PMIS 113 - Business Information Technology (BIT)

Lecturer:Miss T. Mukundu
Topic: Processor Architecture
What is a Central Processor

The processor is the major component of any computational system. It executes the
instructions that make computer software run. It consist of complex set of electronic
circuitry that runs the machine’s operating system and apps. The CPU interprets,
processes and executes instructions, most often from the hardware and software
programs running on the device.Devices that contain a CPU include smartphones,
tablets, games consoles and even your TV.

Processor architecture
Refers to the design and complexity of a processor's components and connections. It
encompasses the instruction set,the number of cores, clock speed, memory and input/
output devices.

Types of processor architectures

Can be broadly classified into two types:

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer)

CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer)
RISC processor architecture breaks down the instructions into simpler ones which take
less time to execute. Meanwhile, CISC architecture includes large sets of instructions,
some of which can even perform tasks that take multiple steps in RISC.

A significant parameter of processor architecture is 'clock speed', measured in Hertz

(Hz).
The major components of the CPU

There are three basic components of CPU: register bank, ALU and Control Unit. There
are several data movements between these units and for that an internal CPU bus is
used. Internal CPU bus is needed to transfer data between the various registers and the
ALU.

Types of registers
Four registers are essential to instruction execution:

(a) Program Counter (PC): Contains the address of an instruction to be fetched.

Typically, the PC is updated by the CPU after each instruction fetched so that it
always points to the next instruction to be executed. A branch or skip instruction
will also modify the contents of the PC.

(b) Instruction Register (IR): Contains the instruction most recently fetched. The
fetched instruction is loaded into an IR, where the opcode and operand specifiers
are analyzed.

c) Memory Address Register (MAR): Contains the address of a location of main

memory from where information has to be fetched or information has to be stored.
Contents of MAR is directly connected to the address bus.

(d) Memory Buffer Register (MBR): Contains a word of data to be written to memory
or the word most recently read. Contents of MBR is directly connected to the data bus.It
is also known as Memory Data Register(MDR).

Apart from these specific register, we may have some temporary registers which are not
visible to the user. As such, there may be temporary buffering registers at the boundary
to the ALU; these registers serve as input and output registers for the ALU and
exchange data with the MBR and user visible registers.

Control unit (CU).

The control unit extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them.
The control unit acts as an intermediary that decodes the instructions sent to the
processor, tells the other units such as the Arithmetic Logic Unit (below) what to do by
providing control signals, and then sends back the processed data back to memory.
Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU)
An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit inside the processor that handles
arithmetic and logical operations by loading data from input registers.
After the control unit provides the ALU with the instruction on the operations that must
be performed, the ALU completes them by connecting multiple transistors, and then
stores the results in an output register.

Buses
The CPU is connected to the rest of the system through system bus. Through system
bus, data or information gets transferred between the CPU and the other component of
the system. The system bus may have three components:

Data Bus:
Data bus is used to transfer the data between main memory and CPU.

Address Bus:
Address bus is used to access a particular memory location by putting the address of
the memory location.

Control Bus:
Control bus is used to provide the different control signal generated by CPU to different
part of the system. As for example, memory read is a signal generated by CPU to
indicate that a memory read operation has to be performed. Through control bus this
signal is transferred to memory module to indicate the required operation.

Fetch-execute-cycle

Instructions are processed under the direction of the control unit in a step-by-step
manner.

There are four fundamental steps in the instruction cycle:

1. Fetch the instruction The next instruction is fetched from the memory address that is
currently stored in the Program Counter (PC), and stored in the Instruction register (IR).
At the end of the fetch operation, the PC points to the next instruction that will be read at
the next cycle.

2. Decode the instruction The control unit interprets the instruction. During this cycle the
instruction inside the IR (instruction register) gets decoded.

3. Execute The Control Unit of CPU passes the decoded information as a sequence of
control signals to the relevant function units of the CPU to perform the actions required
by the instruction such as reading values from registers, passing them to the ALU to
perform mathematical or logic functions on them, and writing the result back to a
register. If the ALU is involved, it sends a condition signal back to the CU.

4. Store result The result generated by the operation is stored in the main memory, or
sent to an output device. Based on the condition of any feedback from the ALU,
Program Counter may be updated to a different address from which the next instruction
will be fetched.

Data Storage Units Chart:

Unit Shortened Capacity
Bit b 1 or 0 (on or off)
Byte B 8 bits
Kilobyte KB 1024 bytes
Megabyte MB 1024 kilobytes
Gigabyte GB 1024 megabytes
Terabyte TB 1024 gigabytes
Petabyte PB 1024 terabytes
Exabyte EB 1024 petabytes
Zettabyte ZB 1024 exabytes
Yottabyte YB 1024 zettabytes
Bits are the basic building blocks of not only data storage, but all computers.

What is Computer Memory?

It is a data storage unit or a data storage device where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored. It can store both the input and output
can be stored here.
How Does Computer Memory Work?
When you open a program, it is loaded from secondary memory into primary memory.
Because there are various types of memory and storage, an example would be moving
a program from a solid-state drive (SSD) to RAM. Because primary storage is accessed
more quickly, the opened software can connect with the computer’s processor more
quickly. The primary memory is readily accessible from temporary memory slots or other
storage sites.

Memory is volatile, which means that data is only kept temporarily in memory. Data
saved in volatile memory is automatically destroyed when a computing device is turned
off. When you save a file, it is sent to secondary memory for storage.

There are various kinds of memory accessible. It’s operation will depend upon the type
of primary memory used. but normally, semiconductor-based memory is more related
with memory. Semiconductor memory made up of IC (integrated circuits) with
silicon-based metal-oxide-semiconductor (MOS) transistors.

Types of Computer Memory

In general, computer memory is of three types:

1.Primary memory
2.Secondary memory
3.Cache memory
Now we discuss each type of memory one by one in detail:

1. Primary Memory
It is also known as the main memory of the computer system. It is used to store data
and programs or instructions during computer operations. It uses semiconductor
technology and hence is commonly called semiconductor memory. Primary memory is
of two types RAM & ROM.

Characteristics of Primary Memory

It is faster computer memory as compared to secondary memory.
It is semiconductor memories.
It is usually a volatile memory, and main memory of the computer.
A computer system cannot run without primary memory.

RAM (Random Access Memory): It is a volatile memory. Volatile memory stores

information based on the power supply. If the power supply fails/ interrupted/stopped, all
the data and information on this memory will be lost. RAM is used for booting up or start
the computer. It temporarily stores programs/data which has to be executed by the
processor. RAM is of two types:

S RAM (Static RAM): S RAM uses transistors and the circuits of this memory are
capable of retaining their state as long as the power is applied. This memory consists of
the number of flip flops with each flip flop storing 1 bit. It has less access time and
hence, it is faster.

D RAM (Dynamic RAM): D RAM uses capacitors and transistors and stores the data as
a charge on the capacitors. They contain thousands of memory cells. It needs
refreshing of charge on capacitor after a few milliseconds. This memory is slower than S
RAM.

ROM (Read Only Memory): It is a non-volatile memory. Non-volatile memory stores

information even when there is a power supply failed/ interrupted/stopped. ROM is used
to store information that is used to operate the system. As its name refers to read-only
memory, we can only read the programs and data that is stored on it. It contains some
electronic fuses that can be programmed for a piece of specific information. The
information stored in the ROM in binary format. It is also known as permanent memory.

Four types of ROM

MROM(Masked ROM): Hard-wired devices with a pre-programmed collection of data or
instructions were the first ROMs. Masked ROMs are a type of low-cost ROM that works
in this way.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory): This read-only memory is modifiable once
by the user. The user purchases a blank PROM and uses a PROM program to put the
required contents into the PROM. Its content can’t be erased once written.

EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): EPROM is an extension to

PROM where you can erase the content of ROM by exposing it to Ultraviolet rays for
nearly 40 minutes.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory): Here the written
contents can be erased electrically. You can delete and reprogramme EEPROM up to
10,000 times. Erasing and programming take very little time, i.e., nearly 4 -10
ms(milliseconds). Any area in an EEPROM can be wiped and programmed selectively.
2. Secondary Memory
It is also known as auxiliary memory and backup memory. It is a non-volatile memory
and used to store a large amount of data or information. The data or information stored
in secondary memory is permanent, and it is slower than primary memory. A CPU
cannot access secondary memory directly. The data/information from the auxiliary
memory is first transferred to the main memory, and then the CPU can access it.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

It is a slow memory but reusable.

It is a reliable and non-volatile memory.
It is cheaper than primary memory.
The storage capacity of secondary memory is large.
A computer system can run without secondary memory.
In secondary memory, data is stored permanently even when the power is off.

Types of Secondary Memory

Magnetic Storage
It utilizes magnetism as the basis for storing digital information on a physical medium,
such as tapes or disks. The key principles behind magnetic storage involve the
manipulation of magnetic properties in the storage medium. Depending on the applied
magnetic fields, particles on the medium can be arranged in different ways,
representing binary data in the form of 0s and 1s. When data is accessed, the magnetic
storage device's read-write head detects the magnetic fields' orientation and interprets
the information as binary data.

Magnetic Storage Devices::

(a) Hard Disk Drives (HDDs)
Hard Disk Drives (HDDs) are the most common magnetic storage devices found in
computers and data centers. The capacity ranges include 500GB, 1TB, 2TB, and 4TB.
, providing ample storage space for most users. An HDD is composed of several
circular disks, called platters, which store data on their magnetic surfaces. These
platters spin at high speeds, allowing the read-write head to access the stored data.
Thanks to the mechanical nature of HDDs, they can experience performance
degradation over time and are more susceptible to physical damage compared to
solid-state drives (SSDs).
 (b) Floppy Disks
Although now considered obsolete, floppy disks were once the standard portable
storage devices. A floppy disk is a thin, flexible magnetic storage medium housed in a
protective casing. These disks were widely used in the late 20th century for transferring
data between computers and backing up files. They came in different sizes and
capacities, such as 8-inch, 5.25-inch, and 3.5-inch. The disks are usually made from
plastic and metal and can hold anywhere from 100 KB to 1.44 MB of data.

(cMagnetic Tapes
Magnetic tapes are a form of sequential access storage media commonly used for
backup and archiving purposes. These tapes provide high storage capacities and are
relatively cost-effective, making them ideal for storing large volumes of data for
extended periods. However, due to their sequential access nature, reading or writing
data on magnetic tapes can be slower compared to other magnetic storage devices like
HDDs. Magnetic tapes can hold anywhere between 20GBto 15 terabytes of data per
tape

(d) External Hard Drives: Similar to internal HDDs, external hard drives are portable
devices that house an HDD in an external casing, allowing users to store and transfer
data between multiple computers with ease. They also offer varying capacities, typically
from a few hundred gigabytes to several terabytes.
(e) Zip Drives: Zip drives, a now-obsolete magnetic storage device, provided
medium-capacity removable disk storage about the size of a 3.5-inch floppy disk. Zip
disks initially offered capacities of 100 MB, later expanding to 250 MB and 750 MB.
They were primarily used for file backup, data transport, and archiving older files during
the 1990s and early 2000s.

(f) Magnetic Stripe Cards: Magnetic stripes embedded in credit cards, debit cards, and
identification cards store data in the form of magnetic patterns. These stripes usually
contain encoded cardholder information, such as account numbers, card expiry dates,
and other essential data. Though they have limited storage capacity, their primary use is
to enable data access and transaction processing for cardholders.

Advantages of Magnetic Storage

Some of the key benefits of magnetic storage technology include:

(i) Non-Volatile: Magnetic storage devices are non-volatile and can retain data even
when power is disconnected. This characteristic is crucial for reliable long-term data
storage, as it ensures the preservation of data, unlike volatile memory types such as
RAM.
(ii) High Storage Capacity: Magnetic storage devices, particularly HDDs, offer vast
storage capacities suitable for large amounts of data storage. Capacities range from a
few gigabytes (GB) to multiple terabytes (TB), making them suitable for domestic,
commercial, or enterprise applications.
(iii) Cost-Effective: Magnetic storage devices like HDDs have a relatively low cost per
gigabyte, making them an economical choice for large storage requirements.
Additionally, magnetic tapes are cost-effective for archiving large volumes of data over
long periods.

(iv) Durable: Magnetic media is resistant to wear and tear, as it does not have physical
contact between the read/write head and the storage surface. This resilience ensures a
longer lifecycle for magnetic storage devices compared to some other storage types.

(v) Widely Compatible: Magnetic storage technology, especially HDDs, is widely

adopted and compatible with various devices such as desktops, laptops, servers, and
external enclosures. This universality ensures ease of integration and use across
different platforms.

Disadvantages of Magnetic Storage

Despite its numerous advantages, magnetic storage also has some drawbacks,
including:

(i) Slower Access Speeds: Compared to newer technologies like solid-state drives
(SSDs), magnetic storage devices like HDDs have slower access and data transfer
speeds. The mechanical nature of HDDs contributes to longer access times and
potential performance bottlenecks.

(ii) Sensitivity to Physical Damage: The delicate components within magnetic storage
devices, such as the read/write head and spinning platters, make them susceptible to
damage from impacts or temperature changes. Accidental drops and exposure to
extreme temperatures can cause data loss in magnetic storage devices.

(iii) Size and Weight: Magnetic storage devices, particularly HDDs, are generally
bulkier and heavier compared to SSDs. This factor may be a disadvantage in situations
where portability and space constraints are important considerations.

(iv) Power Consumption: Magnetic storage devices, primarily HDDs, consume more
power than SSDs due to the energy required for spinning platters and moving the
read/write head. Higher power consumption can contribute to increased operating costs
and a higher environmental impact over time.
(v) Noise: Magnetic storage devices generate noise due to their mechanical nature.
Specifically, HDDs produce noise during operation, which can be a potential source of
disturbance in some environments.

Solid-state storage

The term ‘solid-state’ essentially means ‘no moving parts’.Solid-state storage devices
are based on electronic circuits with no moving parts (no reels of tape, no spinning
discs, no laser beams, etc.)Solid-state storage devices store data using a special type
of memory called flash memory.

Flash Memory
Flash memory is a type of Electronically-Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory
(EEPROM). Flash memory is non-volatile (like ROM) but the data stored in it can also
be erased or changed (like RAM).

Instances of Solid State Memory

(a) USB Memory Sticks
Memory sticks (or ‘thumb-drives’) have made many other forms of portable storage
almost obsolete (why burn a CD or DVD when you can more easily copy your files onto
a memory stick?).Memory sticks are non-volatile, random-access storage devices.

Each of these small devices has some flash memory connected to a USB interface.
Plug it into your computer and it appears as a drive. You can then add files, erase files,
etc. You can use it to move any type of file between computers.Most flash drives have
between 2 and 64 gigabytes (GB) of memory, but some drives can store as much as 2
terabytes (TB).
 (b) Memory Cards
Many of our digital devices (cameras, mobile phones, MP3 players, etc.) require
compact, non-volatile data storage. Flash memory cards provide this and come in a
variety of shapes and sizes.One of the most common formats used by digital cameras is
the SD Card. The cards store the digital images taken by the camera.
Type Capacity
microSD 2GB and under
microSDHC More than 2GB, up to 32GB
microSDXC More than 32GB, up to 2TB
microSDUC More than 2TB, up to 128TB

(c Mobile phone SIM cards

Mobile phones contain a Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) card that contains the
phone’s number, the phonebook numbers, text messages, etc.The storage capacity of a
SIM card typically ranges from 8KB to 512KB. It can hold up to 250 contacts and some
messages. A SIM card lets your phone connect to your carrier's network.

(d) Smart Cards

Many credit cards, door entry cards, satellite TV cards, etc. have replaced the very
limited storage of the magnetic strip (the dark strip on the back of older cards) with flash
memory. This is more reliable and has a much larger storage capacity.Cards with flash
memory are called smart cards.Memory sizes can vary with some cards offering as little
as 512bits to 128Kbytes for high storage capacity.
(e) Solid-State Drive
A solid-state drive (SSD) is a semiconductor-based storage device, which typically uses
NAND flash memory to save persistent data. Solid-state technology is transforming the
storage with high speed flash memory.Each NAND flash memory chip consists of an
array of blocks, also known as a grid, and within each block, there is an array of
memory cells, known as pages or sectors. The number of bits stored in each cell can
vary, and they are typically categorized as either single-bit cells (i.e. "Single Level Cells"
or "SLC"), 2- and 3-bit cells etcCapacities range from 120GB on the low end to over
30TB on the high end, and everything in between.

Advantages of Solid State Storage

(i) Speed: Solid state storage offers substantially faster read and write speeds
compared to traditional hard drives. This results in quicker boot times, faster application
loading, and improved system performance.

(ii) Durability: Since there are no moving parts in solid state storage devices, they are
less likely to suffer from mechanical failure or physical damage due to impact or
vibration. This makes them more reliable, especially for mobile devices and industrial
applications.

(iii) Energy Efficiency: Solid state storage consumes less power than traditional hard
drives, which is beneficial for battery-operated devices like laptops and smartphones.
Reduced power consumption also leads to reduced heat generation, contributing to
extended device lifetimes and decreased cooling requirements in data centres.

(iv) Light Weight: SSDs and other solid state storage devices are generally smaller
and lighter than their HDD counterparts, making them ideal for portable devices and
slim laptops.

(v) Noise and Vibration: Solid state storage devices operate silently and produce no
vibrations since they do not have any spinning components. This is advantageous in
noise-sensitive environments or when using multiple storage devices in a single system.
(vi) Data Access: The lack of moving parts in solid state storage also enables faster
and more consistent data access times, reducing latency and ensuring a smoother user
experience in applications requiring high-speed data processing.

Disadvantages of Solid State Storage

(i) Cost: Solid state storage is typically more expensive per gigabyte than traditional
hard drives, which can make it difficult for some users to justify the investment,
particularly for large storage capacities.

(ii) Degradation of memory cells: The process of writing data to solid-state storage
involves the gradual degradation of the memory cells. As a result, solid-state storage
devices have a limited number of write cycles before performance begins to decline.

(iii) Data Recovery Limitations: Recovering data from a damaged or failed solid-state
drive can be more challenging compared to traditional hard drives. While data recovery
from hard drives is often possible even after physical damage or corruption, SSDs may
suffer from unrecoverable data loss in rare situations.

(iv) Compatibility: Some devices or systems may have limited compatibility with solid
state storage types or sizes, which could require additional hardware or software
updates to enable the use of certain SSDs or other solid-state storage devices.
e solution.

Optical Storage
Optical storage is a type of digital storage that uses light from a laser to read and write
data on a spinning disc. During the writing process, a laser diode emits a focused beam
of light onto the spinning disc. When the laser hits the disc's surface, it burns a series of
tiny pits into the polycarbonate layer. These pits represent 0s and the unburned areas
(lands) represent 1s, creating a binary code. In recordable and rewritable discs, the
laser instead modifies the chemical or physical properties of the recording layer, which
can be reversed to rewrite data. For reading data, a laser with a lower intensity than the
writing process is used
Examples of Optical Storage Devices

1.Compact Disc (CD):

Introduced in the 1980s, CDs can store up to 700MB of data.
Types of CDs
(a) CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory): A pre-recorded disc in which data
cannot be modified, commonly used for distributing software and audio content.
(b) CD-R (Compact Disc Recordable): A recordable disc on which the user can write
data once and read it multiple times, but cannot erase or rewrite the data.
c) CD-RW (Compact Disc Rewritable): A rewritable disc that allows users to record,
erase, and rewrite data on the same disc multiple times.

2.Digital Versatile Disc (DVD):

Developed in the late 1990s, DVDs can store between 4.7GB and 17.1GB depending
on the type.
Types of DVDs
(a) DVD-ROM (Digital Versatile Disc Read-Only Memory): Similar to CD-ROM, a
pre-recorded disc containing a larger amount of data, such as movies, games
and software.
(b) DVD-R and DVD+R: Recordable DVDs, analogous to CD-R, suitable for
recording larger amounts of data.
(c) DVD-RW, DVD+RW, and DVD-RAM: Rewritable DVD formats, providing higher
storage capacity and flexibility than CD-RW.

3.Blu-ray Disc (BD):

Launched in the mid-2000s, BDs can store between 25GB and 128GB.
(a) Blu-ray Disc ROM (BD-ROM): A high-capacity pre-recorded disc, used for
distribution of high-definition video and other large-size multimedia content.
(b) Blu-ray Disc Recordable (BD-R) and Blu-ray Disc Rewritable (BD-RE):
Recordable and rewritable Blu-ray discs, allowing users to store larger amounts
of data and high-definition video.

Non-Disc Optical Storage Options

In addition to optical discs, there are other types of optical storage devices:
1. Magneto-optical drives: These drives combine magnetic and optical
technologies to store data on a magneto-optical (MO) disc. These discs can be
rewritten thousands of times and offer a high degree of data reliability.

2. Optical tape: Similar to magnetic tape storage, optical tape uses lasers to write
and read data on a thin, flexible tape. Optical tape offers high storage capacity
 and low cost per gigabyte, making it suitable for enterprise-level data backups
and archiving.

3. Holographic storage: This emerging technology uses lasers to store 3D digital

data in a volume of photosensitive material, allowing for extremely high storage
densities. While not yet widely adopted, holographic storage has the potential to
revolutionise optical storage in the future
Advantages of Optical Disks :

(i) Low Cost –

The total cost involves when you look at the manufacturing is low Optical disks since
only aluminium foils and plastics are involved within the production. Hence, the users in
many cases are benefited from the worth of buying optical disks in bulk. L
(ii) None Volatile –
Its not subjected to wear and now any charged power failures may cause data losses.
Therefore, it should last long for many years.
(iii) Simplicity –
The approach to back up is created much simpler using Optical disks. No matter what
the data that really must be burnt must be placed in the drive icon. Then in just clicking
on ” Burn Disk ” the users can back up the info
(iv) Portability –
Although Optical disks are fairly large enough, they truly are still portable. They’ll be
placed inside bags along with other small objects in order that it in many cases are
transported to varied places and utilized in different computers and devices.
(v) Versatile –
Optical disks are very versatile as it helps computer system act as music system.

Disadvantages of optical disc :

(i) Security –
When the Optical disks are employed for backup purposes, it must be kept safe
through the hands of thieves. Thanks to its size, the optical disks are more at risk of loss
and theft.
(ii) Capacity –
Optical disks cost more per GB/TB than the other sorts of storage drives. And it also
to don’t have a lot of or no storage capacity when compared with them. Unless it’s a
Blu-ray disc, the utmost storage the Optical disks offers is 4.7GB.
 (iii) Reliability –
Unlike flash drives, Optical disks aren’t protected by any plastic casings. Therefore,
they may be susceptible to scratching which makes the disk unreadable. The info
thereon cannot be recovered anymore,
(iv) Duplication –
Making a replica copy employing an optical disc isn’t easier because this indicates on
a USB flash drive. When it comes to way of burning there should be a software that is
separate hardware. Albeit there are lots of party that is third for this function, the latest
versions of windows consists of a write-up software.

References
https://compsci2014.wikispaces.com/2.1.4+Explain+the+machine+instruction+cycle
https://www.igcseict.info/theory/3/solid/
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-optical-disks/