FOUNDATION

CHEMISTRY I
CHEM 113
(3 Credits hours)
Lecture Presentation
CHEM 113

Measurement
 Numbers and Chemistry
• Numbers play a major role in chemistry.
• All scientific phenomenon is described in small
units that represent other quantities.
• Concepts of numbers in science
 Units of measurement
 Quantities that are measured and calculated
 Uncertainty in measurement
 Significant figures
 Dimensional analysis
 Units of Measurements—SI Units

• Système International d’Unités (“The International

System of Units”). Fundamental units from which all
others are derived.
• A different base unit is used for each quantity.
 Metric System Prefixes

 Prefixes convert the base units into units that are

appropriate for common usage or appropriate measure.
Exercise Using SI Prefixes
What is the name of the unit that equals (a) 10−9 gram,
(b) 10−6 second, (c) 10−3 meter?
Solution
We can find the prefix related to each power of ten in Table 1.5:
(a) nanogram, ng; (b) microsecond, μs; (c) millimeter, mm.

Practice Exercise 1
Which of the following weights would you expect to be suitable
for weighing on an ordinary bathroom scale?
(a) 2.0 ✕ 107 mg, (b) 2500 mg, (c) 5 ✕ 10−4 kg, (d) 4 ✕ 106 cg,
(e) 5.5 ✕ 108 dg.
Some Non-SI Metric Units Commonly Used in
Chemistry

7
Some Useful Conversions

8
 Using Decimal Multipliers
• Use prefixes on SI base units when number is too large
or too small for convenient usage

• Numerical values of multipliers can be interchanged

with prefixes
Example: 1 mL = 10–3 L
– 1 km = 1000 m
– 1 ng = 10–9 g
– 1,130,000 m = 1.13 × 106 m = 1.13 Mm

9
 Mass and Length
• These are basic units we measure in
science.
• Mass is a measure of the amount of
material in an object. SI uses the kilogram
as the base unit. The metric system uses
the gram as the base unit.
• Length is a measure of distance. The
meter is the base unit.
 Mass
• SI unit is kilogram (kg)
– Frequently use grams (g) in laboratory as more realistic
size
1
• 1 kg = 1000 g 1 g = 0.001 kg = kg
1000
• Mass is measured by comparing weight of sample with
weights of known standard masses
• Instrument used = balance

11
 Laboratory Measurements
1. Length
– SI Unit is meter (m)
– Meter too large for most laboratory
measurements
– Commonly use
• Centimeter (cm)
1 cm = 10–2 m = 0.01 m
• Millimeter (mm)
1 mm = 10–3 m = 0.001 m

12
 Volume
• Dimensions of (length)3
• SI unit for Volume = m3
• Most laboratory
measurements use V in liters
(L)
– 1 L = 1 dm3 (exactly)
• Chemistry glassware
marked in L or mL
– 1 L = 1000 mL
• What is a mL?
– 1 mL = 1 cm3
13
 Convention
• 10 mm = 1 cm
• 10 cm = 1 dm
• 10 dm = 1 m
• 1 cm3 = (1 x 10-2 m)3 = 1 x 10-6 m3
• 1 dm3 = (1 x 10-1 m)3 = 1 x 10-3 m3
1 mL = 1 cm3 1L = 1000 mL
= 1000 cm3
= 1 dm3
 Volume
• Note that volume is not a base
unit for SI; it is derived from
length (m × m × m = m3).
• The most commonly used metric
units for volume are the liter (L)
and the milliliter (mL).
 A liter is a 1 decimeter cube
(dm3) long on each side.
 A milliliter is a 1 centimeter
cube (cm3) long on each side,
also called 1 centimeter cube
(cm × cm × cm = cm3).
Sample Exercise Converting Volume Units
Earth’s oceans contain approximately 1.36 ✕ 109 km3 of water. Calculate the volume in
liters.
Solution
From the back inside cover, we find 1 L = 10−3 m3, but there is no relationship listed involving
km3. From our
knowledge of SI prefixes, however, we know 1 km = 103 m and we can use this relationship
between lengths to
write the desired conversion factor between volumes:

Thus, converting from km3 to m3 to L, we have

Practice Exercise
A barrel of oil as measured on the oil market is equal to 1.333 U.S. barrels. A U.S. barrel is
equal to 31.5 gal.
If oil is on the market at $94.0 per barrel, what is the price in dollars per gallon? (a) $2.24/gal,
(b) $3.98/gal,
(c) $2.98/gal, (d) $1.05/gal, (e) $8.42/gal.
 Density
• Density is a physical property of a substance.
• It has units that are derived from the units for
mass and volume.
• The most common units are g/mL or g/cm3.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
• 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Sample Exercise Determining Density and Using Density to
Determine Volume or Mass
(a) Calculate the density of mercury if 1.00 ✕ 102 g occupies a volume of 7.36
cm3. (b) Calculate the volume of 65.0 g of liquid methanol (wood alcohol) if its
density is 0.791 g/mL. (c) What is the mass in grams of a cube of gold (density =
19.32 g/cm3) if the length of the cube is 2.00 cm?
Solution
(a) We are given mass and volume, so Equation 1.3 yields

(b) Solving Equation 1.3 for volume and then using the given mass and density gives

(c) We can calculate the mass from the volume of the cube and its density. The volume of a
cube is given
by its length cubed:
Volume = (2.00 cm)3 = (2.00)3 cm3 = 8.00 cm3
Solving Equation 1.3 for mass and substituting the volume and density of the cube, we have
Mass = volume ✕ density = (8.00 cm3)(19.32 g/cm3) = 155 g
 Numbers Encountered in Science
• Exact numbers are counted or given by
definition. For example, there are 12 eggs in
1 dozen.

• Inexact (or measured) numbers depend on

how they were determined. Scientific
instruments have limitations. Some balances
measure to ±0.01 g; others measure to
±0.0001g.
 Uncertainty in Measurements
• Different measuring devices have different uses and
different degrees of accuracy.
 Uncertainty in Measurements
• All measured numbers have some degree of inaccuracy.
 Uncertainty in Measurements

152 cm +/- 1 cm

A good measurement is meaningless without knowing the uncertainty.

Uncertainty for a Single Measurement (1 trial)

Absolute uncertainty is Instrument uncertainty or readability

error
Analog instrument : ½ of the smallest increment
(precision)
Digital instrument : the smallest scale division

measurement = (reading ± absolute uncertainty) unit

EX:
L = (10.66 ± 0.05) cm
(length is anywhere btw 10.61 & 10.71 cm)

The value of best estimate must be

expressed to the same precision
as the uncertainty
 Uncertainty for a Single Measurement (1 trial)
EX: The length of a rod is measured using part of a metre rule that is
graduated in millimetres, as shown below.

Which one of the following is the measurement of the length of the rod?
A.5 ± 0.1 cm B. 5 ± 0.2 cm C. 5.0 ± 0.1 cm D. 5.0 ± 0.2 cm

Although instrument uncertainty is half the smallest division on the ruler,

because there are two uncertainties, the uncertainty in the case of reading
with a ruler is
reading ± the smallest division on the measuring instrument

Different sites report different rules for ruler. Both have its own logic.
You can use either ½ of the smallest increment or the whole one if you
explain
Concentrations
Molarity (c):
• Number of moles of a substance per liter of
solution.
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
C= M = 10−6 M
𝐿 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

Molality (m):
• Number of moles of a substance per kilogram
of solvent (not total solution but solvent).
• It changes with temperature because volume
of solution increases with heating.
𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
m = 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
 Concentrations
Percent Composition:
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
a. Weight percent (wt%): x
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
100. Eg 95wt% ethanol implies 95g per 100g of solution
is actually ethanol.
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
b. Volume percent (vol%): x
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
100.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
c. Density () : . Unit = g/mL
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑖𝑥𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
d. Specific gravity =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 4 𝐶

NB: Because density of water at 4C is approximately

1g/mL. Therefore specific gravity is similar to density though
it has no unit.
 Concentrations

Trial Question:
Find the molarity of HCl labelled 29wt% HCl with
density = 1.188g/mL

Solution
𝟏.𝟏𝟖𝟖𝒈 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒏 𝟐𝟖 𝒈𝑯𝑪𝒍
HCl (g/L) = _𝟑 x = 332.64 g/L
𝟏𝟎 𝑳 𝟏𝟎𝟎𝒈 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒏
M (HCl) = 36.46 g/mol
𝒈
𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑯𝑪𝒍 𝟑𝟑𝟐.𝟔𝟒 𝑯𝑪𝒍
𝑳
Molarity = = 𝒈
𝑳 𝑺𝒐𝒍𝒏 𝟑𝟔.𝟒𝟔 𝑯𝑪𝒍
𝒎𝒐𝒍
=9.1234 mol/L
= 9.1234 M.
 Parts per Million (ppm) & Parts per Billion (ppb)
Used to express trace concentrations of samples. It is the
mean grams of a substance per million or billion grams of total
solution or mixture.
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
ppm = 𝑥 106 ppb = 𝑥 109
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

Consider this;
H2O = 1 g/mL
1g H2O corresponds with 1mL H2O
Therefore, 1ppm corresponds to 1g/mL = 1mg/L
& 1ppb corresponds to 1ng/mL = 1g/L
Trial Question
The concentration of carbonic acid in rain water is 20ppb. Find the
molarity of this compound in nanomoles per liter (nM)

Solution:
20ng/mL = 20 x 10-9 g/mL = 20 x 10-6 g/L.
Mw (H2CO3) = 62.03 g/mol

Therefore
20 x 10−6 g/L
[H2CO3] = = 0.322 x 10-6 mol/L
62.03 g/mol

= 322 x 10-9 mol/L

= 322nM
 Errors
In a pregnancy test conducted in a class it was found out that
Kwame Essien was pregnant. ????

o Some errors are quite easy to determine. For all measurements

we rely on techniques that have proven to be reliable from
experience/experiment.
o Repeating a measurement tells us about reproducibility
(precision).
o Measuring the same quantity by different methods gives us
confidence of nearness to the “truth” (accuracy).
Thus if the results agree.
o Uncertainty of every measurement is called experimental error.
 Random and systematic errors
Systematic errors (Determinate error): Is error due to the instrument,
method or analyst.
▪ Badly worn out instruments, unlevelled balances, improper use and
storage of reagents
▪ An instrument that is improperly calibrated
• Poor technique (e.g. carelessness with parallax)
The observer being less than perfect in the same way every time.
Spilling, weighing hot bottles, color blindness, etc
▪ Systematic errors are usually difficult to detect but can be eliminated.
▪ Systematic errors can be detected using different methods of measurement
 These type of errors have definite size and sign which can be traced to
specific sources. Sometimes called bias.
 Determining systematic errors

1. Analyzing samples of known compositions such as standard

reference materials
2. Analyzing blank samples (contains no analyte)
3. Use of different analytical methods to measure the same
quantity
4. Round robin experiment. Identical samples are analyzed in
several laboratories by other people using same or identical
methods
 Random errors
o Random (Indeterminate Error): Arise from limitations on our ability
to make physical measurements. Arise by chance from minor
uncertainties which are always part of repetitive measurements.
o Follow no regular pattern of behavior.
o Refer to random fluctuations in the measured data due to:
o The readability of the instrument
o The effects of something changing in the surroundings between
measurements
o The observer being less than perfect
 Random errors

o Random errors can be reduced by using very sensitive instruments and by

running many experimental replicates.

o It has equal chance of being positive and negative

o It cannot be eliminated.

▪ Poor technique (e.g. carelessness with parallax)

The observer being less than perfect in the different way during each
measurement.

▪ Perhaps the ruler wasn’t perfectly lined up every time.

▪ Random errors can be reduced by averaging.

A precise experiment has small random error.
 Random and systematic errors
EX:

This is like the rounded-end ruler. It will produce a systematic error.

Thus its error will be in accuracy, not precision.
Accuracy versus Precision
• Accuracy: Refers to the
proximity/nearness of a measurement to
the “true value” of a quantity. True
because somebody has measured that
value

• Precision: Refers to the proximity of

several measurements to each other. Is a
measure of the reproducibility of a result.
Measurements could be reproducible but
wrong.
 Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy
– How close measurement is to true or
accepted true value
• Measuring device must be calibrated
with standard reference to give
correct value
Precision
– How well set of repeated
measurements of same quantity
agree with each other
– More significant figures equals
more precise measurement
37
 Significant Figures

• The term significant figures refers to digits that were

measured.
• Is the minimum number of digits needed to write a
given value in scientific notation without loss of
accuracy.
• When rounding calculated numbers, we pay attention
to significant figures so we do not overstate the
accuracy of our answers.
 Rules for Significant Figures
1. All non-zero numbers are significant.
e.g., 3.456 has 4 sig. figs.

2. Zeros between non-zero numbers

are significant.
e.g., 20,089 or 2.0089 × 104 has 5 sig. figs

3. Trailing zeros always count as significant if number

has decimal point
e.g., 500. or 5.00 × 102 has 3 sig. figs
39
 Rules for Significant Figures
4. Final zeros on number without decimal point are
NOT significant
e.g., 104,956 or 1.04956 × 108
has 6 sig. figs.
5. Final zeros to right of decimal point are significant
e.g., 3.00 has 3 sig. figs.
6. Leading zeros, to left of first non-zero digit, are
never counted as significant
e.g., 0.00012 or 1.2 × 10–4 has 2 sig. figs.

40
 Scientific Notation
• Clearest way to present number of significant figures
unambiguously
– Report number between 1 and 10 followed by correct
power of 10
– Indicates only significant digits
e.g., 75,000 people attend a concert
– If a rough estimate
• Uncertainty  1000 people
• 7.5 × 104
– If number estimated from aerial photograph
• Uncertainty 100 people
• 7.50 × 104
41
 Learning Check
Round each of the following to three significant
figures. Use scientific notation where needed.
1. 37.459 37.5 or 3.75 × 101
2. 5431978 5.43 × 106
3. 132.7789003 133 or 1.33 × 102
4. 0.00087564 8.77 × 10–4
5. 7.665 7.66

42
 Learning Check
How many significant figures does each of the
following numbers have?
Scientific Notation # of Sig. Figs.
1. 413.97 4.1397 × 102 5
2. 0.0006 6 × 10–4 1
3. 5.120063 5.120063 7
4. 161,000 1.61 × 105 3
5. 3600. 3.600 × 103 4

43
 Significant Figures – Rules for Use
4. Zeroes at the end of a number are significant
if a decimal point is written in the number.
Sample Exercise Determining the Number of Significant Figures
in a Measurement
How many significant figures are in each of the following numbers
(assume that each number is a measured quantity)? (a) 4.003, (b)
6.023 ✕ 1023, (c) 5000.
Solution
(a) Four; the zeros are significant figures.

(b) Four; the exponential term does not add to the number of significant
figures.

(c) One; we assume that the zeros are not significant when there is no
decimal point shown. If the number
has more significant figures, a decimal point should be employed or the
number written in exponential notation.
Thus, 5000. has four significant figures, whereas 5.00 ✕ 103 has three.
 Significant Figures
• When addition or subtraction is performed, answers
are rounded to the least significant decimal place.
 Significant Figures in Calculations
Addition and Subtraction
• Answer has same number of decimal places as
quantity with fewest number of decimal places.
e.g.,
12.9753 4 decimal places
319.5 1 decimal place
+ 4.398 3 decimal places
336.9 1 decimal place
e.g.,
397 0 decimal places
– 273.15 2 decimal places
124 0 decimal place
47
 Addition and Subtraction

• (7.4 x 103) + (2.1 x 103) = 9.5 x 103

• (54.31 x 104) + (3.9 x 103) = (4.31 x 104) +

(0.39 x 104) = 5 4.70 x 104

• (2.22 x 10-2) - (4.10 x 10-3) = (2.22 x 10-2) -

(0.41 x 10-2) = 1.81 x 10-2
 Significant Figures
• When multiplication or division is performed,
answers are rounded to the number of digits that
corresponds to the least number of significant
figures in any of the numbers used in the
calculation.
• Limitation is by number of digits contained in the
number with the fewest significant figure.
 Significant Figures in Calculations
Multiplication and Division
• Number of significant figures in answer = number
of significant figures in least precise measurement
e.g., 10.54 × 31.4 × 16.987 = 5620 = 5.62×103
4 sig. figs. × 3 sig. figs. × 5 sig. figs. = 3 sig. figs.

e.g., 5.896 ÷ 0.008 = 700 = 7×102

4 sig. figs. ÷ 1 sig. fig. = 1 sig. fig.

50
Multiplication and Division
 Logarithms and Antilogarithms

Logarithm of n: n= 10a means that log n = a

n = antilogarithm of a Example log 100 = 2
Antilog 2 = 100
Antilog has character (integer part) and mantissa (decimal part)
Log 339 = 2.530 2 = character 530 = mantissa
Log 3.39 x 10-5 = -4.470

NB:
No. of digits in mantissa of log x = no. of s.f. in x
Therefore log (5.403 x10-8) = -7.2674
Opposite is true: antilog (-3.42) = 3.8 x 10-4
Eg log 3.2 = 0.51 antilog (-2.600) = 2.51 x 10-3
 Learning Check
For each calculation, give the answer to the correct
number of significant figures.
1. 10.0 g + 1.03 g + 0.243 g = 11.3 g or
1.13 × 101 g

2. 19.556 °C – 19.552 °C = 0.004 °C or

4 × 10–3 °C
3. 327.5 m × 4.52 m = 1.48 × 103 m

4. 15.985 g ÷ 24.12 mL = 0.6627 g/mL or

6.627 × 10–1 g/mL
53
Sample Exercise Determining the Number of Significant Figures
in a Calculated Quantity
The width, length, and height of a small box are 15.5, 27.3, and 5.4 cm,
respectively. Calculate the volume of the box, using the correct number of
significant figures in your answer.

Solution
In reporting the volume, we can show only as many significant figures as given in
the dimension with the fewest
significant figures, which is that for the height (two significant figures):

A calculator used for this calculation shows 2285.01, which we must round off to
two significant figures. Because the resulting number is 2300, it is best reported in
exponential notation, 2.3 ✕ 103, to clearly indicate two significant figures.
Sample Exercise Determining the Number of Significant Figures
in a Calculated Quantity
A vessel containing a gas at 25 °C is weighed, emptied, and then reweighed as
depicted in Figure 1.24. From the
data provided, calculate the density of the gas at 25 °C.

Solution

To calculate the density, we must know both the mass and the volume of the
gas. The mass of the gas is just the difference in the masses of the full and
empty container:
(837.63 – 836.25) g = 1.38 g
In subtracting numbers, we determine the number of significant figures in
our result by counting decimal places in each quantity. In this case each
quantity has two decimal places. Thus, the mass of the gas, 1.38 g, has two
decimal places.
Sample Exercise Determining the Number of Significant Figures
in a Calculated Quantity

Continued

Using the volume given in the question, 1.05 ✕ 103 cm3, and the
definition of density, we have

In dividing numbers, we determine the number of significant figures

our result should contain by counting the number of significant
figures in each quantity. There are three significant figures in our
answer, corresponding to the number of significant figures in the two
numbers that form the ratio. Notice that in this example, following
the rules for determining significant figures gives an answer
containing only three significant figures, even though the measured
masses contain five significant figures.
 Randomizing errors
• 28.051g , 28.120g, 27.936g, and 28.150g
28.051 112.257
Mean = = 28.0643
4
28.120
27.936
Deviations = 0.013 , 0.056, 0.128, 0.086
28.150
0.283
112.257 Mean Deviations = 4
= 0.0708

Mean  Mean Deviation = 28.06 ± 0.07

Range is between 27.99g and 28.13g

 Random error
o Absolute Deviation/Uncertainty: Expresses the margin of
uncertainty associated with a measurement.
o Relative Deviation/Uncertainty: This compares the
magnitude of an absolute uncertainty to its corresponding
measurement. It is dimensionless.
𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑦
o R.U =
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

o %R.U = R.U x 100

0.07
o % R.U = x 100 = 0.3%
28.06
 Propagation of Uncertainties
1. Addition or Subtraction
If z = x + y or z = x – y then the absolute uncertainty in z is
given by
 z   x  y
2 2

Example:
 Addition or Subtraction
• Example: Suppose you measure the height H of a door and get 2:00
± 0:03 m. The door has a knob which is a height h = 0:88 ± 0:04 m
from the bottom of the door. Then the distance from the doorknob
to the top of the door is Q = H -h = 1:12 m. What is the uncertainty
in Q? Using equation

Try:
For a simple titration if the initial reading = (0.05  0.01)mL and
the final reading = (11.22  0.02)mL. Cal the uncertainty in the
volume delivered.
 2. Multiplication or Division

If z = x y or z = x / y then the percent uncertainty in z is given by

% z  % x2  % y2

NB: First convert all absolute uncertainties to % relative uncertainties.

Example:

Finally convert all the % relative uncertainties back to absolute

uncertainties.
 Multiplication or Division
Example: a birdies a distance d = 120 ± 3 m during a time t =
20:0 ± 1:2 s. The average speed of the bird is v = d=t = 6 m/s.
What is the uncertainty of v?
 Mixed calculations
If a calculation is a mixture of operations, you propagate
uncertainties in the same order that you perform the calculations
in mathematics.
 Special Rule: Uncertainty
Multiplication with a constant
Example: If x = 12 ± 1.0 = 12.0 ± 8.3 % and z = 2 x, then z =
24.0 ± 8.3 % or z = 24 ± 2.
NB: You will obtain the same result by multiplying 2 (12 ± 1.0)=
24 ± 2.

This is actually a special case of the rule for multiplication and

division. You can simply assume that the uncertainty in the
constant is just zero and get the result given above.

% z  (0%) 2  (8.3%) 2  8.3%

 Mean & Standard Deviation
o Mean: Is the center of a distribution. It is expressed as the sum
of the measured values divided by the number of
𝑋 1
measurements. 𝑥 = 𝑖 = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛)
𝑛 𝑛

o Standard deviation : Is a measure of the width of the

distribution. Standard deviation is more accurate
1 𝑛
𝑠= 𝑛−1 𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥)2
o The average of the squared deviations about the mean is called
the Variance. Or simply, variance is the square of the standard
deviation.
𝑛
𝑖=1(𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥)2
2 =
n−1
Variance: a measure of how data points differ from the
mean
• Data Set 1: 3, 5, 7, 10, 10
Data Set 2: 7, 7, 7, 7, 7
What is the mean and median of the above data set?
Data Set 1: mean = 7, median = 7
Data Set 2: mean = 7, median = 7
But we know that the two data sets are not identical! The
variance shows how they are different.
We want to find a way to represent these two data set
numerically.
Median: The number in the middle of a series of recorded
values ordered from the least to the highest.
Range: The difference between the highest and the least
value
• Try
Find the mean, median, range, standard deviation and relative
standard deviation for the set of measurements (9,12,13,14,17)
 Example
Dive Mark Mary
1 28 27
2 22 27
3 21 28
4 26 6
5 18 27
Find the mean, median?
mean 23 23
median 22 27

What can be said about this data?

Due to the outlier, the median is more typical of overall performance.
Which diver was more consistent?
Dive Mark's Score x-𝑥 (𝑥𝑖 − 𝑥)2
X
1 28 5 25
2 22 -1 1
3 21 -2 4
4 26 3 9
5 18 -5 25
Totals 115 0 64

Mark’s Variance = 64 / 4 = 16
Mary’s Variance = 362 / 4 = 90

Conclusion: Mark has a lower variance therefore he is more

consistent.
 Bell shaped curve ( Normal distribution)
• Empirical rule for data (68-95-99) - only applies to a set of
data having a distribution that is approximately bell-shaped:
•  68% of all scores fall with 1 standard deviation of the
mean
•  95% of all scores fall with 2 standard deviation of the
mean
•  99.7% of all scores fall with 3 standard deviation of the
mean