MODULE 1

ECOSYSTEM
An ecosystem can be defined as any situation where there is interaction between organisms and their
environment. The ecosystem is composed of two entities, the entirety of life and the medium that life exists in.
They can be classified as AQUATIC and TERRESTRIAL.
A BALANCED ECOSYSTEM is one in which there is a Population balance existing between Prey-Predators,
Producers-Consumers relationship and as well its ensured that there is constant and optimum recycling of matter
Plants constitute 99 percent of earths living species and the rest 1 per cent include animals and man who depend
on the plant world for their food. If this ratio (99:1) is disturbed by elimination of plants (i.e., deforestation), then
the natural balance will be lost and the entire living world will suffer most. The dynamic balance is among plants
(producers), bacteria and micro-organisms (decomposers who decompose mineral salts in soil into elements
which are cycled back into the plants) and animals plus man (consumers). Once this dynamic balance is upset,
there would be ecological crisis and the entire biosphere would be in danger.
Soil (edaphic factors) includes soil texture, soil air, soil temperature, soil water, soil solution and pH, together
with soil organisms and decaying matter.
Winds carry water vapor which may condense and fall in the form of rain, snow or hail. Wind plays a role in
pollination and seed dispersal of some plants, as well as the dispersal of some animals, such as insects. Wind
erosion can remove and redistribute topsoil, especially where vegetation has been reduced.
Balanced Ecosystem
A Balanced Ecosystem occurs when there is a Population balance existing between Prey- Predators and
Producers-Consumers relationships. It ensures that there is constant and optimum recycling of matter. Plants
constitute 99 percent of earth’s living species and the rest one percent include animals and homo-sapiens. If this
ratio (99:1) is disturbed by elimination of plants (i.e., deforestation), then the natural balance will be lost and the
entire system will collapse. There is a dynamic balance among green plants (producers), bacteria and micro-
organisms (i.e., decomposers who decompose mineral salts in soil into elements which are cycled back into the
plants) and animals (consumers). Once this dynamic balance is upset, there would be ecological crisis and the
entire biosphere would be in danger. To avoid this, there must exist equilibrium between the biotic (living) and
abiotic (non-living). To overcome imbalances and for survival, organisms sometime undertake in Ecological
succession, a process in which ecological communities respond to changes in their environment.
Classification of Ecosystem Aquatic Ecosystems
Marine Ecosystems: These cover approximately 71% of the Earth's surface and form
approximately 97% of the planet's water. Marine ecosystems generate 32% of the world's net primary production.
They are distinguished from freshwater ecosystems by the presence of dissolved compounds, especially salts, in
the water. Marine ecosystems can be divided into oceanic shelf, salt marshes, coral reefs and hydrothermal vents.
Classes of organisms found in marine ecosystems include brown algae, dinoflagellates, corals, cephalopods,
echinoderms, and sharks.
Freshwater Ecosystems: These cover 0.8% of the Earth's surface and contain 0.009% of its total water. They
generate nearly 3% of its net primary production. There are 2 basic types of freshwater ecosystems.
Lentic: Slow-moving water, including pools, ponds, and lakes.
Lotic: Rapidly-moving water, for example streams and rivers.
Organisms in marine ecosystems tolerate salinity, while many freshwater organisms are intolerant of salt.
Estuaries are special ecosystems formed where sea water mixes with fresh water and nutrients from rivers,
streams, and runoff. The pond is the simplest aquatic ecosystem. During rainy seasons, when a pond begins to
fill, its life forms such as the algae and microscopic animals, aquatic insects, snails, and worms come out of the
floor of the pond where they remained dormant in the dry phase. The vegetation in the pond consists of floating
weeds and rooted vegetation on the periphery which grows on the muddy floor under water and emerges out of
the surface of the water. As the pond fills during the monsoon, a large number of food chains are formed. Algae
are eaten by microscopic animals, which are in turn eaten by small fish.
The temporary ponds dry after the rains and surrounding grasses and terrestrial plants spread into the exposed
moist mud. Frogs, snails and worms remain dormant in the mud, anticipating next monsoon.
Lake Ecosystem
Lakes are large natural bodies of standing-water, which is formed when precipitation, runoff, or groundwater
seepage fills depressions on the Earth’s surface”.
The parts of a lake also can be classified by temperature:
The epilimnion [the upper layer of warm water].
The hypolimnion [the lower layer of colder, denser water].
The thermocline [the area in between in which water temperature decreases rapidly with depth].
Lakes and ponds are divided into 4 different “zones” usually determined by depth and distance from the shoreline.
The four zones of a lake from top to bottom are the littoral zone, the limnetic zone, the profundal zone and the
bathyal zone.
Littoral zone encompasses the area near the shore at the top of the lake that receives sunlight, extending
down to the depth where rooted plants stop growing. This zone has high biodiversity. This zone is the warmest
since it is shallow and can absorb more of the Sun’s heat. It sustains a fairly diverse community, which can
include several species of algae (like diatoms), rooted and floating aquatic plants, grazing snails, clams, insects,
crustaceans, fishes, and amphibians. As further depth increases, dissolved oxygen levels
decreases, so the epilimnion has the highest amount of oxygen and the hypolimnion the lowest amount.
Limnetic zone the near-surface open water surrounded by the littoral zone. The limnetic zone is
essentially the open area away from the shore. Most photosynthesis occurs in this part of the lake itself. The zone
is well-lighted just like the littoral zone and is dominated by plankton, both phytoplankton and zooplankton.
 Profundal zone the deep open water where it is tough for photosynthesis to happen and the planktons
here have short life spans. This zone is much colder and denser than the other 2 as little light penetrates. The
fauna are heterotrophs, meaning that they eat dead organisms and use oxygen for cellular respiration.\
Benthic zone is the very bottommost layer of the lake. Organisms here tend to tolerate cooler
temperatures much better. Low levels of photosynthesis result in low levels of DO in this level.

Terrestrial Ecosystems
Terrestrial ecosystems include Forests, Grasslands, Semi-arid areas and Deserts.
Forest Ecosystem
A forest is a highly complex, constantly changing environment encompassing variety of living and non-living
things. The word forest is derived from the Latin word Foris. Forest cover approximately occupies 9.4%
geographical portion of the earth. Forests Ecosystem sub- Classification includes Tropical Rainforests, Sub-
Tropical Forests, Mediterranean Forests, Temperate Forests, Coniferous Forests, Montane Forests, Plantation
Forests, Deciduous Forest and Evergreen Forest.
Functions of Forest Ecosystem
Regulatory functions
It helps regulate water cycle.
The ecological benefit apart from cleansing of air, water includes carbon sequestration, and reducing
Global warming.
It helps regular global ambient air temperature.
It provides raw material for paper and pulp industries.
Habitat functions
Provides a reproduction habitat to wild plants and animals
Contributes to in-situ conservation of biological and genetic diversity and the evolutionary process.
Production functions
 Through the process of photosynthesis and nutrient uptake by autotrophs converts energy, carbon dioxide,
water and nutrients into a wide variety of carbohydrate structures which are then used by secondary producers to
create an even larger variety of living biomass.
Information functions
Provides an essential 'reference function‘
Contribute to the maintenance of human health by providing opportunities for reflection, spiritual
enrichment, cognitive development, recreation and aesthetic experience.
Trees also help in absorbing noise and creating an aesthetic environment free of stress and peace.
It serves for tourism attraction and provides recreational activities like hunting, camping, hiking, fishing,
watching wildlife, off road biking, horseback riding and plant collecting.
Desert Ecosystem
Deserts are terrestrial ecosystems found around the tropic of Cancer and tropic of Capricorn in Northern and
Southern Hemispheres. They have mega-thermal climate, as per Koppen climate classification. The desert is the
hottest biome on Earth and occupies about one fifth of the Earth's land surface. Sahara Desert, Arabian Desert,
Gobi Desert, Kalahari Desert and Thar Desert are few of famous deserts around the world.
Hot deserts
Temperature is very warm entire year, with summers being extremely hot.
More flora and fauna can be found here compared to cold desert.
Water is very scarce.
Temperature is very high during day and very low at night.
Xerophytes have modifications like pulpy stem to store water and wax covered thorny leaves to reduce
transpiration. The roots are very long to reach the water table.
Animals such as reptiles, rodents, wolves display nocturnal behaviour.
Cold deserts
This type of desert has short and warm summers, and Long, cold winters
Found in places near the north and south poles
Less flora and fauna can be found compared to hot desert.
Functions of Desert Ecosystem
Deserts contain valuable mineral deposits like silica, gypsum, borates are found here.
Due to consistent dryness, deserts are ideal places for natural preservation of artifacts and fossils.
Structure of Desert Ecosystem
 The abiotic factors include sunlight, oxygen, carbon-di-oxide, ground water, temperature, humidity, pH.
The producers mainly include shrubs, bushes, some grasses and few trees
Abiotic Factors of Desert Ecosystem
The thin soils frequently attacked by sand storm and wind with lack of humus makes them infertile.
The moisture lost through evaporation is much greater than that gained during rainfall.
The rainfall is extremely irregular.
The drought period is usually longer than a year.
Biotic Factors of Desert Ecosystem – Fauna
Hundreds of different animals thrive in deserts.
Most of these are found only at dawn or dusk, when climate is much cooler.
The fauna include snakes, owls, mice, armadillo lizards, fennec foxes, bats, vultures and camels.
Biotic Factors of Desert Ecosystem – Flora
There are several varieties of plants that are able to survive in the desert.
Most plants survive due to their tap roots that are able to reach underground water.
The vegetation of the Desert Biome is mostly characterized by dominance of annual plants, often annual
grasses.
These plants have special parts and adaptations that help them save water.

BIODIVERSITY & ITS VALUES

Biodiversity can be defined as the richness of the diversification of all the species living in a particular area. The
values of biodiversity are classified as Ecosystem service value, Ethical Values, Aesthetic Values, Ecosystem
service value, Option value, Social value and Productive use values.
Levels of Biodiversity
Biodiversity can be explained at three levels, namely Genetic Diversity, Species Diversity and
Ecosystem Diversity.
✓ Genetic biodiversity reflects at the variation of genes within a species. Diversity of genes within
a species increases its potential ability to adapt to disease, pollution and the other changes in habitat
or environment. When a variety of particular specie is destroyed, the genetic diversity gets
diminished; hence increase in genetic diversity is essential for a species to evolve.
 ✓ Species Diversity is portrayed as the variability found within the population of a species or between
different species of a community. It indicates broadly the species richness and their abundance of
community. Species biodiversity indicates variability of species within a region. Species diversity
can be measured on the basis of species in a region. Greater species biodiversity reflects at more
biological wealth.
✓ Ecosystem diversity is defined as ‘the aggregation of various habitats, community types and
abiotic environments of a given area’. This is essentially the diversity of ecological complexity
showing variations in ecological niches, tropic structure, food-webs and nutrient cycling. This
diversity reflects on the variations with respect to physical parameters like moisture, temperature,
altitude precipitation. The ecosystem diversity is of great value that must be kept intact as its
destruction would disrupt the ecological balance. This diversity refers to diversity at habitat level.
For example in a forest ecosystem, the ecosystem diversity is reflected by tropical rainforest,
deciduous forest, temperate deciduous forest and boreal forest.
Threats to Biodiversity
As human population expands and natural habitats shrink, they constantly and increasingly come into conflict
over living space and other resources. Humans unlike other animals prefer to change the environment around
them instead of adjusting himself according to the environment.
Animals often end crossing paths without humans for reasons such as loss of habitat, loss of food and natural
pathway of migration and movement. Environmental pollution and global warming also causes certain animals
especially those who cannot regulate body temperature and under stress to lock horns with humans. The other
major threats are:
✓ Loss of habitat
✓ Poaching and Over hunting
✓ Man-wildlife conflicts
✓ Deforestation
✓ Dams
✓ Urbanisation
✓ Agriculture
✓ Deforestation
✓ Forest fires
✓ Introduction of new species
✓ Natural disasters
✓ Mining
✓ Desertification
Control measures to conserve and protect Biodiversity
✓ Proper Land-use planning
✓ Community Based Management
✓ Ensuring forests are free of human interference.
✓ Controlling rate of deforestation.
✓ Strict adherence to forest laws.
✓ Strict implementation of law, punishments and penalties for violators and poachers.
✓ Regular monitoring by foot patrol and GIS tracking.
✓ Strict control on the issuance of license of firearms around important protected areas.
✓ Spread awareness amidst general public about conservation and preservation of wildlife and their
habitat.
✓ Protection of the habitats permanently through formation and conservation of national parks, nature
reserves and wilderness areas will help preserve biodiversity.
In-situ & Ex-situ conservation of Biodiversity
The enormous value of biodiversity in the form of their genetic, commercial, medical, aesthetic and ecological
importance emphasizes the need to conserve biodiversity.
There are two approaches to biodiversity conservation: In-situ conservation and Ex-situ conservation. In situ
conservation (within habitat) is achieved by protection of wild flora and fauna by creating environment similar
to nature such as national parks, forest reserves, and Sanctuaries. Ex-situ conservation (outside habitats) is done
by establishing gene banks, seed banks, zoos, and botanical gardens. Genes are the basic units of hereditary
information transmitted from one generation to the other. The genes found in organisms can form enormous
combinations each of which gives rise to some variability. When the genes within the same species show different
versions due to new combinations, it is called genetic variability.
FOREST WEALTH
Forest resources play a vital role in the economy of India, the following section deal with the forest resources, its
utility and emerging threats
COMPONENTS OF FOREST
A forest is a highly complex, constantly changing environment made up of a variety of living [wildlife, trees,
shrubs, wildflowers, ferns, mosses, lichens, fungi and microscopic soil organism] and non-living [water,
nutrients, rocks, sunlight and air] things. Trees are the most dominant component of this environment.
BENEFITS OF FOREST
Forests cover much of the planets land area. They are extremely important to humans and the natural world. For
humans, they have many aesthetic, recreational, economic, historical, cultural and religious values. Timber and
other products of forests are important economically both locally and as exports
Forest provides wood for fuel as a significant for those who harvest the wood or products of the living forest.
Other non-wood products come in the form of medicinal compounds, dyes and fabrics. One-third of the world’s
population depends on wood for fuel as a significant energy source. Some indigenous people [tribal] depend
completely on forest as their home and for many it’s a source of their livelihood.
Key benefits of forest are:
Provides clean water by intercepting water from rain and slowing it down and hence aids soil absorption for
gradual release into streams at a slow and even rate. Cleansing action is done by root system.
Provides clean air by mode of photosynthesis wherein they release oxygen and take in carbon-di- oxide. Trees
filter air off harmful pollutants and moderate the air temperature.
Provides home/shelter to a wide array of species of flora and fauna. There is a possibility that many herbs of
potential medical treatments, cures and vaccines may lie undiscovered within forests.
As source of economic growth by providing timber and playing important role in wood based industries and
paper and pulp industries. Also it serves for tourism attraction And finally it also provide fruits, nuts, flowers and
many other products of economic value.
Provides recreational activities like hunting, camping, hiking, fishing, watching wildlife, off road biking,
horseback riding and plant collecting.
The ecological benefit apart from cleansing of air, water includes carbon sequestration i.e., taking carbon-di-
oxide of out of the earth atmosphere to produce wood and leaf matter.
Trees as well help in absorbing noise, creating an aesthetic environment free of stress and peace. Trees protect
topsoil from erosion and reduce risk of failure of slopes and hence prevent landslides and avalanches.
Water from roots is drawn up to the leaves where it evaporates. The conversion from water to gas absorbs huge
amounts of heat cooling hot city air. Trees help to offset the heat island effect resulting from too much glass and
concrete in city environments.
DEFORESTATION
It refers to the loss of forest cover; land that is permanently converted from forest to agricultural land, golf
courses, cattle pastures, homes, lakes or desert. It is sometimes referred as change of forest with depletion of tree
crown cover more than 90%.
UNCED 1992 defined deforestation as land degradation in arid, semi-arid and sub humid areas resulting from
various factors including climatic variations and human activities.
Causes:
Agriculture – most of the forest clearing around the world is done for agricultural purposes [grazing cattle,
planting crops etc.] poor farmers cut down small areas [few acres] and burn down the trees and proceed with
agriculture. Intensive an extensive agriculture destroys forest on a larger scale.
Commercial logging – cutting trees for timber or pulp. Logging can occur selectively [only the economically
valuable species are cut]or by clear cutting [all tree are cut]. Commercial logging employs heavy machinery.
The cash crop economy – this is an integral part of the Third World Development and a major cause of
deforestation. The best land is taken to earn export income, which is very often used to pay the foreign debt.
Farmers are forced onto marginal land.
Mining and Dams – mining, hydro-electric schemes and industrial development are also significant causes of
deforestation, both in terms of land they occupy and displacement of forest people.
Effects:
Fewer trees result in insecure work for forest workers
Heavy rainfall and high sunlight damage the topsoil in absence of trees. Erosion of soil, landslide frequented
Loss of future markets for eco-tourism Indigenous people loss livelihood
Loss of rare/endangered wildlife species
Loss of habitat and migration of wild animals to rural and urban zones Cutting or burning o tees give a lot of
carbon-di-oxide into atmosphere Reduction in rainfall
Desertification
No recycling of water
Less carbon-di-oxide and nitrogen exchange Desiccation of soil
Remedies
Reduce the consumption of forest and related products
Avoid harmful products by consumer boycotts; such has tropical rainforest wood, old growth wood from the
tropical rainforest.
Boycott products of companies involved in deforestation Compel govt. and industries to make changes in forest
policies Increase public awareness.

MODULE 2
ENERGY
Energy is the capacity to do work. A plenty of energy is needed to sustain industrial growth and agricultural
production.
CLASSIFICATION OF ENERGY
1. Conventional energy: is in practice for long duration of time and well established technology is available
to tap and use them. e.g. Coal, oil, natural gas, hydro power, nuclear power etc.
2. Non-conventional energy: source can be used with advantage for power generation as well as other
applications in a large number of locations and situations. These energy sources cannot be easily stored and used
conveniently. e.g. Solar, wind, tidal and geothermal etc.
Based upon nature, energy sources are classified as
1. Renewable energy sources are inexhaustible and are renewed by nature itself. Solar, wind, tidal, hydro
and biomass are few examples.
2. Non-renewable energy sources are exhaustible within a definite period of time depending upon its usage.
Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) and nuclear fuels are few examples.
Renewable Nonrenewable
1. sun 1. coal
2. water 2. natural gas
3. wood 3. petroleum
4. wind 4. nuclear fission
5. biomass
6. geothermal
7. ocean tides
SOLAR ENERGY
The surface of the earth receives about 1014 kW from sun in the form of solar energy which is approximately
five orders of magnitude greater than that currently being consumed from all resources. There are two obvious
obstacles to harnessing solar energy. Firstly it is not constantly available on earth. Thus some form of storage is
needed to sustain solar energy through the night and during rainy season. Secondly the solar energy is diffused.
Although the total amount of energy is enormous, the collection and conservation of solar energy into useful
forms must be carried out over a large area which entails large capital investments. By using solar radiation,
water or any fluid can be heated by using a solar collector. Such systems can provide hot water for different
applications in industries directly or as boiler feed and also in hostels, hotels and canteens.
There are two primary ways to capture
and utilize solar energy:
Photovoltaic (PV) Technology:
Solar Panels: Photovoltaic cells, commonly known as solar cells, are used to convert
sunlight directly into electricity. When sunlight hits the solar cells, it excites electrons,
creating an electric current. Multiple solar cells are connected to form solar panels.
Solar Arrays: These panels can be grouped together to form solar arrays, which can be
installed on rooftops, in solar farms, or in dedicated solar power plants.
Inverters: The generated direct current (DC) is converted into alternating current (AC)
through inverters for use in homes, businesses, or the electricity grid.
Solar Thermal Technology:
Solar Collectors: Solar thermal systems use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight
onto a small area, generating heat. This heat is then used to produce steam that drives
turbines connected to generators, producing electricity.
Solar Water Heating: Solar energy can be used to heat water directly for residential or
industrial purposes. Solar water heaters consist of collectors that absorb sunlight and
transfer the heat to a fluid, which is then used to heat water.
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP): Large-scale solar thermal power plants use mirrors
or lenses to focus sunlight onto a small area, producing high temperatures to generate
steam and electricity.
Solar energy is a clean and sustainable alternative to traditional fossil fuels, offering
numerous environmental and economic benefits. It helps reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
mitigates climate change, and provides decentralized power solutions. Advances in
technology and decreasing costs have contributed to the widespread adoption of solar energy
worldwide.
Merits:
Renewable and Sustainable: Solar energy is a renewable resource, meaning it is
virtually inexhaustible and sustainable for the long term.
Clean and Environmentally Friendly: Solar power generation produces minimal
environmental pollution, contributing to reduced greenhouse gas emissions and air
pollution.
Low Operating Costs: Once solar panels are installed, the operating and maintenance
costs are relatively low compared to other forms of power generation.
Reduced Reliance on Fossil Fuels: Solar energy helps reduce dependence on non-
renewable fossil fuels, contributing to energy diversification and security.
Grid Independence: Solar systems, especially in off-grid or remote areas, can operate
independently of traditional power grids, providing electricity where traditional
infrastructure is lacking.
Demerits:
Intermittency and Variability: Solar power generation is dependent on sunlight,
making it intermittent and variable. Energy storage solutions are needed to address
this issue.
High Initial Costs: The upfront costs of installing solar panels and associated systems
can be relatively high, although prices have been decreasing over time.
Land Use Concerns: Large-scale solar farms may require significant land area,
leading to concerns about habitat disruption and land-use conflicts.
Energy Storage Challenges: Storing solar energy for use during periods of low
sunlight can be challenging and may require additional technologies or infrastructure.
Global Status:
Increasing Adoption: Solar energy has seen significant global adoption, with many
countries investing in solar power projects to meet renewable energy targets.
Falling Costs: The cost of solar panels has been consistently decreasing, making solar
energy more economically competitive with traditional energy sources.
 Government Support: Many governments offer incentives, subsidies, and policy
support to encourage the adoption of solar energy, further driving its growth.
Technological Advances: Ongoing advancements in solar technology, such as
improved efficiency and new materials, continue to enhance the feasibility and
attractiveness of solar power.
Applications:
Residential Solar Power: Solar panels on homes for generating electricity and heating
water.
Commercial and Industrial Use: Large-scale solar installations to meet the energy
needs of businesses and industries.
Solar Farms: Utility-scale solar farms that generate electricity for the grid.
Off-Grid Power: Solar systems for remote or off-grid locations, providing electricity
where traditional power infrastructure is absent.
Solar Water Heating: Solar thermal systems for heating water in residential and
commercial buildings.
Overall, solar energy plays a crucial role in the transition to a more sustainable and cleaner
energy future.
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) is a renewable energy technology that
harnesses the temperature difference between the warm surface waters of the ocean and the
colder deep waters to generate electricity.
Temperature Gradient:
The surface water of the ocean is warmed by the sun, creating a temperature gradient between
the warm surface water and the cold deep water.
Working Fluid:
OTEC systems typically use a working fluid, such as ammonia or a similar substance with a
low boiling point.
Evaporation and Condensation:
The warm surface water is used to vaporize the working fluid, turning it into a gas.
The gas expands and drives a turbine connected to a generator, producing electricity.
Cold Water Condensation:
The cold deep water is then used to condense the working fluid back into a liquid state.
Closed Loop or Open Cycle:
OTEC systems can be either closed-loop or open-cycle.
Closed-Loop: The working fluid remains in a closed system, and the warm surface water and
cold deep water do not mix.
Open Cycle: In an open-cycle system, the warm surface water is used directly as the working
fluid, and the cold deep water is used to condense it.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FHBVgRWAt3c

Merits:
Renewable and Continuous: OTEC relies on the temperature difference between
ocean layers, making it a continuous and renewable energy source.
Stable Power Generation: OTEC systems can provide a stable and predictable source
of electricity, as the temperature difference between surface and deep waters tends to
be relatively constant.
No Greenhouse Gas Emissions: OTEC does not produce greenhouse gas emissions
during power generation.
Challenges:
High Initial Costs: Building and installing OTEC systems can be expensive, limiting
widespread adoption.
Location Specific: OTEC is most feasible in tropical and subtropical regions where
the temperature difference between surface and deep waters is significant.
Environmental Impact: The cold water brought to the surface during OTEC operation
may have environmental impacts, such as affecting marine ecosystems.
Despite these challenges, OTEC holds promise as a sustainable and clean energy
technology, particularly in regions with suitable oceanic conditions. Ongoing research
aims to address technical and economic challenges to make OTEC more
commercially viable.
Merits:
Renewable and Continuous: OTEC harnesses the temperature difference in the ocean,
providing a continuous and renewable source of energy as long as temperature
gradients exist
Stable Power Generation: OTEC systems can provide stable and predictable power
generation, as the temperature difference between surface and deep ocean waters
tends to remain relatively constant.
No Greenhouse Gas Emissions: OTEC power generation does not produce
greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to environmental sustainability.
Long Lifespan: OTEC systems can have a long lifespan with proper maintenance,
providing a consistent and reliable energy source over the years.
Demerits:
High Initial Costs: The construction and installation of OTEC systems can be
expensive, limiting widespread adoption.
Location Specific: OTEC is most feasible in tropical and subtropical regions where
there is a significant temperature difference between surface and deep ocean waters.
Environmental Impact: The process of bringing cold water to the surface during
OTEC operation may have environmental impacts, potentially affecting marine
ecosystems.
 Low Efficiency: OTEC systems have historically faced challenges in achieving high
efficiency, impacting their economic viability
Global Status:
As of last update in early 2022, OTEC is in the early stages of development, and there are a
limited number of operational OTEC plants globally. Some research and demonstration
projects have been conducted, but large-scale commercial deployment is yet to be realized.
Countries with suitable oceanic conditions, such as tropical island nations, are more likely to
explore and invest in OTEC technologies.
Applications:
Power Generation: OTEC can be used to generate electricity for both onshore and
offshore applications, providing a constant and reliable power source.
Desalination: The temperature difference in OTEC systems can also be utilized for
desalination processes, producing freshwater from seawater.
Aquaculture: OTEC systems can support marine aquaculture by providing nutrient-
rich cold water to the surface, benefiting the growth of marine organisms.
Air Conditioning: Cold water from OTEC systems can be used for air conditioning in
coastal areas, reducing the need for conventional cooling systems.

Tidal energy systems harness the kinetic and potential energy of tides, the periodic rise
and fall of sea levels caused by the gravitational forces of the moon and the sun. There are
two main types of tidal energy systems: tidal stream systems and tidal range systems.
Tides are the rise and fall of ocean water levels. They are caused by the gravitational
pull of the moon and sun, and the Earth's rotation. Tides can occur once or twice a day.
Tidal Stream Systems:
Kinetic Energy Capture: Tidal streams, or tidal currents, are fast-flowing water in coastal
areas. Tidal stream systems capture the kinetic energy of these moving water masses.
Tidal Turbines: Similar to underwater wind turbines, tidal turbines are placed on the seabed
in areas with strong tidal currents. As the tidal stream flows over the turbines, it causes them
to rotate, generating electricity.

Advantages: Tidal stream systems can provide a consistent and predictable source of energy,
as tidal currents are influenced by the regular cycles of the moon.
Tidal Range Systems:
Potential Energy Capture: Tidal range systems capture the potential energy created by the
difference in height between high and low tides.
Tidal Barrages: A tidal barrage is a dam-like structure built across the entrance of a tidal
basin. Sluice gates in the barrage control the flow of water. During high tide, the gates are
closed, trapping water in the basin. When the tide recedes, the gates are opened, and the
released water flows through turbines to generate electricity.

Tidal Lagoons: Similar to tidal barrages, tidal lagoons use a circular or semi-circular wall to
create an enclosed area. Electricity is generated as water flows in and out of the lagoon
through turbines.
Advantages: Tidal range systems can generate a significant amount of electricity, especially
in areas with large tidal ranges
Merits:
Renewable and Predictable: Tidal energy is a renewable resource, and tidal patterns
are predictable, making it a reliable source of energy.
Low Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Tidal energy systems produce minimal greenhouse
gas emissions during operation.
Long Lifespan: Tidal energy infrastructure, when well-maintained, can have a long
lifespan.
Demerits:
Site-Specific: Tidal energy systems are location-dependent, and optimal sites are
limited to regions with strong tidal currents or large tidal ranges.
Environmental Impact: The construction and operation of tidal energy systems can
have environmental impacts, affecting marine ecosystems and navigation.
High Initial Costs: The initial capital costs for building tidal energy infrastructure,
especially tidal barrages, can be substantial.

Global Status:
Pilot Projects and Demonstrations: Various countries have initiated pilot projects and
demonstrations to test and assess the feasibility of tidal energy technologies.
Research and Development: Ongoing research and development efforts focus on
improving the efficiency, reliability, and environmental impact of tidal energy
systems.
Commercial Deployment: While there are operational tidal energy projects,
commercial deployment on a large scale is limited. Challenges such as high initial
costs, site-specific considerations, and potential environmental impacts have slowed
widespread adoption.
Technology Diversity: Different tidal energy technologies, including tidal stream
systems (using tidal turbines) and tidal range systems (utilizing tidal barrages and
lagoons), are being explored to harness tidal energy in various geographical
conditions.
Applications:
Electricity Generation: The primary application of tidal energy systems is to generate
electricity. Tidal turbines in tidal stream systems and tidal barrages or lagoons in tidal
range systems are designed to convert tidal energy into electrical power.
Grid Integration: Tidal energy can be integrated into existing power grids to
contribute to the overall energy mix. It provides a renewable and predictable source of
electricity.
Island and Remote Communities: Tidal energy systems are being considered for
powering islands and remote coastal communities, offering a reliable and local source
of electricity.
Tidal Range Technology for Large-Scale Power: Tidal barrages and lagoons have the
potential to generate large amounts of electricity, making them suitable for regions
with significant tidal ranges.
Wind energy is a renewable and sustainable form of energy that harnesses the power of
the wind to generate electricity. It is one of the fastest-growing sources of clean energy
globally. The process involves converting the kinetic energy of moving air into mechanical
energy and, ultimately, into electrical energy.
Wind Turbines:
Wind turbines are the primary technology used to capture wind energy. These are large
structures with blades attached to a rotor.
Modern wind turbines are typically mounted on tall towers to capture higher wind speeds, as
wind velocity increases with altitude.
Conversion of Kinetic Energy:
When the wind blows, it causes the turbine blades to rotate. The kinetic energy of the moving
air is thus converted into mechanical energy in the spinning rotor.
Electricity Generation:
The rotating rotor is connected to a generator, where the mechanical energy is transformed
into electrical energy. This process involves the movement of a magnetic field within a coil of
wire, inducing an electric current.
Grid Integration:
The generated electricity is then fed into the electrical grid for distribution to homes,
businesses, and industries.
Merits:
Renewable and Abundant: Wind energy is a renewable resource, as wind is a naturally
occurring and abundant phenomenon.
Clean and Environmentally Friendly: Wind power generation produces little to no
greenhouse gas emissions, contributing to a reduction in air pollution and mitigating
climate change.
Cost-Effective: The cost of wind energy has significantly decreased over the years,
making it increasingly competitive with traditional forms of energy.
Job Creation: The wind energy industry creates jobs in manufacturing, installation,
maintenance, and other related sectors.
Demerits:
Intermittency: Wind energy is intermittent and variable, as it depends on wind speed.
Energy storage or backup power sources are often needed to address fluctuations in
electricity generation.
Land Use Concerns: Large-scale wind farms may require considerable land area,
potentially impacting local ecosystems and land use.
Aesthetic Impact: Some people find the appearance of wind turbines objectionable,
leading to concerns about the visual impact on landscapes and communities.
Global Status:
Rapid Growth: Wind energy has experienced rapid growth globally, with numerous
countries investing in wind power projects to meet renewable energy targets.
Installed Capacity: Many countries have installed large wind farms, both onshore and
offshore, contributing significantly to their electricity generation capacity.
 Technological Advances: Ongoing technological advancements, such as larger and
more efficient turbines, continue to improve the efficiency and cost-effectiveness of
wind energy.
Applications:
Electricity Generation: Wind energy is primarily used for generating electricity to
power homes, businesses, and industries.
Off-Grid Power: Wind turbines can provide off-grid power in remote areas,
contributing to energy access.
Hybrid Systems: Wind energy can be integrated into hybrid systems with other
renewable sources or conventional power plants for a more reliable and continuous
DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Disaster means a terrible event that causes a great damage / loss to the human beings. It is a
situation arising from natural forces where large scale disruption of infrastructure, services etc.
occurs. It causes a serious impact on human life, economy and environment. Natural disasters are
always severe and sudden.
Some disasters are:
(A) Geological: in nature like the earthquakes;
(B) Landslides (rocks slides down from the side of a hill ); Volcanic eruptions etc..
(C) Climatic disasters / Natural calamities: These are of different types affect nations all over the
world. Because of the large geographical size of the country, India often faces natural
calamities like floods, cyclones and drought occurring frequently in different parts of the
country.
Natural calamities are of two types:
1. Major calamities: eg: earthquakes; droughts; floods, tsunamis; cyclones etc
2. Minor calamities: eg: hailstorms; avalanches; fire accidents
(D) Man induced disasters include wars, battles, riots, rail/road accidents, nuclear explosions.
The disaster Management: The natural disaster management involves the following steps:
Relief measures: it include rescue tools; communication equipments; heavy machines to remove
debris; water pumps; technicians; drugs, doctors, ambulances..
Disaster predictions: The predictions of natural hazards may be made on the basis of past
history of the area with regular monitoring of the environmental changes caused by human
activities to assess the genesis of natural disasters.
Preparedness:
Risk Assessment: Identifying and analyzing potential hazards and vulnerabilities in a specific area.
Early Warning Systems: Implementing systems to detect and communicate potential disasters in advance, giving
people time to evacuate or take protective measures.
Community Education: Providing information and training to the public on disaster preparedness, evacuation
procedures, and first aid.
Response:
Emergency Services: Coordinating and mobilizing rescue teams, medical personnel, and other emergency
services to provide immediate assistance.
Search and Rescue: Conducting operations to locate and assist individuals affected by the disaster.
Evacuation Plans: Implementing organized evacuation procedures to move people out of the affected area safely.
Recovery:
Infrastructure Rehabilitation: Rebuilding and restoring damaged infrastructure such as buildings, roads, and
utilities.
Psychosocial Support: Providing counseling and mental health support to individuals and communities affected
by the disaster.
Economic Recovery: Implementing measures to revive local economies and livelihoods impacted by the disaster.
Mitigation:
Land-Use Planning: Developing and enforcing regulations to control the use of land in vulnerable areas, reducing
the risk of disasters.
Building Codes: Implementing and enforcing construction standards to ensure buildings are resilient to natural
disasters.
Environmental Protection: Preserving and restoring natural ecosystems that act as buffers against certain types
of disasters.
International Collaboration:
Global Response Coordination: Collaborating with other nations and international organizations to share
resources, expertise, and support during large-scale disasters.
Humanitarian Aid: Providing assistance and relief to affected populations through international aid organizations
and initiatives.
Technology and Innovation:
Satellite Monitoring: Utilizing satellite technology for real-time monitoring of weather patterns, natural
phenomena, and disaster impacts.
Geographic Information Systems (GIS): Mapping and analyzing data to understand vulnerabilities and plan
effective responses.
Communication Technologies: Leveraging communication tools and social media for rapid dissemination of
information and coordination.
Financial Planning:
Insurance Programs: Developing and promoting insurance schemes to help individuals and businesses recover
financially from disasters.
Emergency Funds: Establishing funds at national and local levels to ensure swift financial support for immediate
response and recovery efforts.
MINING
Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the earth. Materials recovered
by mining include bauxite, coal, copper, gold, silver, diamonds, iron, precious metals, lead, limestone, nickel,
phosphate, oil shale, rock salt, tin, uranium, and molybdenum.
Any material that cannot be grown from agricultural processes, or created artificially in a laboratory or factory,
is usually mined. Mining in a wider sense can also include extraction of petroleum, natural gas, and even water.
On an industrial scale can produce environmental damages resulting from exploration and development, even
long after the mine is closed.
The exploratory phase generally causes the least impact, although drilling holes to determine the existence of
deposits may involve transporting heavy equipment’s and building roads. Environmental effects include erosion,
formation of sinkholes, loss of stability, subsidence of land, weakening of lithospheric plates, dust generation,
removal of green belt, desertification, loss of top soil, noise generation, loss of biodiversity, and contamination
of groundwater and surface water by chemicals from the mining process and products.
Mining can have adverse effects on surrounding surface and ground water if protection measures are not
exercised. The result can be unnaturally high concentrations of some chemical elements, notably arsenic and
sulfuric acid, over a significantly large area of surface or subsurface. Old mines are often dangerous and can
contain deadly gases, snakes, and other dangerous animals. The entrance to an old mine in particular can be very
dangerous, as weather may have eroded the earth/rock surrounding the entrance. Old mine workings, caves, etc.
are commonly hazardous simply due to the lack of oxygen in the air (a condition in mines known as blackdamp)
and this is a deadly killer which provides no warning to those entering such an environment.
Acid mine drainage (AMD), or acid rock drainage (ARD), refers to the outflow of acidic water from (usually)
abandoned metal mines or coal mines. Open pit mining, generates enormous quantities of waste compared to any
other natural resource extraction activity. Water interacts with these wastes to generate contaminated fluids that
can pollute soils, rivers and ground water. These fluids can be highly acidic and metal laden or highly alkaline
and they often contain various forms of cyanide and sulfides. SO2 + H2O -> H2SO4

Carbon Trading

Carbon trading is an exchange of credits between nations designed to reduce emissions of carbon
dioxide. It is also referred to as carbon emissions trading. Carbon emissions trading accounts for
most emissions trading.

When countries use fossil fuels and produce carbon dioxide, they do not pay for the implications
of burning those fossil fuels directly. There are some costs that they incur, like the price of the fuel
itself, but there are other costs not included in the price of the fuel. These are known as
externalities. In the case of fossil fuel usage, often these externalities are negative externalities,
meaning that the consumption of the good has negative effects on third parties. These externalities
include health costs, (like the contribution that burning fossil fuels makes to heart disease, cancer,
stroke, and lung diseases) and environmental costs, (like environmental degradation, pollution,
climate change, and global warming). Interestingly, research has found that, often, the burdens of
climate change most directly affect countries with the lowest greenhouse emissions. So, if a
country is going to burn fossil fuels, and produces these negative externalities, the thinking is that
they should pay for them.

The carbon trade originated with the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, with the objective of reducing carbon
emissions and mitigating climate change and future global warming. At the time, the measure
devised was intended to reduce overall carbon dioxide emissions to roughly 5% below 1990 levels
by between 2008 and 2012.

Basically, each country has a cap on the amount of carbon they are allowed to release. Carbon
emissions trading then allow countries that have higher carbon emissions to purchase the right to
release more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere from countries that have lower carbon emissions.

The carbon trade also refers to the ability of individual companies to trade polluting rights through
a regulatory system known as cap and trade. Companies that pollute less can sell their unused
pollution rights to companies that pollute more. The goal is to ensure that companies in the
aggregate do not exceed a baseline level of pollution and to provide a financial incentive for
companies to pollute less.