building walls, though they be
heaven-high, on our Chinaward side. This evil can be handled and
neutralized only by the Christian virtue that is in us. Can we convert
this heathen material—permeate it with Christian thought? Can we
assimilate it and weave it into the civil fabric we are making? If so, it
will do us no harm; otherwise it will rankle like poison in our blood,
and possibly work our destruction in the end. This question should
not be settled in the political arena. It is a moral, a religious
question. The forces that are needed now are those that lie in the
hand of the Christian church. We must permeate this festering mass
with the leaven of Christ, and we must do it speedily. The evil is
growing. Politicians are beginning to treat it, and therefore it is
rapidly growing worse. It cannot be cured by legislative enactment.
Legislation knows of no instrumentality, save that the civil statute
ultimately seeks support in the bayonet. Before we know it, this
question may be baptized in blood. Those western shores are far
away. The Rocky Mountain wall lifts up a tremendous barrier to
separate us and make us twain; only one little thread of iron binds
us together and makes us one. Let us not wait until the whole Pacific
slope bristles with rebellion as the South did in ’61; but let us pour
the strains of our Christian influence over the mountains. If we can
Christianize this heathen mass, then the trouble is over, the danger
passed. Self-protection, then, affords a most powerful motive in the
prosecution of this work.
Albert H. Heath.
SUNDAY-SCHOOL LETTERS.
The interest of the Sunday-schools in our Southern work has been
increasing during the past year. The concert exercise has taken well,
and many schools have sent us their first contributions.
How many of the schools connected with our churches understand
clearly our offer in regard to correspondence from the field, we do
not know. It is this: any Sunday-school which contributes ten dollars
or more annually to the work of the A. M. A., if they request it, is
entitled to a quarterly letter from one of our missionaries.
The “Children’s Page” of this number of the Missionary contains such
a letter. It is bright and interesting to both teachers and scholars.
The following letter from a superintendent tells of the interest
excited by such letters in his school.
Besides the good done by the money given, is it not well worth while
to train up our children to give, and to educate them in the
missionary spirit? This letter is in response to a Sunday-school letter
from Miss Barr:
Miss L. E. B.
Dear Sister in Christ: Your kind letter of the 11th inst. came to hand
by due course of mail, and your very valuable epistle to our
Sabbath-school, of the 2d, came last Saturday. Accept my sincere
thanks for the same, in behalf of the Sunday-school and myself. I
think if you could have seen the eager faces and deep interest
manifested by all while I read it to the school last Sabbath, you
would be satisfied that at least one missionary of the A. M. A. would
be mentioned by our praying ones in their petitions at the Throne of
Grace for some time, and that all of us have so much of a missionary
spirit kindled in our hearts, and so much interest awakened in you
personally, that your next letter will be looked for so eagerly that it
will seem a good while to wait. I think you must have a very
earnest-working church in Atlanta, and that the Master will bless
them and you is my prayer. I have no doubt but “Aunt Lucy” will
have many prayers offered for a blessing upon her.
I am glad to know that your present field of labor in the vineyard is
so pleasant; and that the Master will give you health and strength to
labor for Him in it, and that you may be the means in His hands of
gathering in many precious sheaves from it to the heavenly garners,
is the sincere prayer of
Your humble fellow-servant,
R. H.,
Superintendent Congregational Sabbath-school.
ITEMS FROM THE FIELD.
Anniston, Ala.—Rev. P. J. McEntosh writes: “My field is increasing in
interest greatly. I have just closed a series of meetings in our
church. The Lord hath once more visited this part of His vineyard.
There have been twenty-two conversions in our meetings.
Seventeen of these have cast their lot among us—seven strong,
settled men, four settled wives, six promising young ladies. Others
are still asking what they must do to be saved, and if I can induce
them to take Jesus at His word and believe on Him, they too shall be
saved. Pray for us, that I may lead them on in the paths of peace,
and that they may learn from experience that ‘The path of the just is
as a shining light, which shineth more and more unto the perfect
day.’”
Talladega, Ala.—Our first word from the new President of the College,
Rev. H. S. DeForest: I came sound and dusty this p. m., having seen
many things of interest to me at Hampton and Atlanta. The first look
here more than meets my expectations. The buildings, grounds and
scenery are very pleasant, and the possibilities certainly are grand.
Atlanta, Ga.—The Fall term of the University opened October 1st. The
first week gives promise of a very full school. There are already
thirty girl boarders, and the indications are that their Hall will be as
badly crowded as last year. The reports of the Summer work of the
students, in all parts of the State, are very cheering. There is an
increasing desire for education. The white people are taking a
deeper and more kindly interest in the education of the colored
children and in the University.
Dr. Orr, State School Commissioner of Georgia, has, with the
approval of Dr. Sears, established fourteen Peabody scholarships,
each paying $72, in the Normal department of Atlanta University.
The award is to be determined by competitive examinations.
The Storrs School is running over full.
Cypress Slash, Ga.—Brother Snelson writes: Last Sunday, 14th, I
spent with Brother Headen at Cypress Slash. Gave the communion
there, and received three new members. They have made a pretty
good pole-house, about 28×20 feet, in which they hold school and
meeting.
Flatonia, Texas.—We are holding a protracted meeting, and last
Sunday was our communion. There seems to be more interest in the
church, and the prospect is fair for doing good. Last night seventeen
persons rose for prayer. Brother Church has been here since last
Thursday, and will remain a few days longer.
Austin, Texas.—Mr. A. J. Turner writes: I was in Austin last week and
visited Mrs. Garland’s school. She had just returned from the North
and started her school. She has a full Sabbath-school. I visited with
her the site of the new building, the walls of which are rising. It will
be a beautiful place. I rejoice that Northern people are doing so
much for our people.
Goliad, Texas.—“There is an increasing desire among our people to
carry the Gospel beyond the bounds of our churches, and so far as it
has been done, our polity and purity have attracted favorable
attention. There is a growing dissatisfaction with the worship and
moralities of the older churches on the part of some of their
members and others who would join but for these. The young
people, in their plays, imitate the ‘shouting’ to perfection. It is fine
sport to them to see the church members perform. They laugh at
the claim of Divine help to do what they can so easily do without
that help. The young men, on this account, are increasingly more
difficult to reach with the Gospel. Education, property and morality
are cast aside as of little worth; stealing and shooting among
themselves are not uncommon. Only a pure Gospel can save these
young men from dissipation and crime; yet they see the grossest
immoralities in church members, and the wildest fanaticism in their
modes of worship. A wide door is open here for Christian workers,
and as promising as any other to those of great patience and self-
denial.”
GENERAL NOTES.
The Freedmen.

—The Peabody Educational Fund—Reports of the General Agent and the


Treasurer.—The annual meeting of the trustees of the Peabody
Educational Fund was held October 1st, at the Fifth Avenue Hotel.
The chairman addressed the meeting, and in the course of his
remarks mentioned with regret the shrinkage in the income from the
investments, and expressed the hope that from other sources the
funds would be rendered adequate to the work laid out.
The thirteenth annual report was presented by Dr. Sears, the general
agent. He said that the work had made satisfactory progress during
the past year. The difficulties arising from the poverty of the South,
he continued, are now increased by the pressure of the State debts.
The necessity of aid from the Federal Government is now greater
than ever before. The evils that are certain to grow out of popular
ignorance, if the public schools are suffered to languish, or if they
reach only a part of the population, will not be limited to the States
where they first appear, but will cast their blight over the whole
country.
It might be thought best to limit the assistance to the colored
population, if any should be granted. By an act of the General
Government the right of suffrage has been extended to them. A
large proportion of them are confessedly unqualified for a judicious
exercise of this power. If the colored people are the “wards of the
nation,” in what way can the nation so well perform the duties of its
trust as by qualifying them for citizenship?
Of the two grand objects of this fund, the first, the promotion of
common school education, has been thoroughly established, and the
chief attention should be henceforth given to the second, the
professional training of teachers. In some of the States that stand
most in need of efficient normal schools, it would be impossible to
provide at once the requisite funds for their establishment.
Though there are very few normal schools of a high character
besides our own in the States with which we are concerned, there
are several of different grades of excellence, either maintained or
aided by public authority. Some of the former, and all of the latter,
are for colored teachers. Much good has been accomplished for the
colored schools by the universities and other endowed institutions
with normal departments, maintained by different Christian
denominations. One association has already sent out from its
numerous institutions 5,267 teachers, by whom about 100,000
pupils have been instructed. A large proportion of the graduates of
all these institutions become teachers.
The report by States shows the following facts: In Virginia less than
half the children of the State attended the public schools last year. In
the colored schools there was a loss of 3,271, compared with the
year before. Over $250,000 of the school money has been diverted
to other purposes; but in the future three-fourths of the
appropriation are secure.
In North Carolina the attendance is less than one-half. Difficulty has
been found in this State to induce young men of character and
talent to prepare for the business of teaching, as the pay is
uncertain and but little more than the wages of a common laborer.
The school attendance in South Carolina has increased 13,843
during the year. For several years the system of public instruction
was in a disordered condition; but, during the last year, a better
state of things has been manifest. But the want of normal schools
and of more funds is painfully felt. Such, at least, are the views of
the State Superintendent. In regard to scholarships he says: “The
agent of the Peabody Fund has placed at my disposal ten fifty-dollar
scholarships in the Normal and Agricultural Institute at Hampton, Va.
A visit to the Institute and observation of the manner in which it is
conducted convince me that it is doing exactly what it professes to
do.” He adds: “There are dangers before us which it will require the
highest patriotism and the wisest statesmanship to avoid. Nearly 57
per cent. of the voting population of the State are unable to read the
ballots which they cast.”
In Georgia, notwithstanding the increase of nearly 40,000 in the
school population, the number of the illiterate is diminished 20,614.
Great encouragement is felt regarding the educational prospects in
the State.
In Florida education is advancing rapidly. Two-fifths of the children
attend school, and there are applicants promised for all the Normal
College scholarships that can be allowed to that State.
Opposition to the public free school system is disappearing in
Mississippi, and a healthy condition is reported. A normal institute
has been established. One-third of the school population attend in
Louisiana. In the Colored Normal School we have had twenty
scholarships of $50 each. This arrangement is the result of an
extended correspondence with the State Superintendent.
In Tennessee, never since the first year of the present school system
has so much money been raised for its support; never has the
school tax been paid more cheerfully. Speaking of the use made of
Mr. Peabody’s gift, the Superintendent says: “The encouragement
given by the wise disposition of this fund has always proved an
invaluable accessory in the arduous work of organizing and
sustaining the cause of popular education in this State and in the
South.”
The State Superintendent of West Virginia says of the aid received
from the Peabody Fund for the Normal Institutes: “It is of the
highest value to the cause of education, and contributes more,
perhaps, in general advantage than an equal expenditure in any
other direction could do.”
The appropriations from the fund for the last year were: Virginia,
$9,850; North Carolina, $6,700; South Carolina, $4,250; Georgia,
$6,500; Florida, $3,000; Alabama, $3,600; Mississippi, $4,000;
Louisiana, $7,650; Texas, $7,700; Arkansas, $5,600; Tennessee,
$12,000; West Virginia, $4,000; total, $74,850.
The Treasurer’s report showed a balance of about $83,000 available
for expenditure during the coming year. In former years the income
has amounted at times to as much as $110,000, but there has been
some shrinkage since the 6 per cent. bonds, in which much of the
fund was invested, have been called in, the new investments being
in 4 per cent. bonds.
The officers of the Board, who have been continued from year to
year, are Robert Winthrop, Chairman; G. Peabody Russell, Secretary;
Samuel Wetmore, Treasurer; the Rev. Barnas Sears, General Agent.

The Indians.

—In the coming fall, twenty more girls will be added to the number
of Indian students at Hampton. Their due proportion is regarded as
essential to the success and value of the effort. When the Indian
prisoners from St. Augustine returned to the Territory, and their
wives and families turned out to welcome them home with rejoicing,
the long dreamed of meeting proved such a shock to the
reconstructed braves that some of them broke from the company
and ran away to the woods, refusing to have anything more to do
with their affectionate but very dirty squaws. The situation was
humorous but tragic, and withal very natural. How could they walk
“the white man’s road” in such companionship? And how could they
walk it alone? The co-education of the Indian boys and girls, with its
lessons of mutual respect and helpfulness in the class-rooms and
work-rooms, is the hope, and the only hope, of permanent Indian
civilization.
—The Secretary of War has turned over to the Department of the
Interior the U. S. Army barracks at Carlisle, Penn., to be used for the
purpose of Indian education, under charge of Capt. R. H. Pratt, who
has been sent West to collect 100 Indian youths for his school, as
well as the girls for Hampton. Captain Pratt’s wise, Christian
philanthropy toward the Indian prisoners at St. Augustine was the
origin of the present movement for Indian education, and has
demonstrated his eminent qualifications for the work.

Africa.

—Mr. Mackay gives most interesting accounts of his intercourse with


Mtesa and his chiefs. Every Sunday, after Wilson left, he conducted
service at the palace for the king and chiefs, speaking in Suahili
without an interpreter, and Mtesa interpreting into the Uganda
language for the benefit of those who did not understand Suahili. On
Christmas day a special service was held, all the chiefs being in
“extra dress,” when Mackay explained the great event of the day. He
regards Mtesa as most intelligent, and quite inclined to listen to the
word of God. Gratifying instances are mentioned of the influence
already exerted upon him. Some Arab traders arrived to buy slaves,
offering cloth in exchange, and saying they had come from the
Sultan of Zanzibar. Mackay vigorously opposed them, informed the
king of the Sultan’s decrees against the slave traffic, and of the
cruelties perpetrated upon its victims. Then he gave a lecture on
physiology, and asked why such an organism as a human body,
which no man could make, should be sold for a rag of cloth which
any man could make in a day. The result was not only the rejection
of the Arabs’ demand, but a decree forbidding any person in Uganda
to sell a slave on pain of death! By another decree Mtesa has
forbidden all Sunday labor, and the question of the evils of polygamy
has been seriously discussed by him and the chiefs. He was on
capital terms with the chiefs, and was teaching numbers of people to
read, having made large alphabet sheets for the purpose. He
describes the Arab traders as most bitter against the Mission. They
are distilling ardent spirits from the plantain, and drunkenness is
spreading in consequence.
THE FREEDMEN.
REV. JOS. E. ROY, D. D.,
FIELD SUPERINTENDENT, ATLANTA, GA.

PART OF A TOUR THROUGH THE CAROLINAS.


A new administration was to be inaugurated in the Avery Institute.
The way was found open, and the new Principal, Rev. S. D. Gaylord,
one of the foremost educational managers of the interior, was
greeted on the first day, the 29th of September, with an attendance
of 258, which was an advance of 40 or 50 upon former opening
days. The prospect was for a continued accession through the
month. The News and Courier gave a handsome notice. I found that
the Avery was an occasion of city pride, not only on the part of
colored but of white citizens. The authorities of Claflin University, at
Orangeburg, S. C., have visited and complimented the institute,
seeking to pattern after some of the methods. Prof. A. W. Farnham,
who has been at the head of the Avery for four years, bringing it up
to its high standard, will do a like work on a more general scale in
the Normal department of Atlanta University. The Plymouth church,
during the Summer, under the care of the pastor’s assistant, Rev. Mr.
Birney, a former fellow-servant with the members, had been
prospering. Under the lead of Rev. Temple Cutler, the church will
enter upon a career of enlargement. The new principal and the Field
Superintendent preached in the Centennial M. E. and the Zion
Southern Presbyterian churches, the largest for the colored people of
the city, as well as in the Plymouth. These three churches form the
bulk of the constituency of the Avery.
At Orangeburg a repeated visit and a preaching service prepared the
way for the coming of the new pastor, Rev. T. T. Benson, a graduate
of the Talladega theological department. A pleasant church and a
rallying people were ready to greet him.
On the way I stopped off at Chester, S. C., to visit my seminary
classmate, Rev. Samuel Loomis, who, in ten and a half years, has
gotten under way his “Brainerd Institute,” and has helped to plant
nine Presbyterian churches within that county. Blessed is the man
who is permitted to lay foundations in that way. At Charlotte, N. C., I
ran out to visit the Biddle University, which is the principal collegiate
and theological institution of our Northern Presbyterian brethren in
the South. Rev. D. S. Mattoon, the president, is supported by Rev.
Messrs. R. M. Hall and S. J. Beatty. Rev. Thomas Lawrence, of Penn.,
is to take the place of Rev. Dr. John H. Shedd, who has returned to
his mission work among the Nestorians. The current catalogue
shows eight students in theology, twenty-one in the college classes,
and a total of 155. This institution is for males alone. Its mate, for
females, is Scotia Seminary, at Concord. The glory of the Biddle is,
that in these ten years it has planted a whole Presbytery of thirty
churches in the region round about, besides raising up teachers and
preachers for the regions beyond.
In the back country of Randolph County, N. C., twenty-five miles
away from the railroad, I looked up Rev. Islay Walden, a former
slave in that region, a recent graduate of New Brunswick Seminary,
N. J., who had been ordained by the classis of New Brunswick. The
A. M. A. had sent him down to make a field in his native State. The
Field Superintendent assisted him in organizing a Congregational
Church of thirty members. The ordinances of baptism and the Lord’s
Supper were administered. This is in the neighborhood of one of the
churches of our antebellum missionary, Rev. Daniel Worth, whom all
our colored friends and some of the whites remembered
affectionately. His church, a former Wesleyan, has been taken up by
the M. E. Church, so that they are well cared for.
We were waited upon by two committees, one from Hill Town, seven
miles away, and one from Troy, the county seat of Montgomery,
thirty miles off. The former had one man to offer three acres of land
and timber in the tree for all the lumber needed for a church school-
house, and that man was an ex-slave. The latter committee
consisted of three men, who were the trustees of the “Peabody
Academy,” whose erection they had secured at Troy. They wanted a
teacher and a preacher. Living twelve or eighteen miles away from
Troy, they intended to send in their children and have them cared for
in a boarding club by an “Aunty.” In token of their good faith, all of
them interesting men, they united with our new church, intending to
transfer their membership to their own localities when we get ready
to organize there. Who could forbid that their requests should be
granted? So we organized a circuit for Brother Walden, one Sabbath
at Troy, and the other at Salem Church and Hill Town, with one
sermon at each place. The Quakers promise a school at Salem. A
public school will serve Hill Town for the present, and a competent
teacher must be secured for the Academy. It was a delight to
witness the pride of the people in their educated fellow-servant.
Even the old master gloated over the diploma of his “boy.”
Running into McLeansville early this Monday morning, thinking to
make it a minister’s rest-day, with only this article and other letters
and a sermon for the night on hand, I found the church at the
opening of a protracted meeting with the visiting preacher
announced for forenoon, afternoon and evening; house crowded all
day, with two hundred people in it by count; all remaining with lunch
in hand, between the first and second services, and many holding
over between the second and third. And this is the habit of the
people at such a time. All unnecessary work is put aside and the
entire time given up to religious service. This habit they take from
that of the white churches, with the exception that the colored
people have added the third service. Pastor Connet had held a
similar meeting in another part of his field this fall, and yesterday, as
a result of it, twelve members were added to this church. One of
those converts, an old man, testified, bearing himself with the air of
a conqueror: “I have fought the devil, and I’ve got the victory. Jesus
helped me. I have fought the devil, and I’ve got the victory.” The
meetings are orderly and solemn—congregational, only warmed up
by the African glow. The membership now numbers one hundred
and fifty-six. Pastor Connet is also superintendent of the school,
which is doing a good work in raising up teachers.
CONTRASTS.
The Past and the Present.

L. A. P.
“Reminiscences” in the October Missionary have recalled a host of
buried memories concerning the days of pioneer work, with its
swiftly-changing experiences of humor and pathos.
I might draw a picture of the good man who often asked the Lord to
“bless these teachers that have left their homes in foreign lands and
come a far distance to destruct us;” of the old aunties who came to
inquire about friends and old masters in Virginia and the Carolinas,
thinking we must know the history of each family, because “didn’t
you come right by there on your way down from the North?” of the
romances and tragedies connected with the hundreds of letters we
wrote inquiring for lost friends, sold away in the days of slavery; but
one picture is more vivid than others, and as the days of quaint
prayers are rapidly passing, I am tempted to commit it to print.
Almost a dozen years ago, I found myself one of two teachers in a
night school varying from forty to sixty pupils. The roughly-ceiled
room was long, low and dimly lighted. The scholars were hard-
working men and women who walked one, two, three or four miles,
after the day’s labor, for the sake of acquiring a bit of book learning.
At ten o’clock lessons closed with a Bible reading, singing and prayer.
One evening, after books and slates had been laid aside, my
attention was attracted by a voice, liquid and rollicking, as it carolled
a popular “spiritual.” In the gray room—for the light wood fire was
nearly out, and the two lamps in the rear gave little brightness—it
was some time before I distinguished the singer.
He was a jaunty little man, very black, very lithe and very much
dressed up. A blue round-a-bout coat was trimmed with two rows of
yellow braid; a crimson dress braid made his neck-tie, the long ends
of which floated over the shoulders. His hands were folded over a
stout walking-stick; his head nodding and feet patting time to the
music.
My thoughts instantly went back to childish days, to a certain tree
where a golden oriole’s nest used to swing, to a field of red-winged,
chattering bobolinks, not one of which ever seemed so deliciously
happy in his song as my dusky scholar. I liked to look at him. It put
me into communion with friends and influences hundreds of miles
beyond the piny woods.
He often spoke and prayed in the regular prayer-meetings. We soon
learned the words of his petition, for it was always in the same form,
reverently intoned with an indescribable, inimitable cadence:
“Our Father, who art in heaven, hollowed be thy name; thy kingdom
come, thy will be done on earth as is in heaven. Father, Father—this
evening—of all grace, look down upon us and hear us and bless us.
O Saviour, come riding around this evening upon the milk-white
horse and wake up sinners. Touch and tender about every heart.
Teach ’em that they have a soul to be saved or to be lost to all
eternity. Bless my old mother. Teach her that she has a soul to be
saved or one to be lost to all eternity. Strike her with the hammer of
conviction. Shoot her with the arrow of love. Bless families and
families’ connections. Give us more grace, more faith, more love.
Make us humble. Teach us to pray, and teach us to love it, too. Be
our guide and leader and protector. Bless the sinners who are
standing with one foot upon the grave and one upon the land of the
living.
“Father! Father! when Gabriel shall stand with one foot in the sea
and one upon the land to blow his horn, and he shall say, ‘How loud
must I sound?’ and Thou say, ‘Sound calm and easy so as not to
disturb My children,’ then shall we link and lock our eagle wings to
march upward to the golden gate.
“And when You see us fail below, help us to say, ‘Here, Lord, I give
myself away, ’tis all that I can do. Welcome dis solisted band and
bear my soul away.’ And when You have done suiting and serving
Thyself of us here, hand us to our graves in peace, where we shall
praise the Father, Son and Holy Spirit in a world that never ends, is
my prayer for Jesus’ sake. Amen.”
At that time this man was one of the more intelligent of his people.
In contrast, let me introduce a younger man of the same size and
color, also endowed with unusual gift of song. Neatly dressed,
quietly mannered, he seems no kin to the earlier types of his race.
From under the very shadow of Yazoo he writes these lines: “I have
subscribed for the New York Tribune. My school numbers 112 pupils,
with a daily attendance of 85 or 90. I have Cutter’s Physiology, from
which I give oral lessons daily. I will state the studies of my most
advanced pupils: Robinson’s Practical Arithmetic, Harvey’s Grammar,
Swinton’s Geography and Educational Readers. School closes next
Friday with a concert. I do wish you could be with us Thursday and
Friday to attend the examinations.”
Lest any one may infer from the above that “the schoolmaster is
abroad” in the land, let me quote one sentence of a prayer uttered a
few months ago by the pastor of a large church in a leading
Southern city: “O Lord, bless us individually and respectfully.”
GEORGIA.
An Economical Industrial Department.

MRS. T. N. CHASE, ATLANTA, GA.

The demand for industrial departments connected with our schools


of learning has developed so rapidly of late, that it appears like one
of the fever heats of our American civilization that may soon
subside.
Friends of the A. M. A. institutions have been specially anxious that
their students should learn trades and home industries while at
school, fearing that they would have little opportunity to learn them
except from their Northern instructors, and thinking that they could
be acquired from them outside of school hours without much
thought, time or trouble.
On the other hand, some have felt that our immediate, pressing
need was young colored men and women with minds developed by
long and thorough training in the text-books used in our schools and
colleges. They are not ignorant of the students’ deficiencies in
practical knowledge, but feel that close and continued application of
the mind to books is the best and surest way to acquire all
knowledge. They believe that if the brain power of a child is
developed, the hoe, the cook-stove and the sewing-machine will be
well managed when occasion requires.
Again, these students are to be the teachers of their race in the
South. These friends believe that nothing will so quickly convince the
intelligent men of the South that the negro has power which they
are bound to respect, as to see him well versed, not only in the
sciences he teaches, but his mind broadened by a familiarity with
subjects beyond. To secure this training, through an ordinary course
suitable for an average teacher even in Northern schools, with
supposed superior material, has generally been found to require all
the time and strength of pupils under 18 years of age. Principals of
the different schools, however, differ much both in theory and
practice, in regard to combining manual with literary work.
In Atlanta much has been done during the past ten years in a quiet
way, by the business manager, matrons and preceptress, toward
giving practical instruction in a variety of home industries, making
specially prominent the importance of good work. Every student,
during the entire course, works an hour a day, generally with careful
supervision. While visiting the Massachusetts Agricultural College at
Amherst, recently, I learned that less time for manual labor was
required of its students.
During the past year, however, at Atlanta, it was thought best to give
more time and thought especially to sewing, cooking and care of the
sick. How to secure a practical knowledge of these without much
expense of material or instruction, and without taking much of the
student’s time from literary pursuits, was the problem. The sewing
was arranged in this way: Sometime before graduation the girls are
required to make, under the eye of the preceptress, a small garment
of calico or other inexpensive material. This garment is to contain all
the varieties of plain sewing, machine-stitching, hand-hemming,
ruffling, etc. More than this, it must have the bugbears of all
beginners in sewing—a buttonhole, a patch and a darn. Each girl
writes her name in indelible ink on the garment, and it is kept in the
institution as a record of her standing in sewing.
In a catalogue I received lately from the hands of the matron of the
Mt. Holyoke Seminary are these words: “It is not part of the design
of this seminary to teach young ladies domestic work. This branch of
education is exceedingly important, but a literary institution is not
the place to gain it. Home is the proper place for the daughters of
our country to be taught on this subject, and the mother the
appropriate teacher.” I think I remember reading the same words
from a catalogue twenty years ago, and presume they were first
penned by the immortal Mary Lyon. So we hoped the emulation
created by the prospect of leaving a beautiful specimen of needle-
work upon graduation would inspire our girls to faithful painstaking
in sewing at their homes even before entering school. The matron
has the graduating class spend their required hour of work in
learning to make good bread and to do other plain cooking. When
any student is ill, opportunity is given for practical instruction from
the preceptress in nursing the sick. In addition to this, the time of
one recitation was taken during a part of the year for giving
instruction in household science. A teacher prepared talks upon
general rules for good housekeeping, general principles of good
cooking, care of the sick, care of children, economy, etc. The class
took notes, and were examined from their notes before the visiting
board at the close of the school. We hoped thus to convince them
that we were not educating our girls above the homeliest duties of
the household, as some of them had accused us of doing.
I have given these details to show how much may be done in this
direction without any additional expense.

Revival—Work and Results.

S. B. MORSE, SAVANNAH

The Congregational church of this city has been blessed with a


visible outpouring of God’s Spirit. Many of our old members have
been quickened in their religious feelings and have reconsecrated
themselves to their Lord and Saviour. Many who have been lingering
and shivering on the brink of doubt, and many, too, who were
waiting a plainer manifestation of their acceptance with God by
“dreams and travels,” suddenly, as the truth struck them, yielded
their ways to His ways, and are now, we trust, walking in accordance
not with their own, but with God’s plans.
We had an extra series of meetings for over two weeks, which were
well attended by Christians of all denominations. These meetings
closed last week. On Sunday morning, September 7th, one was
baptized by immersion, and at night five others were by sprinkling.
Still another was received who was a fallen member of some other
church. Five children were at the same time baptized, after which all
those who loved the Lord Jesus, and who wished, met around His
sacramental board and feasted with Him. The church was so
crowded that many were compelled to stand outside. It was a high
day in Israel. Many hearts were gladdened.
Most of those we received were young people. Some of them
teachers of our Sabbath-school, and nearly all of them at some time
had been under the influence of some good Northern lady teacher.
Perhaps those teachers were disheartened and feared that their
good seed had fallen upon stony ground, but in this they were
deceived. We are too anxious often to see results. God’s logic
extends through years, but His conclusions are nevertheless sure
and true.
Rev. Floyd Snelson officiated at the sacraments of baptism and the
eucharist. Bro. Clarke was directly instrumental in bringing about this
revival.
ALABAMA.
Our New Church Building.

REV. WM. H. ASH, FLORENCE


Our new church is getting on nicely. The outside is nearly finished,
with the exception of the belfry, which I hope will be done this week.
The work has been carried on strictly with reference to economy as
well as to the finish, and yet it is so well done that it is simply
beautiful. Almost everybody has something to say about the church.
One says, “You are going to have a nice church, and your church will
be well attended when it is done.” Another says, “This is the greatest
thing the colored people ever accomplished in Florence.” I am
constantly greeted by my white fellow-citizens with, “You are going
to have the only modern church in town;” and they visit the scene of
the building to watch the progress of the work and speak friendly of
it. A gentleman who lives in Fryar’s Point, Miss., and belongs to one
of the first families here, has just asked me to let him look at the
plan. He said, “This is going to be a credit to the town.” I have put
on a large portion of the first coat of paint myself.
The people have made great sacrifices to build their house of
worship. I don’t believe that the same number of members in any
church North could have done better with all the discouraging
circumstances. They have struggled hard to help themselves, giving
when really they needed it at home.
We shall need a bell and pews, also a communion service, and
money to buy paint for the finishing of the inside and out. Who
wants to help those who help themselves?

Letter from a Student—Vacation Supply at Mobile.

J. W. ROBERTS, TALLADEGA.
Our protracted meetings lasted during three weeks. The Holy Ghost
has given us five souls for our hire; besides He has warmed up our
hearts with His sacred love as a church. I am thankful to Him that
my health is kept all right.
Since and during our revival our audiences have been steadily
increasing both at afternoon and evening services. There is also an
unusual interest in our Thursday praise meetings. In short, the “fold”
is in a good condition if the shepherd will come soon.
AFRICA.

THE MENDI MISSION.

Annual Meeting of the Missionaries—The Board of Counsel


and Advice.

The annual meeting of the Board of Counsel and Advice of the Mendi
Mission was held in the Good Hope Chapel, at Sherbro Island, July
14, 1879. Rev. A. P. Miller presided, and Dr. Benjamin James was
elected Secretary.
The Moderator made the following introductory remarks:
Before we proceed to our business, you will please indulge me with
a few preliminary remarks, inasmuch as we are about to enter upon
that part of our missionary work which will tell most plainly to the
civilized world as to the wisdom and good judgment of colored
missionaries in devising plans for the furtherance of a work of so
great importance, sacredly intrusted to our care.
In the performance of our several duties in the second annual
meeting of our Board, let us not forget that body of devoted men of
the A. M. A., by whose unwearied zeal and toil means are procured
for the furtherance and extension of this well-begun work.
Let us not forget the thousands of Christian men and women who
give of their means for the support of Missions, especially in Africa.
Let us not forget the five millions of our own race in the South, from
whom the shackles of slavery have been torn asunder, to whom
Africa is now looking for the light of the Gospel and a Christian
civilization, of whom we are the advance guards.
Let us not forget that the problem of Africa’s future is now under
solution and that we are the solvers. Our failure to arrive at a
conclusion in her favor, as Freedmen, would bring everlasting
disgrace upon us as a race, while on the other hand we should most
shamefully wrong unenlightened manhood, whose blood would be
required at our hands.
As a slave, the negro served well his oppressors. As a soldier, he
served well the cause of freedom and his country. The tyrant’s chain
of oppression, which held five millions in bondage, has been broken,
and to-day the grand duty as well as privilege of carrying light and
life to his benighted brethren in his fatherland lies before him and
calls him onward. It remains yet for him to prove himself a man in
this important relation that he holds to his fellow-countrymen and to
the world.
In view of these great responsibilities incumbent upon us in this
Council assembled, in the discussion and decision of matters of
importance, may God, in mercy, so guide each one that he shall be
unprejudiced and deeply sincere, as well as conscientious,
throughout all these deliberations, with due regard to their bearing
upon the interest of the benighted whom we come to serve and
enlighten. In view of all these things, may each one give the weight
of his influence to the furtherance of our work, exercising patience
and charity one toward the other.
Committees were appointed on the various interests of the Mission,
while the subject of the extension of the work was referred to a
committee of the whole.
The Committee on Church Work reported forty-four members in the
church at Good Hope Station, one having died during the year;
seven infants baptized; attendance on services good, and showing
earnest desire to hear the Word; advance in the Christian life of
converts; prayer-meetings valuable. Some persons, under watch and
care, will be received to membership as soon as legally united in
matrimony.
At Avery there are forty-one members; under watch and care, three
adults; eleven children baptized. Increasing willingness on the part
of the people to attend church, and growing interest in the cause of
Christ give encouragement.
At Debia, Mr. Goodman conducts religious services on the Lord’s day.
A chapel is hoped for here, books at Good Hope, and repairs of
building at Avery.
Our Sunday-school is in a flourishing condition, being well attended,
most of the scholars attending church services. Bradford friends in
England sent our Sunday-school a nice present in the shape of
copies of the Gospels, pamphlets, papers, etc., which we used as
prizes for good attendance, to encourage the little ones. We need
singing books for this work.
The Committee on School Work reported that at Good Hope the
school has made rapid progress. During the year 245 children have
been enrolled. These are both from the Sierra Leone and from the
native element. They learn English rapidly. “We have teachers,” says
the report, “who are quite awake to their duty. Children are
accessible in Sherbro, and are brought into day and Sunday schools
in large numbers. Through the kindness of friends of the poor little
Africans, shirts have been put on their backs and books into their
hands, for which they seem to be grateful. Of course these wear
out, and others must be procured in some way or other in their
stead, or these little ones in many cases will leave off attending
school. They must be constantly looked after. We hope to see not far
in the future a first-class school at this place. We have material in
abundance upon which to work. Time, patience and labor will bring
success.”
The school at Avery has not made such progress as was hoped for
during the year. On the first of January its numbers were decreased
by the taking away of most of the larger boys to cut the crops for
their parents. The irregularity of attendance is a great obstacle in the
way of our success. Some attend for one day, and may not be seen
again for a month. Those who have attended regularly have made
progress. The prospect for the future is better. There are some
children now in the Mission whose attendance may be depended on.
Most of the children living in the village around the Mission have
been taken to the farms to drive birds, so that the number on the
roll at present is only twenty, ten of whom come from the Mission
house. There have been 56 on the roll during the year.
The school work at Debia is encouraging, Mr. Goodman and family
being settled there. We base our hopes largely on the little ones who
are being trained in our Mission schools.
The Committee on Agriculture reported that the cassida planted at
Good Hope does not thrive, owing to the impoverished condition of
the soil. At Avery the coffee plantation is in a comparatively thriving
condition, and some of the trees bearing well. The need of more
laborers and implements is urged, and it is recommended “that more
of the ground be put under cultivation as a measure tending to
supply the wants of the growing Mission, and that the children of the
Mission be employed two hours each day upon the farms, under the
supervision of a competent and skillful person.” It is further
recommended “that the science of horticulture be introduced at each
station, and that the choicest flora of native and foreign production
capable of being grown on the premises be obtained, so far as
practicable, for this purpose.”
The Committee on Industrial Work reported that the saw mill needs
repairs of floor and roof, that one saw is in good running order.
There are sixteen hands employed at the mill, and two more are
needed. It is deemed desirable that some of the Mission children
should be “instructed into the workings of mechanics so far as we
have the means for instruction.”
Committees on Repairs and Sanitary Condition of the Mission, made
careful examination, and reported their advice in these regards.

DISTRIBUTION OF MISSIONARIES.
Welcome to Our Bookstore - The Ultimate Destination for Book Lovers
Are you passionate about books and eager to explore new worlds of
knowledge? At our website, we offer a vast collection of books that
cater to every interest and age group. From classic literature to
specialized publications, self-help books, and children’s stories, we
have it all! Each book is a gateway to new adventures, helping you
expand your knowledge and nourish your soul
Experience Convenient and Enjoyable Book Shopping Our website is more
than just an online bookstore—it’s a bridge connecting readers to the
timeless values of culture and wisdom. With a sleek and user-friendly
interface and a smart search system, you can find your favorite books
quickly and easily. Enjoy special promotions, fast home delivery, and
a seamless shopping experience that saves you time and enhances your
love for reading.
Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and
personal growth!

ebookball.com

You might also like