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Steam System
MEEN 4202
Industrial Plant Engineering
Lecture 2

Engr. Emmanuelle R. Biglete, MSME, CSSYB

Mechanical Engineering Department

Lecture Outline
• Theory of Producing Steam
• Difference between Boilers and Steam Generators
• Boiler System
• Factors Affecting the Selection of Boiler
• Classification of Boilers
• Steam Generation Theory
• Maintenance Methods
• Accessories of Boiler Systems
• Boiler Performance Parameters
• Water-tube Boiler Calculations

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The Theory of Producing Steam

• Water boils and evaporates at 100°C under atmospheric pressure.
• By higher pressure, water evaporates at higher temperature - e.g.
a pressure of 10 bar equals an evaporation temperature of 184°C.
• During the evaporation process, pressure and temperature are
constant, and a substantial amount of thermal energy is used for
bringing the water from liquid to vapor phase.
• When all the water is evaporated, the steam is called dry saturated.
• In this condition the steam contains a large amount of latent heat.
• Further heating of dry saturated steam will lead to increase in
temperature of the steam.
• Superheated steam.

Steam Generator vs Steam Boiler

• Opposite the principle of the
steam boilers, the water in the
steam generators evaporates
inside the tube winded up into a
serially connected tube coils.
• The feed water is heated up to
the saturation temperature and
then evaporated.
• The intensity of the heat, the
feed water flow and the
size/length of the tube are Steam Generator
adapted, so that the water is
exactly fully evaporated at the
exit of the tube.
• This ensures a very small water
and steam volume (content of
the pressure vessel).
• Thus, there are no buffer in a
steam generator, and is it
temporary overloaded.

Boiler

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The advantages using a steam generator compared to

conventional steam boilers.
• Easy to operate - normally no requirement for boiler
authorization.
• Rapid start-up and establishing full-steam pressure.
• Compact and easy to adapt in the existing machinery
arrangement.
• Price attractive - especially at low steam rates.

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Boiler System
• The boiler is fed with Heavy Types of Boiler:
Fuel Oil and Light Diesel Oil to 1. Water-tube Boiler
ignite the coal in the boiler. 2. Fire-tube Boiler

• Boiler is a closed vessel in

which the heat produced by the
combustion of fuel is
transferred to water for its
conversion into steam at the
desired temperature and
pressure.
• Broadly speaking, a boiler is a
device used for generating:
• Steam for power generation
• Hot water for heating purposes

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Factors Affecting the Choice of a Boiler

The selection of type and size of a steam boiler depends upon the following
factors:
• The power required and the working pressure
• Geographical position of the plant
• Availability of fuel
• Supply and quality of feed water
• The probable load factor
• Space available
• Labor available
• Adaptability to the type of furnace and stoker
• Steam pressure and superheat desired
• Nature and intensity of draught

CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS
The Boilers may be classified as
under:

• Horizontal boiler, vertical or inclined boilers

• Fire tube and water tube boilers
• Externally fired and internally fired boilers
• Forced circulation and natural circulation
boilers
• High, medium and low-pressure boilers
• Stationary boiler and portable boiler
• Single tube boilers and multi-tube boilers
• Sub-Critical and Super Critical boilers
• Electric boilers, Gas boilers, Biomass boilers Babcock, Volex, Wilcox.
• Atmospheric and Sealed Boilers Locomotive boilers,
Cochran, Lancashire.
Volex, Benson boiler.

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CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS

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CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS

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CLASSIFICATION OF BOILERS

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Steam Generation Theory

• Within the boiler, fuel and
air are force into the
furnace by the burner.
• There, it burns to produce
heat.
• From there, the heat (flue
gases) travel throughout
the boiler.
• The water absorbs the
heat, and eventually
absorb enough to change
into a gaseous state -
steam.
• Boiler makers have
developed various designs
to squeeze the most
energy out of fuel and to
maximized its transfer to
the water.

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Maintenance Methods
• Slagging – is the deposition of molten,
partially fused deposit on the furnace walls
and the radiant superheater exposed to
radiant heat.
• Fouling – is the deposition of more
loosely bonded deposit on the heat
absorbing surface in the convective path.
• To remedy this problem the engineer will
carry out soot blowing. At a specified time,
the engineer uses a long tool and insert it
into the fire side of the boiler.
• This blowing action of the steam "scrubs"
the outside of the water tubes, cleaning
the carbon build up.

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Operating Pressure and Temperature

• Water tube boilers can have pressures from 7 bar to as high as 250 bar.
• The steam temperature's can vary between saturated steam, 100 degrees
Celsius steam with particle of water, or be as high as 600 - 650 degrees
Celsius, know as superheated steam or dry steam
• The performance of boiler is generally referred to as tons of steam
produced in one hour.
• In water tube boilers that could be as low as 1.5 t/hr to as high as 2500
t/hr.

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Steam Generators
Classification of Boiler-based on the fluid inside the tubes:

1) Fire Tube Boiler

2) Water Tube Boiler

Pressures, psi (lb/in2)

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Flow Rate, lb/hr

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Boiler Accessories
• Economizer

• Preheater

• Superheater

• Reheater

• Feedwater Heater

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Economizer
• An economizer extracts heat from the flue gas and uses it in heating
feed water. This use of economizer results in saving coal consumption
and higher boiler efficiency.

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Air Path and Preheaters

• External fans are provided to give sufficient air for
combustion.
• Air preheaters may be of three types:
• Plate type
• Tubular type
• Regenerative type
• The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by
drawing out combustible gases from the furnace
to avoid backfiring through any opening.

Plate type
Tubular type
Regenerative type

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Superheaters and Reheaters

• Reheaters are also steam boilers in which heat is added to high-pressure
steam after it has given some of its energy in the expansion in the
intermediate-pressure turbine.

• A Superheater is a component of a
steam generating unit in which
steam, after it has left the boiler
drum, is heated above its saturation
temperature.

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Feedwater Heater
• Advantages of feedwater heater:
1. Feedwater heating improves efficiency.
2. The dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide which would otherwise
cause boiler corrosion are removed.
3. Thermal stresses due to cold water entering the boiler drum are
avoided.
4. Quantity of steam produced by the boiler is increased.
5. Some other impurities carried by the steam and condensate, due
to corrosion of boiler and condenser are precipitated outside the
boiler.
• Types:
• Open FWH
• Closed FWH

Steam Trap

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Feed Pump
It is a pump that is used to deliver
feedwater to the boiler.

The appliances in common use for

delivering the feed water into the steam
boilers are:

• Reciprocating pump

• Rotary pump

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Injector

The function of an injector is to

feed water into the boiler. It is
also used where the space is
not available for the installation
of a feed pump.

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Boiler
Performance

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Boiler Heat Balance

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Equations:
Q! = 𝑚" h" − h#
𝑚" = amount of steam generated, lb/hr or kg/hr
h" = enthalpy of outgoing steam, BTU/lb or kJ/kg
h# = enthalpy of incoming feed water, BTU/lb or kJ/kg (x=0)
Q " = 𝑚# HHV
𝑚# = amount of fuel burned, lb/hr or kg/hr
HHV = high heating value, kJ/kg or BTU/lbfuel
Q $ → Q % - miscellaneous losses
(!
Boiler Efficiency, η&' =
("
Example: η&' = 80%, means 80% of fuel energy was absorbed by fluid & 20% are losses

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Fire Tube Boiler

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Water Tube Boiler

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What is a Steam Generator?

Answer: Drum and tubes (where vaporization occurs at
pre-determined pressure & temperature)
What is a Boiler?
Answer: Furnace, waterwalls, superheater, economizer,
reheater, air preheater and fuel-burning equipment

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Elementary Water-Tube Boiler

Natural-circulation of water (prevents overheating)

Q×A
𝑚" =
h#)
Where:
Q = heat transfer rate
= BTU/hr-ft2 of projected area
A = projected area
= width X length X No. of
tubes
Where:

Outside Diameter
width = , ft
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Boiler Ratings:
Power Test Code of ASME recommends that the steam generator
output be expressed in terms of:

a) Amount of heat absorbed by the feedwater, BTU/hr or kJ/hr.

b) Actual evaporation at a given pressure and temperature or quality,
lb/hr or kg/hr. 𝒎𝒔 = amount of steam produced or
delivered by the steam generating unit,
Illustration:
lb/hr or kg/hr.
Note: “No Steam Loss” in the boiler:
𝒎𝒔=𝒎𝒘
𝒎𝒘 = amount of feedwater entering, lb/hr or
kg/hr.
𝒉𝒔 = enthalpy of steam under the condition
existing at the steam generator, kJ/kg or
BTU/lb
𝒉𝒇 = enthalpy of liquid or feedwater
entering the steam generator, BTU/lb or
kJ/kg.

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ASME Evaporation Unit (AEU)

𝑩𝑻𝑼 𝒌𝑱
𝐀𝐄𝐔 = 𝒎𝒔 𝒉𝒔 − 𝒉𝒇 , 𝐨𝐫
𝒉𝒓 𝒉𝒓
In reference the adoption of ASME Evaporation Units (AEU), steam boilers
are rated as follows:

1. Developed Boiler Horsepower (Dev. Bo. HP) - is the amount of heat

needed to convert 15.65 kg/hr (34.5lb/hr) of feedwater into steam “from and
at” 100°C (212°F) at atmospheric pressure 101.325kPa absolute (14.7psia)

Illustration:

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Heat from fuel fired = Heat absorbed by the feedwater

Q - = 𝑚" h" − h# but: h" = h)

Q - = 𝑚" h) − h# h) = h# + h#)
h#)= h) − h#
kJ BTU
Q - = 𝑚" h#) , where h#) at 100°C = 2,257 and h#) at 212°F = 970.3
kg lb
Therefore,
QA = 15.65 kg/hr (2257 kJ/kg)
= 35,322 kJ/hr → SI Units
or
QA = 34.5 lb/hr (970.3 BTU/lbm)
= 33,475.35 BTU/hr → English Units

This amount of heat is equal to 1 Dev. Bo. HP

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For any condition:

012
T. U. VU/
1. Dev. Bo. HP = WW,XYZ.WZ
, 34
012 → English Unit
345678.0:.;<
kJ
𝑚 [ h[ − h\ hr
Dev Bo. HP = , → SI Unit
35,322 kJ
hr − Dev. Bo. HP
]^_`abc def\_g^ hf^_
2. Rated Boiler Horsepower = i
This Rated Bo. HP is the manufacturers rating based on heating surface
area.
For Fire Tube:
Where K = 12 ft2/HP → English Unit
= 1.12 m2/HP → SI Unit
For Water Tube:
Where K = 10 ft2/HP → English Unit
= 0.93 m2/HP → SI Unit

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Dev. Bo. HP
3. Percent Rating = ×100
Rated Bo. HP

If rating is not given, let it be 150-400%. You may use 200%.

4. Equivalent Evaporation (E.E.) – is the mass (kilogram/pound) of steam per hour
which would have evaporated “from and at” 100°C (212°F) if the same amount of
heat had been absorbed under observed conditions.

Observed Equivalent

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Let EE = 𝑚=>
Q - observed = Q - equivalent

𝑚" h" − h# = 𝑚=> h? − h@

@!$$ $ % @!$$ $ %

𝑚" h" − h# = 𝑚=> h) − h#

@!BB$ C
𝑚" h" − h# = 𝑚=> h#)
@!BB$ C
Note: 𝑚" h" − h# is heat absorbed by the working substance
Where: hfg at 100°C = 2,257 kJ/kg → SI Unit
hfg at 212°F = 970.3 BTU/lb → English Unit
Solving for 𝑚=>:
D" E" FE& IJ
𝑚=> = , → English Unit
G%B.H EK
L E" FE& O)
or; 𝑚=> = , → SI Unit
$,$N% EK

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5. Factor of Evaporation (F.E.) – is the ratio of heat absorbed by 1 kilogram (1

pound) feedwater under observed boiler condition and to that absorbed by 1
kilogram (1 pound) feedwater “from and at” 100°C (212°F) and at atmospheric
pressure of 101.325 kPaabs. (14.7 psia)
1 h" − h#
F. E. =
1 h#)
h" − h#
= → English Unit
970.3
or
h" − h#
= → SI Unit
2257
D" E" FE& D" E" FE&
Hence from eq. of 𝑚=> = or
$$N% G%B.H
𝑚=> = 𝑚=(F. E. )

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6. Overall Boiler Efficiency, η&'

heat absorbed by feedwater
η&' = ×100%
heat given − off by fuel sired
𝑚" h" − h#
= ×100%
𝑚#×HHV
𝐵𝑇𝑈
Dev. Bo. HP×33,475.35
= 𝐻𝑃 − ℎ𝑟 ×100% → English Unit
𝐵𝑇𝑈
m#×HHV;
ℎ𝑟
or
𝑘𝐽
Dev. Bo. HP×35,322
= 𝐻𝑃 − ℎ𝑟 ×100% → SI Unit
𝑘𝐽
𝑚#×HHV;
ℎ𝑟
Where:
𝑚# = fuel consumed, lb/hr or kg/hr
HHV = high heating value, BTU/lb or kJ/kg

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Example 1
Coal with HHV of 6,700 kcal/kg is consumed at the rate
of 600 kg/hr in a steam generator with a rated boiler
horsepower of 200 hp. The feedwater temperature is
80°C and saturated steam generated is at 11 kg/cm2 abs.
The developed boiler horsepower is 305 hp.
Find:
1.Heating Surface Area
2. m[
3.AEU
4.% Rating
5.F.E
6. m[^
7.% over-all

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Example 2
A 260 m^2 water tube boiler is rated at 8,165 kg
steam per hour at 7 kg/cm^2 ga. 0.98 dryness
fraction. Feedwater, 107C. Express the capacity as
(a)kCal, (b) Developed and Rated Boiler HP,
(c)Percent rating, and (d)Equivalent evaporation.

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Seatwork
A fire tube steam generator with a rated boiler horsepower of
150, consumed 436 kg/min of coal with HHV = 7000 kcal/kg.
The feed temperature is 80C and steam is generated at
20 𝑘𝑔‚ /𝑐𝑚ƒ abs. with a temperature of 300C. The developed
boiler horsepower is 225. Determine the following:
a. Rate of steam generated
b. Heating surface
c. Factor of Evaporation
d. Equivalent evaporation

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Water Tube
Boiler
Circulation

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Water Tube Boiler Circulation

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1. Pressure Difference 2. Top dryness fraction

† Ø Applies to the mixture leaving the
∆𝑃 = ∆𝑃„ + ∆𝑃… = ‡XX (ρ„ − ρT ) tubes.

By volume:
where: 𝑇𝐷𝐹R = 0.80 − 0.000133 (P - 250)
where: P – boiler press in psia
∆𝑃 − Pressure difference due to difference
in density, psi
∆𝑃P − Pressure loss in the downcomer, psi
∆𝑃Q − Pressure loss in the riser, psi

ρP− density of water in the downcomer,

𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 H
ρD − mean density of water – steam mixture
in the riser, 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 H

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By weight: 3. Darcy – Weisbach Eq.

(“„”S )(•T ) –— ˜™š›T a.abcbdefg!
𝑇𝐷𝐹’ =
•U V((“„”S )(•TU ))
;
–— ’›™šœ ∆𝑃 = h"i#
where:
where:
WPX'
ρV = Y( (WPX) )
f – friction factor (0.02)
L – equivalent length (ft)
* IJ^
(\] *) ) w – weight of water ( )
ρD = +
ρ^ D_`FVaJb
*
( *) F!) d – inside diameter (inches)
+

ρ^ = density of saturated liquid/water, 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 H

ρV = density of top dryness fraction, 𝑙𝑏⁄𝑓𝑡 H

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Sample Problem
Calculate the diameter needed for the downcomers at 80 ft system height. The
following are the information gathered for the design:
Boiler Pressure, psia 1,100 Required:
Number of risers 100 Steam separator pressure
OD of risers, inch 3 loss is 1 psia. Consider the
Riser wall thickness, in 0.222
entrance and exit in the
risers and downcomers
Number of 90 deg. Bends in 6
the risers
(equivalent elbow at
entrance is ½ ft and exit is
Length of risers, ft 100
1 ft), 90 degrees. The
Circulation ratio, lbw/lbs 14
bends are considered ¾
Steam per tube, lbs/hr 1400 elbow equivalent.
Number of downcomers 1
Length of downcomer, ft 70
Number of 90 deg. Bend in 2
downcomers

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Solution: Solving for ρD

𝑧
∆𝑃 = ∆𝑃P + ∆𝑃Q = (ρ − ρD)
144 P WPX'
thus: ρV =
Y( (WPX) )
𝑍
∆𝑃P = ρ − ρD − ∆𝑃Q
144 P from the table @ P = 1100 psia

Using the Darcy-Weisbach eq. @V,«

𝑉@ = 0.022 IJ
,
𝑉d = 0.4001 @V «IJ
0.01214𝑓𝐿𝑊 $ ,
∆𝑃Q =
(ρD)(𝑑N) 𝑉@d = 0.3781 @V «IJ
!
where: 𝜌^@!!BB = = 45.45 IJ«@V,
B.B$$
𝑙𝑏𝑤 𝑙𝑏𝑠
𝑤 = 14 𝑥 1400
𝑙𝑏𝑠 ℎ𝑟 − 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
𝑙𝑏𝑤 1ℎ𝑟
= 19,600 𝑥
ℎ𝑟 − 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 60𝑚𝑖𝑛
IJ^
w = 326.67 (RISER)
Lc] F VaJb

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Since: Solving for the equivalent length

𝑇𝐷𝐹R
= 0.80 − 0.000133 1100 − 250 𝐿 = 100𝑓𝑡 + 7 6 0.75 + 0.5 + 1
@V, ? 𝐿 = 142 𝑓𝑡
= 0.68695 then:
@V, ^
B.efeGN B.B$$ (0.01214)(0.02)(142𝑓𝑡)(326.67)"
𝑇𝐷𝐹^ = ∆𝑃! =
B.gBB!F(B.efeGN h B.H%f!) (25.72)(3 − 2 0.22 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠)#
IJ?
= 0.1077 = 1.301 𝑝𝑠𝑖
IJ^
loss due to the separator is around 1 psi, thus
∆𝑃! = 2.301 𝑝𝑠𝑖
then
B.efeGN
𝜌V = and:
B.gBB! B.!B%%
80𝑓𝑡
𝜌V = 15.94 IJ«@V, ∆𝑃$ = 45.45 − 25.72 − 2.301
144
∆𝑃$ = 8.6601 𝑝𝑠𝑖 (DOWNCOMER)
thus:
-..-.
I` !..0-
𝜌D = -..-. 45.45
!..0-
F!
𝜌D = 25.72 IJ
«@V,

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again using D-W eq. Say 5 in ID Downcomer

𝐸𝐿 = 70 + 12 2 x 0.75 + 0.5 + 1)
B.B!$!g @ij1 = 106 ft
∆𝑃P = .
k2 (l3 ) Solving for ∆𝑃P
(0.01214)(0.02)(106)(32,667)$
Since: 8.6601 ≅
(25.72)(5𝑖𝑛)N
8.6601 ≠ 341.76 𝑝𝑠𝑖
𝑊P = 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑥 𝑊Q
= 100 𝑥 326.67 say 10 in
𝑙𝑏𝑤
= 32,667 𝐸𝐿 = 70 + [27( 2 𝑥 0.75 + 0.5 + 1) ]
𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 151 𝑓𝑡

Solving for ∆𝑃P

(B.B!$!g)(B.B$)(!N!)(H$,ee%)1
=
($N.%$)(!B_`).
= 15.215 𝑝𝑠𝑖

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