The Kluwer International Series in Engineering and Computer Science Natural Language Processing and Machine Translation SECS 41 1st Edition by Robert Frederking ISBN 0898382556instant Download
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Integrated Natural Language Dialogue presents a unique com-
putational system, PSLl3, that uses a uniform framework of a
production system architecture to carry out natural language
understanding and generation in a well-integrated way. Most
computational systems using natural language treat individual
utterances as separate entities while PSLl3 integrates such dialogue
phenomena into the conversational context to allow for a natural
means of resolving complex elliptical utterances.
SECS41
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Robert E. Frederking
87-26857 CIP
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Table of Contents
xv
5 7 11 13 13 14 15 16 16 17 18 18 19 20 20 21
25 25 26 28 35 36 38 39 41 42 45 46 46 51 59 63 69 74 77 78 86
89 90 91 93 94 101 103 103 105 122 132 141 154 157 157 160 161
gue
22 25 25 26 28 35 36 38 39 41 42 45 46 46 51 59 63 69 74 77 78
86 89 90 91 93 94 101 103 103 105 122 132 141 154 157 157 160
161
tial ellipsis
)rs
rts
Figure 3-3:
Figure 3-4: Figure 3-5: Figure 4-1: Figure 4-2: Figure 4-3: Figure 4-
4:
Figure 4-5: Figure 4-6: Figure 4-7: Figure 4-8: Figure 4-9:
List of Figures
30
30 33 49 50 52 53
57 57 60 61 62
Figure 4-10:
Figure 4-14: Figure 4-15: Figure 4-16: Figure 4-17: Figure 4-18:
Figure 4-19:
Figure 4-20:
Figure 4-21:
Figure 4-22:
Figure 4-23:
Figure 4-24:
Figure 4-25:
Figure 4-26: Figure 4-27: Figure 4-28: Figure 4-29: Figure 4-30:
Figure 5-1: Figure 5-2: Figure 5-3: Figure 5-4: Figure 5-5: Figure 6-
1: Figure 6-2: Figure 6-3:
Case frame diagram for: Display an irregular' bone in the face Chart
built for *Show display a rib Chart built during reference error repair
(first half) Chart built during reference error repaIr ( conclusion)
Case frame diagram for Which ribs
68
70 72 73
75 75 76 79 80
81
82
83
84
TT
85
87
TTTT
88
List of Tables
35 37
38 59 64 95
reface
xvi
r F ']
ae
:uage
ork easier, or
lrce of number I of any
d Herb onse to
as job
xvii
. my wife Barb and our rabbit Blanche, for affection and intellectual
stimulation
s'
II b
tJ T
e:
sp
lage
o Non-coreferential
o Coreferential
incor work
Pre with systel hand: such dialol systeJ can I apprc mech
ThE reforl first. a fail ellipt more the s: is tak taken desigl funct:
lage
at a
:equest:
child:
The
l.n up
'Jefore
r have.
1: The
'.£p of
vder;
)sis
two main lines of previous work on ellipsis resolution are the one
semantic grammar systems [Hendrix 77] and the one within case
frame parsing [Carbonell 83] The work in the semantic grammar
paradigm a separate style of parsing for elliptical inputs, bottom-up
rather top-down, and has a number of problems associated with its
reliance on identity between the syntactic form of the elliptical
utterance that of its antecedent The case frame based technique is
more flexible general, since it relies on semantic unification of the
representations of ellipsis and antecedent. The case frame method
has been extended and incorporated in a more integrated form in
the handling of ellipsis in this work This and other relevant previous
work will be discussed in chapter 2.
The first pair of utterances in figures 1-2, 1-3, and 1-4 shows a
typical reformulation ellipsis, where a second query is produced by
modifying the first The next interaction shows the system generating
a question to resolve a failed reference, and interpreting the elliptical
answer. Then there is an elliptical utterance where the missing part
is a constituent rather than the more common missing
superstructure. The last two interactions show how the system can
interpret multiple part utterances in different ways: the first is taken
to be a clarification of a single requested action, while the second is
taken to be a reformulation resulting in two requested actions. The
general design of the system is described briefly below, and details
of its internal function are provided in chapter 4.
;uage
rd)
PT'"('p",,inp' ('''.n t.hAn ""nt.innp "s it. would with a ull sentence
o
respo
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elliptical preceding r.
9
system has been implemented in a production system language The
production system language is used here to mean a programming in
which the program, or pT'Oduction system, consists of a large of
production rules These rules each specify one or more actions be
taken when a specified set of conditions occur The conditions in the
rule's left hand side, and the actions in the right hand The state of
the system is stored in one or more working memories, of which is
normally an unordered set of working memor'y elements It working
memory that the conditions test, and that the actions modify, to
doing input and output The language's actual execution is out by a
production system interpreter, which tests the rules against current
state of the system, determines which rules have their left hand
satisfied, and then selects one or more rules and executes their right
sides This repeats in a cycle, as long as the system is running The
production system language we have used, OPS5, will be discussed
in detail in section 4 2.
10
The lack of a fixed control structure also allows new rules to make
use of old rules that are already present in an additive way. If there
are already rules that elaborate a particular structure, a new rule
only has to create this structure, and the others will automatically
elaborate it. Adding new variations of existing features is made quite
easy; the rule for handling elaboration ellipsis (page 91) was written
and debugged in less than one day, even though it involved creating
a small set of case role conflict checking rules This added a whole
new category of ellipsis to the system's capabilities
of the book
les to make use of , there are already , has to create this it. Adding
new rule for handling less than one day, conflict checking to the
system's
data str uctur es it I contribute to the natur ally to form are closely
related natural language the same internal stem's integration 1 and
5
14
the
uage
lar, and ;he same non- ;his require since normal quirks in -terminal
in a ipsis could :h as )se where that of
rammar non-terminal.
an na
Previous Work
15
SOPHIE system [Burton 75] and the PLANES system [Waltz 77] each
the weaker form of this algorithm within a semantic grammar type
t'i1€lin 84] based case fr ame tr ansfor mation system to carry out
the ellipsis resolution, so that its ellipsis resolution is fairly similar to
ours, except that the control of the conversational situations in
which ellipsis would be attempted is still in Lisp, and is restricted to
reformulation ellipsis (see chapter 3). Using a production system
allows more flexibility to be built into the system relatively easily, so
that ellipses in other conversational situations can be handled; for
example, in responses to questions, or in multiple-part utterances
where follow-on sentences are elliptical Additionally, ambiguity and
possibly complex semantic checking are easily handled through a
combination of the production system architecture and chart
representations (see section 2.3). While such features could
probably be added to any of these systems, they fit in naturally and
easily with the production system approach, as we have
demonstrated in our Psli3 implementation (see chapter 4)
Fr SOl
va
rm rei trE
an
m
In
the
lage
ffi rersion of the '€lin 84] ;is resolution, Lt the control mpted is still
3). Using a the system tions can be multiple-part y, ambiguity i
through a presentations ed to any of .ction system l (see chapter
Previous Work
17
Syntactic focusing in discourse her work on comprehending definite
anaphora in discourse [Sidner 79], defines a computational model
for focus shifting.. The current, and potential foci determine how
objects can be referenced; the type reference actually used, such as
pronominalization, changes what is in and what is available as a
potential focus. Several variables, lists, and stack are used to keep
track of which phrases are available as objects in different situations.
A rule-based algorithm is presented calculating the current focus at
any point in the discourse, and other are presented for determining
what different types of references refer to
18
In t] trair
to w
two the I
As of r: conc
Previous Work
19
.ge
a IS
wishes to handle for design purposes, it is not at all clear that first-
order calculus is an adequate representation for natural language,
even a purely logical point of view [Barwise 83] From a
computational of view, the data structures used are often at least as
important as the statements they correspond to. Still, it is interesting
to note that the predicate corresponds closely to the use of a unique
object ill in our
for natural ,rWlse and N ebber 78] the current ugh the use [yes the
use oper ators. at x is the )f the same
Even in the very limited domain they have chosen, plan inference is
a hard problem, and their reasoning process uses a variety of
heuristics to reduce its search Since their planning process uses
task-dependent information in its search heuristics already, it would
seem simpler to provide the system with information about what a
user would want to know about particular trains. This could
conceivably be stored knowledge that was produced off-line by a
reasoning process such as the one they describe On-line reasoning
about plans would only really be necessary in very unusual cases,
although it might be easier simply to ask the user what is wanted.
The main point here is that plan inference is in general too difficult
to carry out on-line, and therefore it is probably not often invoked in
the course of ordinary dialogue.
phenomena
20
The Indians.
—In the coming fall, twenty more girls will be added to the number
of Indian students at Hampton. Their due proportion is regarded as
essential to the success and value of the effort. When the Indian
prisoners from St. Augustine returned to the Territory, and their
wives and families turned out to welcome them home with rejoicing,
the long dreamed of meeting proved such a shock to the
reconstructed braves that some of them broke from the company
and ran away to the woods, refusing to have anything more to do
with their affectionate but very dirty squaws. The situation was
humorous but tragic, and withal very natural. How could they walk
“the white man’s road” in such companionship? And how could they
walk it alone? The co-education of the Indian boys and girls, with its
lessons of mutual respect and helpfulness in the class-rooms and
work-rooms, is the hope, and the only hope, of permanent Indian
civilization.
—The Secretary of War has turned over to the Department of the
Interior the U. S. Army barracks at Carlisle, Penn., to be used for the
purpose of Indian education, under charge of Capt. R. H. Pratt, who
has been sent West to collect 100 Indian youths for his school, as
well as the girls for Hampton. Captain Pratt’s wise, Christian
philanthropy toward the Indian prisoners at St. Augustine was the
origin of the present movement for Indian education, and has
demonstrated his eminent qualifications for the work.
Africa.
L. A. P.
“Reminiscences” in the October Missionary have recalled a host of
buried memories concerning the days of pioneer work, with its
swiftly-changing experiences of humor and pathos.
I might draw a picture of the good man who often asked the Lord to
“bless these teachers that have left their homes in foreign lands and
come a far distance to destruct us;” of the old aunties who came to
inquire about friends and old masters in Virginia and the Carolinas,
thinking we must know the history of each family, because “didn’t
you come right by there on your way down from the North?” of the
romances and tragedies connected with the hundreds of letters we
wrote inquiring for lost friends, sold away in the days of slavery; but
one picture is more vivid than others, and as the days of quaint
prayers are rapidly passing, I am tempted to commit it to print.
Almost a dozen years ago, I found myself one of two teachers in a
night school varying from forty to sixty pupils. The roughly-ceiled
room was long, low and dimly lighted. The scholars were hard-
working men and women who walked one, two, three or four miles,
after the day’s labor, for the sake of acquiring a bit of book learning.
At ten o’clock lessons closed with a Bible reading, singing and prayer.
One evening, after books and slates had been laid aside, my
attention was attracted by a voice, liquid and rollicking, as it carolled
a popular “spiritual.” In the gray room—for the light wood fire was
nearly out, and the two lamps in the rear gave little brightness—it
was some time before I distinguished the singer.
He was a jaunty little man, very black, very lithe and very much
dressed up. A blue round-a-bout coat was trimmed with two rows of
yellow braid; a crimson dress braid made his neck-tie, the long ends
of which floated over the shoulders. His hands were folded over a
stout walking-stick; his head nodding and feet patting time to the
music.
My thoughts instantly went back to childish days, to a certain tree
where a golden oriole’s nest used to swing, to a field of red-winged,
chattering bobolinks, not one of which ever seemed so deliciously
happy in his song as my dusky scholar. I liked to look at him. It put
me into communion with friends and influences hundreds of miles
beyond the piny woods.
He often spoke and prayed in the regular prayer-meetings. We soon
learned the words of his petition, for it was always in the same form,
reverently intoned with an indescribable, inimitable cadence:
“Our Father, who art in heaven, hollowed be thy name; thy kingdom
come, thy will be done on earth as is in heaven. Father, Father—this
evening—of all grace, look down upon us and hear us and bless us.
O Saviour, come riding around this evening upon the milk-white
horse and wake up sinners. Touch and tender about every heart.
Teach ’em that they have a soul to be saved or to be lost to all
eternity. Bless my old mother. Teach her that she has a soul to be
saved or one to be lost to all eternity. Strike her with the hammer of
conviction. Shoot her with the arrow of love. Bless families and
families’ connections. Give us more grace, more faith, more love.
Make us humble. Teach us to pray, and teach us to love it, too. Be
our guide and leader and protector. Bless the sinners who are
standing with one foot upon the grave and one upon the land of the
living.
“Father! Father! when Gabriel shall stand with one foot in the sea
and one upon the land to blow his horn, and he shall say, ‘How loud
must I sound?’ and Thou say, ‘Sound calm and easy so as not to
disturb My children,’ then shall we link and lock our eagle wings to
march upward to the golden gate.
“And when You see us fail below, help us to say, ‘Here, Lord, I give
myself away, ’tis all that I can do. Welcome dis solisted band and
bear my soul away.’ And when You have done suiting and serving
Thyself of us here, hand us to our graves in peace, where we shall
praise the Father, Son and Holy Spirit in a world that never ends, is
my prayer for Jesus’ sake. Amen.”
At that time this man was one of the more intelligent of his people.
In contrast, let me introduce a younger man of the same size and
color, also endowed with unusual gift of song. Neatly dressed,
quietly mannered, he seems no kin to the earlier types of his race.
From under the very shadow of Yazoo he writes these lines: “I have
subscribed for the New York Tribune. My school numbers 112 pupils,
with a daily attendance of 85 or 90. I have Cutter’s Physiology, from
which I give oral lessons daily. I will state the studies of my most
advanced pupils: Robinson’s Practical Arithmetic, Harvey’s Grammar,
Swinton’s Geography and Educational Readers. School closes next
Friday with a concert. I do wish you could be with us Thursday and
Friday to attend the examinations.”
Lest any one may infer from the above that “the schoolmaster is
abroad” in the land, let me quote one sentence of a prayer uttered a
few months ago by the pastor of a large church in a leading
Southern city: “O Lord, bless us individually and respectfully.”
GEORGIA.
An Economical Industrial Department.
S. B. MORSE, SAVANNAH
J. W. ROBERTS, TALLADEGA.
Our protracted meetings lasted during three weeks. The Holy Ghost
has given us five souls for our hire; besides He has warmed up our
hearts with His sacred love as a church. I am thankful to Him that
my health is kept all right.
Since and during our revival our audiences have been steadily
increasing both at afternoon and evening services. There is also an
unusual interest in our Thursday praise meetings. In short, the “fold”
is in a good condition if the shepherd will come soon.
AFRICA.
The annual meeting of the Board of Counsel and Advice of the Mendi
Mission was held in the Good Hope Chapel, at Sherbro Island, July
14, 1879. Rev. A. P. Miller presided, and Dr. Benjamin James was
elected Secretary.
The Moderator made the following introductory remarks:
Before we proceed to our business, you will please indulge me with
a few preliminary remarks, inasmuch as we are about to enter upon
that part of our missionary work which will tell most plainly to the
civilized world as to the wisdom and good judgment of colored
missionaries in devising plans for the furtherance of a work of so
great importance, sacredly intrusted to our care.
In the performance of our several duties in the second annual
meeting of our Board, let us not forget that body of devoted men of
the A. M. A., by whose unwearied zeal and toil means are procured
for the furtherance and extension of this well-begun work.
Let us not forget the thousands of Christian men and women who
give of their means for the support of Missions, especially in Africa.
Let us not forget the five millions of our own race in the South, from
whom the shackles of slavery have been torn asunder, to whom
Africa is now looking for the light of the Gospel and a Christian
civilization, of whom we are the advance guards.
Let us not forget that the problem of Africa’s future is now under
solution and that we are the solvers. Our failure to arrive at a
conclusion in her favor, as Freedmen, would bring everlasting
disgrace upon us as a race, while on the other hand we should most
shamefully wrong unenlightened manhood, whose blood would be
required at our hands.
As a slave, the negro served well his oppressors. As a soldier, he
served well the cause of freedom and his country. The tyrant’s chain
of oppression, which held five millions in bondage, has been broken,
and to-day the grand duty as well as privilege of carrying light and
life to his benighted brethren in his fatherland lies before him and
calls him onward. It remains yet for him to prove himself a man in
this important relation that he holds to his fellow-countrymen and to
the world.
In view of these great responsibilities incumbent upon us in this
Council assembled, in the discussion and decision of matters of
importance, may God, in mercy, so guide each one that he shall be
unprejudiced and deeply sincere, as well as conscientious,
throughout all these deliberations, with due regard to their bearing
upon the interest of the benighted whom we come to serve and
enlighten. In view of all these things, may each one give the weight
of his influence to the furtherance of our work, exercising patience
and charity one toward the other.
Committees were appointed on the various interests of the Mission,
while the subject of the extension of the work was referred to a
committee of the whole.
The Committee on Church Work reported forty-four members in the
church at Good Hope Station, one having died during the year;
seven infants baptized; attendance on services good, and showing
earnest desire to hear the Word; advance in the Christian life of
converts; prayer-meetings valuable. Some persons, under watch and
care, will be received to membership as soon as legally united in
matrimony.
At Avery there are forty-one members; under watch and care, three
adults; eleven children baptized. Increasing willingness on the part
of the people to attend church, and growing interest in the cause of
Christ give encouragement.
At Debia, Mr. Goodman conducts religious services on the Lord’s day.
A chapel is hoped for here, books at Good Hope, and repairs of
building at Avery.
Our Sunday-school is in a flourishing condition, being well attended,
most of the scholars attending church services. Bradford friends in
England sent our Sunday-school a nice present in the shape of
copies of the Gospels, pamphlets, papers, etc., which we used as
prizes for good attendance, to encourage the little ones. We need
singing books for this work.
The Committee on School Work reported that at Good Hope the
school has made rapid progress. During the year 245 children have
been enrolled. These are both from the Sierra Leone and from the
native element. They learn English rapidly. “We have teachers,” says
the report, “who are quite awake to their duty. Children are
accessible in Sherbro, and are brought into day and Sunday schools
in large numbers. Through the kindness of friends of the poor little
Africans, shirts have been put on their backs and books into their
hands, for which they seem to be grateful. Of course these wear
out, and others must be procured in some way or other in their
stead, or these little ones in many cases will leave off attending
school. They must be constantly looked after. We hope to see not far
in the future a first-class school at this place. We have material in
abundance upon which to work. Time, patience and labor will bring
success.”
The school at Avery has not made such progress as was hoped for
during the year. On the first of January its numbers were decreased
by the taking away of most of the larger boys to cut the crops for
their parents. The irregularity of attendance is a great obstacle in the
way of our success. Some attend for one day, and may not be seen
again for a month. Those who have attended regularly have made
progress. The prospect for the future is better. There are some
children now in the Mission whose attendance may be depended on.
Most of the children living in the village around the Mission have
been taken to the farms to drive birds, so that the number on the
roll at present is only twenty, ten of whom come from the Mission
house. There have been 56 on the roll during the year.
The school work at Debia is encouraging, Mr. Goodman and family
being settled there. We base our hopes largely on the little ones who
are being trained in our Mission schools.
The Committee on Agriculture reported that the cassida planted at
Good Hope does not thrive, owing to the impoverished condition of
the soil. At Avery the coffee plantation is in a comparatively thriving
condition, and some of the trees bearing well. The need of more
laborers and implements is urged, and it is recommended “that more
of the ground be put under cultivation as a measure tending to
supply the wants of the growing Mission, and that the children of the
Mission be employed two hours each day upon the farms, under the
supervision of a competent and skillful person.” It is further
recommended “that the science of horticulture be introduced at each
station, and that the choicest flora of native and foreign production
capable of being grown on the premises be obtained, so far as
practicable, for this purpose.”
The Committee on Industrial Work reported that the saw mill needs
repairs of floor and roof, that one saw is in good running order.
There are sixteen hands employed at the mill, and two more are
needed. It is deemed desirable that some of the Mission children
should be “instructed into the workings of mechanics so far as we
have the means for instruction.”
Committees on Repairs and Sanitary Condition of the Mission, made
careful examination, and reported their advice in these regards.
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