Name of Programme : B.Ed.

Special Education

Name of the Course Code : SEHI-32X

Title : CURRICULUM DESIGNING, ADAPTATION &
EVALUATION-HI

Curriculum Design : Prof. M. Manivannan

Chair Person-Faculty of Education
Tamil Nadu Open University,Chennai .
Dr. B. Anupama Devi (Unit - 1)
Course Writers :
Assistant Professor
School of Special Education and Rehabilitation
Tamil Nadu Open University,Chennai

Dr. P. Ramakrishna (Units – 2, 3, 4 & 5)

Assistant Professor & Head,
Department of Hearing Impairment,
RKMVU-FDMSE, HRDC Campus,
Content Editor & Course Dr. B. Anupama Devi
Coordinator :
Assistant professor of Education
School of Education,
Tamil Nadu Open University,Chennai

2019 (First Edition)

Reprint (Year) March 2022

ISBN No: 978-93-5706-075-2

© Tamil Nadu Open University, 2021

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means,
without permission in writing from the Tamil Nadu Open University. Course Writer is the sole responsible person
for the contents presented in the Course Materials. Further information on the Tamil Nadu Open University
Academic Programmes may be obtained from the University Office at 577, Anna Salai, Saidapet, Chennai-600 015
[or] www.tnou.ac.in

@ TNOU, 2022, “CURRICULUM DESIGNING, ADAPTATION & EVALUATION –HI” is

made available under a Creative Commons Attribution -Share Alike 4.0 License (International)

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 SEHI - 32X
CURRICULUM DESIGNING, ADAPTATION AND
EVALUATION

Content Page No

Block 1

Curriculum and It’s Designing 5

Block 2
Developing Literacy Skills: Reading 81

Block 3
Developing Literacy Skills: Writing 146

Block 4
Curricular Adaptation 203

Block 5

Curricular Evaluation 251

1
SEHI – 32X: CURRICULUM DESIGNING, ADAPTATION AND
EVALUATION – HEARING IMPAIRMENT

Course Objectives

This course facilitates the Student-Teacher to;

• define concept of curriculum and explain the importance of

designing it for children with hearing impairment in the context
of 21st Century learning skills.
• develop capacity of developing literacy skills of reading and
writing in children with hearing impairment.
• recognise the need for curricular adaptation and decide suitable
adaptation and undertake it.
 compare the need for curricular evaluation and describe the
tools and methods for evaluating it.

Block 1: Curriculum and Its’ Designing

Unit 1: Curriculum-Concept, Types and Models
Unit 2: Approaches and Steps for Curriculum designing
Unit 3: Curricular needs of children with hearing impairment in
scholastic areas
Unit 4: Curricular needs of children with hearing impairment in non-
scholastic areas
Unit 5: Curricular framework for 21st Century.

Block 2: Developing Literacy Skills: Reading

Unit6: Pre-requisites for reading and emergent reading skills
Unit7: Assessment of reading skills at different levels
Unit8: Approaches and Strategies to develop reading skills and
independent reading
Unit9: Types and Models of developing reading skills
Unit10: Challenges and Remedial strategies

Block 3: Developing Literacy Skills: Writing

Unit11: Pre-requisites for writing and emergent writing skills
Unit12: Assessment of written language at different levels
Unit13: Components and types of writing
Unit14: Steps and Strategies in Developing Writing
2
Unit15: Challenges and Remedial Strategies

Block 4: Curricular Adaptation

Unit16: Curricular Adaptation- Meaning and Principles
Unit17: Need Assessment and decision making for Adaptation
Unit18: Adapting Curriculum- Content, Teaching-learning Material,
and Instruction
Unit19: Types of Adaptation and Process
Unit20: Adaptation and Accommodations in Student’s Evaluation and
Examinations

Block 5: Curricular Evaluation

Unit21: Concept, Need for Curricular Evaluation
Unit22: Factors associated with Curricular Evaluation (Learner,
Content, Instructor and
Resources)
Unit23: Areas of Curricular Evaluation: Context, Input, Process and
Product
Unit24: Methods and Tools for Curricular Evaluation
Unit25: Challenges in Curricular Evaluation

Course Learning Outcomes

After completing this course the student-teachers will be able to
• Design curriculum for children with hearing impairment in the
context of 21st Century learning skills.
• Apply the capacity of developing literacy skills of reading and
writing in children with hearing impairment.
• Describe the need for curricular adaptation and decide
suitable adaptation and undertake it.
• Evaluate curriculum for children with hearing impairment.
• Debate the challenges in curriculum evaluation for children
with hearing impairment.

3
Suggested Readings

• Culliman, B.E. (2000). Read to Me: Raising Kids Who Love to

Read. New York: Scholastic.
• Gathoo, V. (2006). Curricular Startegies and Adaptations for
children with Hearing Impairment New Delhi: Kanishka
Publishers
• Marsh, C.J. (2004). Key concepts for understanding curriculum.
Routledge Falmer.
• Moores, D.F., Martin, D.S. (2006). Deaf Learner: developments
in curriculum and Instruction. Gallaudet University Press.
• Posner, G.J., & Rudnitsky, A.N. (2005). Course Design: A
Guide to curriculum Development for Teachers. Pearson.
• RPwD Act (2016). Govt. of India.
• Fontas, I. (2001). Guiding reader and Writers (Grades 3-6):
Teaching comprehension, Genre and Context Literacy.
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Web Resources

 http://www.languageinindia.com/feb2013/shanthi.pdf
 https://dsel.education.gov.in/sites/default/files/publication/modu
le5.pdf
 https://www.unom.ac.in/asc/Pdf/CURRICULUM%20DESIGN
%20AND%20DEVELOPMENT-1.pdf

4
BLOCK 1 CURRICULUM AND ITS DESIGNING

Structure

Introduction

Objectives

Unit 1 Curriculum and Types, Models

1.1 Concept of Curriculum

1.2 Curriculum Types

1.3 Curriculum Models

Unit 2 Curriculum Designing - Steps

2.1 Principles of Curriculum development

2.2 Procedure for Curriculum development
Unit 3 Curricular needs of children with HI in Scholastic areas

3.4 Curriculum development for CWHI

3.5 Academic Concessions

3.6 Provisions under various policies
3.7 Curriculum Adaptation

3.8 Specific instructional strategies

3.9 Adaptations at various aspects

Unit 4 Curricular needs of CwHI in Non-scholastic areas

4.1 Home based Educational Support programme

4.2 IEP and remedial education programmes

Unit 5 Curricular Framework for 21st century

5.1 Changing trends in curriculum development
5.2 Curriculum Change

5.3 Curriculum Review

Let Us Sum Up
Glossary

Answers to Check Your Progress

Suggested Readings

5
INTRODUCTION

Education is the process of facilitating learning, or the acquisition of

knowledge, skills, values, belief, and habits. Curriculum is broadly
defined as the totality of student experiences that occur in the
educational process. Curriculum may incorporate the planned
interaction of pupils with instructional content, materials, resources,
and processes for evaluating the attainment of educational objectives.
Curriculum can be called the pivot around which various classroom
activities and the entire school programmes are developed. Think of
various classroom activities that you carry out with your students and
ask yourself why you carry them out with the students. The educational
activities are intimately connected with curriculum studies. This Block
helps you to understand the concept of curriculum, approaches and
steps for curriculum designing, curricular needs of children with hearing
impairment in scholastic and non-scholastic areas, curricular
framework for 21st century.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Block, you will be able to

 Understand the concept and types of curriculum

 Explain the approaches and steps for curriculum designing.

 Describe the needs of children with hearing impairment in scholastic
and non-scholastic areas.

 Narrate the curricular framework for 21 st century.

UNIT 1 CURRICULUM – TYPES AND MODELS

The word "curriculum" began as a Latin word which means "a race" or
"the course of a race" (which in turn derives from the verb currere
meaning "to run/to proceed"), means the path to reach the goal. It can
be understood that a curriculum is the instructional and the educative
programme by following which the pupils achieve their goals, ideas and
aspirations of life. It is curriculum through which the general aims of a
school education receive concrete expression.

6
1.1 Concept of Curriculum

Curriculum matters because of its potential impacts on students. The

fundamental purpose of curriculum development is to ensure that
students receive integrated, coherent learning experiences that
contribute towards their personal, academic and professional learning
and development. Staff and students are at the heart of curriculum.
Definition

Curriculum is the heart and soul of any educational process. In the

curriculum the activities range from classroom, to playground, and
beyond. Curriculum has been viewed by different people in different
ways.

There is no generally agreed upon definition of curriculum.

Cunningham defined “Curriculum is a tool is a tool in the hands of the
artist (teacher) to mould his material (pupils) according to his ideas
(aims and objectives) in his studio (school)”
Crow and Crow expressed the term Curriculum includes all the
learners’ experience in or outside school that are included in a
programme which has been devised to help him developmentally,
emotionally, socially, spiritually and morally.”

Froebel described that the curriculum should be conceived as an

epitome of rounded whole of the knowledge and experience of the
human race.

Kerr defines curriculum as, all the learning which is planned and
guided by the school, whether it is carried on in groups or individually,
inside or outside of school.

Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) looks at the curriculum

as, “It must be clearly understood that according to the best modern
educational thought, curriculum in this context does not mean only the
academic subjects traditionally taught in the school but it includes the
totality of the experiences that a pupil receives through the manifold
activities that go on in the school in the classroom, library, laboratory,
workshop, playgrounds and in the numerous informal contacts
between teachers and pupils. In this case, the whole life of the school
becomes the curriculum which can touch the life of the students at all
points and help in the evolution of balanced personality”.
The other terms that are commonly used as synonymous to curriculum
are syllabus and course. But curriculum can refer to any level of an
educational experience, from that of a particular area within a course,
7
to the course itself, to a broader program of study that comprises a
number of different courses around a particular content area.
Curriculum is often used to refer to a focus of study, consisting of
various courses all designed to reach a particular proficiency or
qualification; Syllabus refers to the content or subject matter,
instructional strategies and evaluation means of an individual course.
The collective syllabus of a program of study represents a map of the
curriculum for that program. A curriculum is developed through
planning for a larger program of study and then building syllabi for
courses to manifest the curriculum design and plan. However, even
developing a syllabus for a specific course can be thought of as a form
of curriculum development.
Smith (1996, 2000) expressed that syllabus will not generally indicate
the relative importance of its topics or the order in which they are to be
studied. Where people still equate curriculum with a syllabus they are
likely to limit their planning to a consideration of the content or the body
of knowledge that they wish to transmit.

According to Smith, a curriculum can be ordered into a procedure:

Step 1: Diagnosis of needs

Step 2: Formulation of objectives

Step 3: Selection of content
Step 4: Organisation of content

Step 5: Selection of learning experiences

Step 6: Organisation of learning experiences

Step 7: Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and means
of doing it
Marsh and Wills viewed the curriculum as the experiences in the
classroom which are planned and enacted by teacher, and also
learned by the students.
Any definition of curriculum, if it is to be practically effective and
productive, must offer much more than a statement about knowledge-
content or merely the subjects which schooling is to teach, transmit, or
deliver.
'Curriculum' has numerous definitions, which can be slightly confusing.
In its broadest sense a curriculum may refer to all courses offered at a
school, explicit. The intended curriculum, which the students learn
through the culture of the school, implicit the curriculum that is
8
specifically, excluded, like racism, the extracurricular activities like
sports, and clubs. This is particularly true of schools at the university
level, where the diversity of a curriculum might be an attractive point to
a potential student.

It is to understand that the curriculum as a traditional concept was

considered as a subject centred; whereas modern curriculum is child
and life centred.

1.2 Types of Curriculum

The following represent the many different types based on the various
views towards the Curriculum:
 Over Explicit or Written Curriculum is simply that which is
written as part of formal instruction of schooling experiences, it
may refer to curriculum documents text, films and supportive
teaching materials that are overtly chosen to support the
intentional instructional agenda. Thus, the overt curriculum is
usually confined to those written understandings and directions
formally designated and reviewed by administrators curriculum
directors and teachers, often collectively.
 Societal Curriculum as defined by Cortes (1981). Cortes
defines this curriculum as massive, ongoing, informal
curriculum of family, peer groups, neighbourhoods, churches
organizations, occupations, mass media and other socializing
forces that ‘educate’ all of us throughout our lives.
 The hidden or Covert Curriculum that which is implied by the
very structure and nature of schools, much of what revolves
around daily or established routines. Longstreet and share
(1993) offer a commonly accepted definition for this term. The
“hidden curriculum”, which refers to the kinds of learning
children, derives from the very nature and organisational design
of the public school, as well as from the behaviours and
attitudes of teachers and administrators. Examples of the
hidden curriculum might include the message and lessons
derived from the mere organisational design of the public
school. The emphasis on sequential room arrangements the
cellular, timed segments of formal instruction an annual
schedule that is still arranged to accommodate an organian
age, disciplined messages where concentration equates to
students behaviour were they are sitting up straight and are
9
 continually quiet. Students getting in and standing in line
silently students quietly raising their hands to be called on the
endless competition for grades, and so on. The hidden
curriculum may include both positive and negative messages,
depending on the models provided and the perspectives of the
learner or the observer.
 The Null Curriculum is that which we do not teach, thus giving
students that message that these elements are not important in
their educational experiences or in our society Eisner offers
some major points as he concludes his discussion of the null
curriculum.
Schools have consequences not only by virtue of what they do
not teach but also by virtue of what they neglect to teach what
students cannot consider, what they don’t process they are
unable to use, have consequences for the kinds of lives they
lead. Eisner (1985,1994) first described and defined aspects of
this curriculum. He states that there is something of a paradox
involved in writing about a curriculum that does not exist. Yet if
we are concerned with the consequences of school programs
and the role of curriculum in shaping those consequences then,
it seems that we are well advised to consider not only the
explicit and implicit curricula of schools but also what schools
do not teach. It is to be considered that what schools do not
teach may be as important as what they do teach.
From Eisner’s perspective the null curriculum is simply that
which is not taught in schools. Somehow, somewhere, some
people are empowered to make conscious decisions as to what
is to be included and what is to be excluded from the overt
curriculum. Since it is physically impossible to teach everything
in schools, many topics and subject areas must be intentionally
excluded from the “null curriculum” is that when certain subjects
or topics are left out of the overt curriculum, school personnel
are sending messages to students that certain content and
processes are not important enough to study. Unfortunately,
without some level of awareness that there is also a well-
defined implicit agenda in schools, school personnel send this
same type of message via the hidden curriculum.
 Phantom Curriculum

The message prevalent is thorough exposure to any type of

media. These components and messages play a major part in
10
 the enculturation of students into narrower or generational
subcultures.
 Concomitant Curriculum
What is taught, or emphasized at home or those experiences
that are part of a family’s experiences, or related experiences
sanctioned by the family. This type of curriculum may be
received at church, in the context of religious expression,
lessons on values, ethics or morals moulded behaviours, or
social experiences based on the family’s preferences.
 Rhetorical Curriculum

Elements from the rhetorical curriculum are comprised of ideas

offered by policy maker’s schools officials, administrators, or
politicians. This curriculum may also come from those
professionals involved in concepts formation and content
changes; or from those educational practices. The rhetorical
curriculum may also come from the publicized works offering
updates in pedagogical knowledge.
 Curriculum in use
The formal curriculum (written or overt) comprises those things
in textbooks, and contents and concepts in the district
curriculum guides. However, those “formal” elements are
frequently not taught. The curriculum – in use is the actual
curriculum that is delivered and presented by each teacher.
 Received Curriculum
Those things students actually take out of class room; those
concepts and content that are truly learned and remembered.
 Internal Curriculum
Process, Content, Knowledge is combined with the experiences
and realities of the learner to create new knowledge. While
educators should be aware of this curriculum, they have little
control over the internal curriculum since it is unique to each
student.
 Electronic Curriculum
Those lessons learned through searching the internet for
information, or through using e-forms of communication (Wilson
2004). This type of curriculum may be either formal or informal,
and inherent lessons may be overt or covert, good or bad,
11
 correct or incorrect descending on ones views. Students who
use the internet on a regular basis, both for recreational
purposes (as in blogs, chartrooms, list serves, through instant
messenger-on –line conversations, or through personal e-mails)
and for research and information, are bombarded with all types
of media and messages. Much of this information may be
factually correct, informative or even entertaining or
inspirational, but other information may be very incorrect, dated
passé, biased, perverse, or even manipulative. The implications
for educational practices are that part of the overt curriculum
needs to include lessons on how to be wise consumers of
information, how to critically appraise the accuracy and
correctness of e-information, as well as the reliability of
electronic sources. Also, students need to learn how to be
artfully discerning about the usefulness and appropriateness of
certain types of information. And like other forms of social
interaction, students need to know that there are inherent
lessons to be learned about appropriate and acceptable
“netiquette” and online behaviour, to include the differences
between “fair usage” and plagiarism.

1.3 Curriculum Models

Curriculum is broadly defined as the totality of student experiences that

occur in the educational process.
A curriculum model determines the type of curriculum used,
educational philosophy, approach to teaching, and methodology.
Curriculum is categorized based on the following components.
 Focus component: looks at a subject or a student and centers
instruction on them
 Approach component: a traditional or , modern method and
looks at the type of instruction that will be used
 Content component: a slant towards a topic based or content
based is used
 Process: looks at assessment
 Structure: focus on the system of review
Most models can be classified as either Technical/Scientific or Non-
technical / Non-scientific. The educators who believe in subject
matter design usually advocate the technical / scientific approach to

12
 curriculum development. Those who favour a learner-centred design
frequently advocated the non-technical/non-scientific approach.
A. Technical / Scientific Models
The technical/scientific model enables us to understand curriculum
from a macro or broad view and to see it as a complex unity of parts
organised to serve a common function viz., the educational individuals.
Technical/scientific model believe that it is possible to systematically
outline the procedures that will facilitate the creating of curricula.
Listed below are few models that follow the technical / scientific
approach.

a. The Tyler Model

b. The Taba Model

c. The Saylor and Alexander Model

d. The Goodlad Model

e. The Hunkin Model

f. The Miller and Seller Model

Let us discuss each one of them briefly in the given order.

a. Tyler’s Model
A reference to Tyler’s four basic components of curriculum principles is
made here. Tyler mentioned that those involved in curriculum inquiry
must try to define the
 Purpose (s) of the school
 Educational Experiences related to these purpose

 Organizational of these experiences.

 Evaluation in terms of attainment of these purpose.

The structure of the Tyler’s curriculum development model is given

below:

13
 Society Philosophy

Subject Tentative
Subject Screens Precise
Objective
Matter

Learner
Psychology

Selecting
Evaluation Experiences

Tyler’s model of curriculum development

The components of the Tyler’s model indicate that in order to identify
the purpose we need to gather information from three sources, namely,
society, students and subject matter. As the purposes derived from
these sources will be general in nature, we need to translate them into
precise instructional objectives. Once the objectives are identified and
stated in precise terms, we take up the task of selecting appropriate
learning experiences which suit the objectives. Tyler’s last principle of
evaluation gives us feedback about whether or not the intended goals
have been achieved.
b. Taba’s Model
Hilda Taba maintains that curriculum users should design the
curriculum. According to her the teachers should create teaching
learning materials for their students, by adopting an inductive approach
starting with specifics and building up general design, as opposed to
the traditional deductive approach.
Taba listed seven steps in her grass root model of curriculum
development in which the teacher’s have to provide major inputs. The
steps are:

 Diagnosis of needs
 Formulation of Objectives

 Selection of Content

 Organisation of Content

14
  Selection of Learning experiences
 Organization of learning experiences

 Evaluation
Through Taba’s model has many merits, some critics maintain that its
primary weaknesses are as follows:
 It applies the concept of participatory democracy as a highly
technical and specialized process.

 It assumes that teachers have the expertise and time to engage

in such curricular activities.
This model has made it clear that a broad-based involvement of the
users of the curriculum is essential for effective decision making related
to curriculum.
c. Saylor and Alexander’s Model

Saylor and Alexander have presented a systematic approach to

curriculum development. The model is illustrated. The components of
the model are suggestive of the stages involved in curriculum planning.
The figure is self-explanatory.
 Goals, Objectives and Domains Each major goal depicts a
curriculum domain,
 Curriculum Design Decisions made by curriculum planner
about a good curriculum, its content organization and
appropriate learning experiences.
 Curriculum Implementation Decisions regarding instruction by
teachers. Various experiences are included in the curriculum
plan so that teachers have options.
 Curriculum Evaluation Decisions assessing the effectiveness
of the curriculum and the teachers.
 Feedback Adjustment

15
 Goals, Curriculum Curriculum
Objectives and Design Implementation
Domains
Decisions made Decisions
Each major goal by curriculum regarding
depicts and planner about a instruction by
curriculum good curriculum, teachers. Various
domain, its content experience are
organization and included in the
appropriate curriculum plan to
learning that teachers have
experiences options.

Curriculum
Evaluation

Decisions assessing
the effectiveness of the
Feedback adjustment
curriculum and the
teachers.

d. Goodlad’s Model

In this model the educational aims are drawn from the analysis of the
values of the existing culture. The educational aims are then translated
into educational objectives stated in behavioural terms. These
objectives suggest the learning opportunities; which could involve
study of particular courses or readings. From these general objectives
and learning opportunities, educational planners deduce specific
educational objectives, which in turn help in organizing specific
learning opportunities for identified students or for a student.
e. Hunkin’s Model
The Hunkin’s model allows those working with the model to continually
adjust their decision-making about curricular actions, depending on the
situation. The model ensures that one’s philosophical orientation
should guide ones curriculum planning activities. The curriculum
maintenances stage includes various means of managing curriculum
systems that are necessary for the continuation of the programme.
f. Miller and Seller’s Model

16
 This model is a generalized one. It emphasizes that all the models
of curriculum development exhibit at least the following three
orientations towards the purpose of curriculum.
 Transmission Position: Curriculum should transmit skills. facts
and values to the students.
 Translation Position: Translation of curriculum can be viewed as
a dialogic process (pedagogic interaction) between the students
and the teacher.
 Transformation Position: Personal changes and social attitudes
can be influenced through curriculum.

Diagrammatically the Model can be represented belo

B. Non-technical / Non-scientific Models

The proponents of this model of curriculum development stress on the

students perceptions of their needs and preferences. This is in contrast
to the technical approach which relies more heavily on the view of
experts and demands of subject matter for determining student’s
needs. Let us discuss briefly the three important models under this
category.
a. The Open Classroom Model

The open classroom model is based on the activity curriculum in which

the activities are often treated as ends in themselves. This model
suggests that the students learn by doing and by actively participating
in learning activities and not by passively listening to the teacher. This
model place great faith in students and encourages students
17
autonomy. In this model, as you have seen, the student takes up the
major responsibility for their learning. The curriculum according to this
model should be based on the student’s autonomy and freedom.
b. Wienstien and Fantini’s Model

According to this model the teachers can generate new content and
techniques to assess the relevance of the existing curriculum content
and techniques. Thus the teachers can give new shape to the
curriculum. The existing curriculum is reviewed to suit the requirements
of the students. Thus the student is at the center of the process of
curriculum development.

The first step in the curriculum development activity is to identify the

target group. The student concerns determine the contents, its
organization and teaching procedures to be employed.

Content could be gathered from various sources, such as.

 Experiences of a growing person.

 Students’ feelings about his or her own experiences – One’s
feelings about one’s friends, sports etc.
 Students’ knowledge of his/her own social environment.
 The content determines the skills to be instilled in the students.
After the content has been selected, the teaching procedures
are identified. The teaching procedure should essentially by
related to the learning styles of the students.

c. Rogers Model of Interpersonal Relations

Though not a curriculum specialist, Carl Rogers has developed a

model for changing human behaviour which can be used for curriculum
development. Rogers emphasizes human experiences rather than
content or learning activities.

Rogers’s model is used for exploring group experiences, whereby

people examine themselves and others in a group. The participants of
the group communicate honestly with each other and explore each
other’s feelings. Hence this model is called the interpersonal relations
model.

18
 Check your progress
Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the

end of the Block.
1. What is the definition of Curriculum given by Secondary
Education Commission?

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
2. Mention about the Tayler’s model.

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

UNIT 2 CURRICULUM DESIGNING - STEPS

Curriculum development is the curriculum planning process that results

in broad and specific curriculum plan. It is nothing than decision
making that involves selecting and organizing the components of
teaching/learning situations. This is done through such activities as the
determination of curriculum organizing teams, authorities and the
specification of suggested objectives, subject matter, activities,
resources and measuring devices. Curriculum development leads to
the creation of resource units, unit plans, course outline, and other
curriculum guides that teachers and learners may use to facilitate the
learning process. Curriculum development is often regarded as the
most crucial since it basically defines the nature of the learner’s day-to-
day life in the school. (Beane, Toebfer & Alessi, 1986).

There are four major stages which are interdependent and interrelating
in the process of curriculum development namely:
i. The selection of aims, goals and objectives;
ii. The selection of appropriate learning experiences and content
for the achievement of the aims, goals and objectives;
iii. Organization of learning experiences;
iv. Evaluation of the extent to which the objectives identified in
step-i have been achieved.

2.1 Principles of Curriculum Development

19
Curriculum development is a process that takes into account mainly the
philosophy and aims of education. Keeping this in view content is
selected, task analysed and sequenced. Based on the content general
and specific objectives are framed. Assessment and learning activities
are also essential components of curriculum development. While
carrying out this process the emphasis is on individual needs,
inclination, interests, capacities and tendencies. Certain principles are
to be followed in the process of curriculum development for designing
curriculum for school children. The same general principles apply for
curriculum to be developed for children with hearing impairment also.
The general principles of curriculum development suggested by Taba
(1962) are mentioned below:
1. Principle of child-centeredness

The child is the central factor as well as focal point, so the curriculum
should concentrate on the child. It should be based on the needs,
interest, abilities, aptitudes and circumstances of the child. It is true
that the child is to be prepared for future. The curriculum should be
organized and developed in such a way that each individual child lives
fully and richly his life at each and every stage according to his/her
abilities and limitations. It is therefore necessary that while organizing
any curriculum, the interest, liking, disliking, potentialities and
limitations, learning abilities and disabilities, social, intellectual and
emotional development of individual should be considered.
2. Principle of activity centeredness
The curriculum should be based on learning by doing. By nature the
children are curious and creative. They always like to touch handle
and manipulate the things around them. Therefore, the curriculum
should be thought in terms of activity and experience. It should provide
opportunities for play activities, constructive and creative activities and
project activities. It should enhance the learning interest in the children.
3. Principle of variety / Individual differences

Individuals differ in taste, temperament, skill, experience, aptitude,

innate ability and in sex. Therefore, the curriculum should address
individual differences and adapted to meet individual needs and
interests. Hence variety is another important principle of curriculum
construction. At every level, the curriculum should have variety. So, it
is essential to make provisions of various types of subjects, activities
and experiences in curriculum to cater the different needs of different
students.

20
4. Principle of flexibility

The curriculum should be flexible and adjustable to the needs of pupils

at every stage. Our curriculum should not allow teaching learning
process only in the classroom to, it may allow Information and
communication technology including computer, LCD projectors, audio-
visual aids etc also.
5. Principle of community centeredness

The need of the child and the need of the community should go hand in
hand. In fact the curriculum should grow out of community life. It
should be based on the needs and problems of the members of the
community. It should also remember that, the needs and aspiration,
problems and priorities, resources and economic conditions of different
localities.
6. Principle of utility

Our curriculum should be such as to prepare the child in such a way

that he/she is capable of acing the various challenges of the complex
problems of future life. Those subjects should be included in the
curriculum which is likely to prove useful for the students in their life.
They should be sufficient in the future life and should be contributing to
the development of the society, so that they can be made responsible
members of that society. Hence, vocational, technical and industrial
courses should be included in the curriculum.
7. Principle of creative training

The curriculum should encourage the child to develop his creative

ability as far as possible. By encouraging the children to participate in
competitions like essay writing, elocution etc., so, that they can develop
thinking abilities and creativity as well.
8. Principle of developing democratic values

Children of today are citizens of tomorrow. The aim of education is to

prepare a child for full and effective adult life. In shaping the
curriculum for primary, secondary and higher education, in all
democratic countries, it should include democratic values. For
example, the school should celebrate all the festivals; this will help the
children to develop knowledge as well as language related to the
function as well they will also get to know concept of equality and non-
discrimination.

21
9. Principle of conservation

It has been stated that nations live in the present, on the past and for
the future. He past rich cultural heritage provides us the strength,
motivation and inspiration to face the present problems and strive for
future progress. Hence the present, the past and the future needs of
the community should be considered while developing any curriculum.
It is, therefore the responsibility of the school to reserve and transmit
the traditions, knowledge culture, experience and the values of the past
to the new generation through the well-organized curricular and co-
curricular programme.
10. Principle of creative training

In curriculum, there should be a balance and harmony between formal

and informal education, direct and indirect education, general and
specific education, liberal and vocational education, individual and
social aims of education. So the curriculum should provide the
opportunity to work in groups so that they can work together and learn
the quality of sharing and caring.
So far general principles of curriculum development are discussed. As
per the educational needs of the children with hearing impairment, a
set of principles are given below have been suggested and prepared
by Curriculum Development Council, Hong Kong (1999).
Principles of Curriculum Development for children with hearing
impairment

1. Principle of Breadth and depth

Considering the total development of the children and time constraint,
attention needs to be given to maintain a good balance in the
curriculum in terms of breadth and depth when making adaptations or
when designing learning materials for the children. Neither of these
elements in the curriculum should be emphasized to the exclusion of
the other.
2. Principle of Continuity

Change in levels, particularly from the primary to the secondary,

change of schools and change of teachers may possibly leave gaps in
the children’s knowledge, which are often an obstacle to progress in
learning. To ensure continuity, the teacher needs to identify these
possible gaps in individual children through assessment and take
remedial action to bridge these gaps without, however, neglecting the
general progress of the whole class.
22
3. Principle of Previous knowledge

Learning is often easier and more effective when built upon previous
knowledge. It is therefore important that the teacher should identify the
previous knowledge of individual children in specific subjects and
establish their baselines. Plan as to what learning materials and
teaching approaches to use can then be formulated. This will not only
bridge possible gaps in the children’s knowledge but also avoid
unnecessary overlapping of learning materials.
4. Principle of Individual differences

Though basically schools and classes for hearing impaired children are
encouraged to follow the mainstream curriculum with adaptations,
consideration needs to be given to individual differences in the children
in terms of ability and interest so that individual learning materials can
be designed.
5. Principle of Communication competence
As the ability to communicate is a prerequisite skill both in studies and
in everyday life, every effort needs to be made to develop
communication competence in the children.
6. Principle of Residual hearing

There is a general misunderstanding that children with hearing

impairment cannot perceive sound whereas in fact most of these
children have residual hearing. With sufficient training given to the
children and with the help of effective amplification equipment, their
use of residual hearing will help to improve their abilities to perceive
sounds in the environment, which in turn will be helpful to language
development. Therefore, the teacher needs to encourage the children
to maximize their use of residual hearing for language development.
7. Principle of Language across the curriculum

The learning of language should not be confined to language lessons

only. Instead, it should be extended across the curriculum.
Spontaneous language situations can be built casually into the lessons
of other subjects to motivate the children to practice using the
language for communications purposes. However, this should not be
overdone, or these lessons will be turned into language lessons.

23
2.2 Procedure for Curriculum Development

The Curriculum Development process encompasses the design and

development of integrated plans for learning, the design of
implementation of the plans, and of the evaluation of the plans, their
implementation and the outcomes of the learning experience.
Curriculum design is a process of critical questioning to frame learning
and teaching. The main purpose of the process is to translate broad
statements of intent into specific plans and actions. The intention is to
ensure, as far as possible, alignment between the three states of
curriculum: the planned curriculum, the delivered curriculum and the
experienced curriculum.

The curriculum development process involves four interrelated phases:

a. curriculum shaping

b. curriculum writing

c. preparation for implementation

d. Curriculum monitoring, evaluation and review
Procedure for curriculum development
The curriculum development is a continuous and complex process. It is
a specialized task which requires systematic thinking about the
objectives to be achieved, learning experiences to be provided, and
evaluation of changes brought out by the curricular activities and so on.
It demands a collective thinking and working of several experts,
educationalists, administrations, and educational institutions. The term
procedure refers to the use of actual process of a curriculum or
syllabus or what it consists of a in practice. Curriculum development
implies the preparation and transmission of knowledge whose purpose
is to educate (Tyler, 1949) and (Taba, 1962). Some of the generic
steps which are to be followed for developing the curriculum of children
with special needs such as hearing impairment are as follows:
Steps in Curriculum Development

The seven steps in curriculum development as given by (Tyler, 1949)

and (Taba, 1962) are as follows:
1. Assessment / Diagnosis of educational needs
Curriculum is framed to enable students to learn socially desired
behaviour. This is done by identifying the gaps and deficiencies of the
curriculum when assessed. Need Assessment is the first important
step in determining what the curriculum should be for a given
24
population during a particular period of time. Assessment procedures
are used to describe and explain the perceived gaps in the current
curriculum. Not only the gaps in the curriculum are perceived, but also
needs of each child should be diagnosed carefully. In case of children
with hearing impairment the curriculum should provide a mechanism in
which the gaps of the learner should be identified and then the
curriculum should be made. May be the curriculum should be made
according to the learning capacity. So there would be different
curriculum for different learner. The teacher who is also the curriculum
designer starts the process by identifying the needs of students for
whom the curriculum is planned. For example, the majority of students
are unable to think critically, so according their thinking level curriculum
should be made.
2. Formulation of objectives
Based upon results of the needs, assessment and program objectives,
statement of intentionality such as purposes, goals, and objectives are
written. This process also includes a revision of some current
objectives, the elimination of irrelevant objectives, and the writing of
new objectives. Again here we have different perspective for children
with hearing impairment. Here the objectives would be residual
hearing, development of sign language, development of sign language
and using daily life situation for learning etc. After the teacher has
identified needs that require attention, he or she specifies objectives to
be accomplished. When we talk of educational objectives we should
remember that these objectives are derived from goals. Generally
these goals are at three levels namely Long term (Ultimate), Mediatory
(Mediate) and short term (Proximate) objectives.
3. Selection of content

Content selection is very crucial as it should be selected very

appropriately. In order to measure the objectives, the content should
be broken down into smaller and smaller units. The objectives should
be practically applicable in the classroom situation. It should be
directly related to learning experiences and program objectives.
Content is selected and adapted that are based on program objectives
with reflection upon desired learning experiences and the curriculum.
The children with hearing impairment will have content, which would
make learner more independent and self dependent. It may differ from
institution to institution, and region to region and situation to situation.

25
4. Organisation of content

The content should be organized that it influences learning ability and

its value for the learner. Sequencing the content is essential for the
ease of learning. Connection from one task to the other makes the
learner comfortable in the process of learning. The tasks those are too
easy or too difficult and that are repetitive and mechanical should not
be included. For children with hearing impairment the content should
be based and organized as per capacity building and building of task
which would make the learner more independent and mature in
handling life skills. A teacher cannot just select content, but must
organise it in some type of sequence, taking into consideration the
maturity of learners, their academic achievement, and their interests.
5. Selection of learning experiences

Curriculum should provide physical, mental and emotional experiences

or their integration to the learners. Teaching various subjects providing
various activities in the laboratory, in the fields through projects,
seminars, debates, discussions, group works etc., are examples of
learning experiences. Learning experiences are described that are
consistent with the skill needed in the classroom. These are
developed in relation to the skills needed. Here the learner needs to
have learning experience which help them understand the concept in
oral and aural method both, repetition, revision and drill etc., Content
must be presented to students and students must be engaged with the
content. At this point, the teacher selects instructional methods that will
involve the students with the content.
6. Organisation of learning activities

Just as content must be sequenced and organised, so must the

learning activities. Often, the sequence of the learning activities is
determined by the content. But the teacher needs to keep in mind the
particular students whom he or she will be teaching. Here the
experiences and content are brought together sequentially. Scope and
sequence of learning is given structure for competency development.
Attention is given to developing a compatible and competency-oriented
education. For children with hearing impairment the learning activities
should be based on personal experience and real life experience, as
far as possible.
7. Evaluation and means of evaluation

Evaluation is meant to gauge the extent to which the objectives of the

curriculum are achieved through implementation of curriculum.
26
Evaluation procedures need to be designed to evaluate learning
outcomes. The purpose of evaluation of curriculum is to ensure quality
control for effecting suitable modifications in the curriculum. Usually
this evaluation consists of student and curriculum evaluation. Student
evaluation aims at assessing the changes in the student’s behaviour.
Students’ performance is a part of curriculum evaluation. Curriculum
evaluation refers to the evaluation of different components of
curriculum like Objectives, content, methods and evaluation
procedures for student assessment to determine whether the
curriculum caters to the needs and the educational purposes of the
target group.

Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end

of the Block
3. Mention the steps of Curriculum development.

___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
4. Mention any three principles of curriculum development of
hearing impaired.

___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

UNIT 3 CURRICULAR NEEDS OF CHILDREN WITH HEARING

IMPAIRMENT IN SCHOLASTIC AREAS

3.1 Curriculum development for children with hearing impairment

Previously children with special needs were following the curriculum
which was used by typically developed students, so nobody even
thought of a separate curriculum for them exclusively. But as per the
current scenario in the context of education of children with special
needs and also as per the legal provisions and educational reforms for
them, due attention to their curricular needs is now being given a result
of recommendations of various education policies and commissions.
However, the objectives differed as per the philosophy and the models
of rehabilitation i.e special / mainstream / integration / inclusion. The

27
 objectives to have an exclusive curriculum for children with special
needs are
i. Restoration of the lost hearing through amplification devices and
appropriate training for the use of residual hearing capacity.
ii. To develop functional and communicative language through the
preferred and feasible mode of communication.
iii. Use of strategies for developmental or remedial methods for
acquisitions of content knowledge of the subjects offered in the
curriculum.
iv. Use of various teaching learning materials to make them
understand different abstract and concrete concepts.
v. Use of adaptive materials including text book, content, language,
methods of teaching, teaching learning materials, classrooms,
schools etc., for the successful academic transaction.
vi. To enrich the curriculum to provide for over all development of
children rather remain textbook centric.
vii. To make examinations more flexible and integrated into
classroom life.
viii. To include and retain all children in school through a programme
that reaffirms the value of each child and enabled all children to
experience dignity and the confidence to learn.

3.2 Academic Concessions

The right of every child to an education is proclaimed in the Universal

Declaration of Human Rights (1948) and was strongly reaffirmed by the
Jometien World Declaration of Education for All (1990). Furthermore,
the "Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons
with Disabilities" (1993) was an important resolution for improving the
educational conditions of persons with disabilities. This had major
implications for the Indian situation in the form of three legislative Acts -
The RCI Act, 1992, the PWD Act, 1995, and the National Trust for
Welfare of Persons with autism, Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation
and Multiple Disabilities Act, 1999.
While the RCI Act was solely concerned with manpower development
for the rehabilitation of persons with disabilities, the PWD Act
comprises of 14 chapters and is a significant endeavour to empower
persons with disabilities and promote their equality and participation by
eliminating discriminations of all kinds. It emphasizes the need to
prepare a comprehensive education scheme that will make various
provisions for transport facilities, removal of architectural barriers,

28
supply of books, uniforms and other materials, the grant of
scholarships, suitable modification in the examination system,
restructuring of curriculum, providing amanuensis to blind and low
vision students and setting up of appropriate for the redressal of
grievances. The National Trust Act aims to provide total care to
persons with mental retardation and cerebral palsy and also manage
the properties bequeathed to the Trust.

Children with special needs are given opportunity to access education

along with their age related peers. This is a result of numerous policies
at the National and International levels. Owing to their specific
difficulties in learning due to the impairment, they are given certain
concessions to cope up with the academic with courage and
confidence.

National policy on Education (NPE, 1986), The Persons with

Disabilities Act (PWD Act, 1995, RPWD,2016) other policies lay stress
on providing equal opportunities in the mainstream society. To make
equal opportunity to the children with special needs making a
necessary provision which includes adaptation of examination pattern,
monitory benefits like scholarships and conveyance facilities to assist
their education. The appropriate governments and local authorities
that have taken the responsibility of education were directed to provide
facilities for the smooth transition of children with special needs through
the system of education.
Academic Concessions in India
 Children with disabilities are provided free education by the
State Government through Special Schools, Integrated School
system and Inclusive Education system. Instructions have
been issued to all Educational Institutions not to deny
admission to children with disabilities in normal schools.
 All the state Governments are providing 3% reservation of seats
in favour of the disabled in all educational institutions i.e.,
Colleges, Professional Colleges, Universities etc.
 All disabled children are provided free of cost special books,
uniforms and equipments. Curriculum restructured to suite
CwDs, curriculum of one language option for hearing impaired
affected and examination system modified to eliminate
mathematical questions for VH.

 Scribe/writer to blind/low vision students is being ensured; extra

time per hour in written examination is allowed.
29
 The Administrations have scheme of scholarship for students
with disabilities.
 Curriculum of one language option for hearing impaired children
has been revised.

 Examination system has been modified by eliminating

mathematical questions for the welfare of blind/low vision
students.

 Reader Allowance for Blind Scholars;

 Subject Geometry is exempted for Blind and low vision students

 The hearing impaired students are exempted from payment of
examination fee in few states, 20 to 30 minutes extra time has
been given in Public Examination, Exemption of one language
under Part I or II.

 Few state Governments have also extended benefits of

exemption from payment of examination fee and reduction of
pass marks in all degree courses by 10% in favour of disabled
students (HI, OH & VI).
 Examination system has been modified and Geometry is
exempted for the benefit of blind/low vision students.

 Scribe is being provided to VH/ low vision students.

 Some of the state Governments are facilitating with Free
Vocational training to persons with disabilities is also being
imparted in trades like Computer, Beauty culture, Stenography
by the Chandigarh Child & Women Development Corporation.
 The blind, deaf and dumb students of 8 th & 10th Class have
completely been exempted from payment of examination fee
and blind students are also given half an hour extra time for
taking examination.

 Examination concessions are granted and monitored by the

different examination boards India and ICSE, CBSE and the
National Institute for Open Schooling (NIOS).

 Procedures for applying and concessions available vary by

Board and are not standardized. Most Boards require a
disability certificate from a Government Surgeon and
information about the child’s requirements from the School
Principal. The type of concessions granted will depend on the
needs of the child and the board.
30
Coaching Allowance has been provided towards extra coaching to
mentally retarded and mentally ill students per month.

3.3 Provisions under various Policies

a. National policy on Education (NPE,1986)

The objective should be to integrate the physically and mentally

handicapped with the general community as equal partners, to prepare
them for normal growth and to enable them to face life with courage
and confidence. The following measures will be taken in this regard:
 Wherever it is feasible, the education of children with motor
handicaps and other mild handicaps will be common with that of
others.
 Special schools with hostels will be provided, as far as possible
at district headquarters, for the severely handicapped children.
 Adequate arrangements will be made to give vocational training
to the disabled.

 Teacher’s training programmes will be reoriented, in particular

for teachers of primary classes, to deal with the special
difficulties of the handicapped children; and

 Voluntary effort for the education of the disabled will be

encouraged in every possible manner.

b. Provisions under the Persons with Disabilities Act (PWD Act,

1995)

 The appropriate Governments and the local authorities shall by

notification make schemes for-
 Conducting part-time classes in respect of children with
disabilities who having completed education up to class fifth
and could not continue their studies on a whole-time basis;
 Conducting special part-time classes for providing functional
literacy for children in the age group of sixteen and above;

 Imparting non-formal education by utilizing the available

manpower in rural areas after giving them appropriate
orientation;

 Imparting education through open schools or open universities;

31
 Conducting class and discussions through interactive electronic
or other media;
 Providing every child with disability free of cost special books
and equipments needed for his education.

 The appropriate Governments shall initiate or cause to be

initiated research by official and non-governmental agencies for
the purpose of designing and developing new assistive devices,
teaching aids, special teaching materials or such other items as
are necessary to give a child with disability equal opportunities
in education.

 The appropriate Governments shall set up adequate number of

teachers' training institutions and assist the national institutes
and other voluntary organizations to develop teachers' training
programmes specializing in disabilities so that requisite trained
manpower is available for special schools and integrated
schools for children with disabilities.

 Without prejudice to the foregoing provisions, (be appropriate

Governments shall by notification prepare a comprehensive
education scheme which shall make Provision for-

(a) Transport facilities to the children with disabilities or in

the alternative financial incentives to parents or
guardians to enable their children with disabilities to
attend schools.
(b) The removal of architectural barriers from schools.
colleges or other institution, imparting vocational and
professional training;
(c) The supply of books, uniforms and other materials to
children with disabilities attending school.

(d) The grant of scholarship to students with disabilities..

(e) Setting up of appropriate for a for the redressal of
grievances of parent, regarding the placement of their
children with disabilities;
(f) Suitable modification in the examination system to
eliminate purely mathematical questions for the benefit of
blind students and students with low vision;
(g) Restructuring of curriculum for the benefit of children with
disabilities;

32
 (h) Restructuring the curriculum for benefit of students with
hearing impairment to facilitate them to take only one
language as part of their curriculum.
 All educational institutions shall provide or cause to be provided
amanuensis to blind students and students with or low vision.
c. Provisions for children with disability under IEDC Scheme
(IEDC, 1992)

Benefits of IEDC scheme to the child consist of Books and

Stationary Allowance, Uniform Allowance, Transport Allowance, Escort
Allowance, Reader Allowance, Actual cost of Equipment (used by the
disabled child) etc. ( Sec. 30 C of IEDC Scheme 1992.)
Facilities for Disabled Children
(i) A disabled child may be given the following kinds of facilities at the
rates prevalent in the State/UT concerned. The facilities should, as far
as possible, be given in kind. In case similar incentives are not being
offered by the State Government/UT Administration under any other
scheme, the following rates could be adopted.
(a) Actual expenses on books and stationary up to Rs. 400 per
annum.

(b) Actual expenses on uniform up to Rs. 200 per annum.

(c) Transport allowance up to Rs. 50 per month. If a disabled child
admitted under the scheme resides in the school hostel within the
school premises, no transportation charges would be admissible.
(d) Reader allowance of Rs. 50 per month in case of blind children
after Class V.

(e) Escort allowance for severely handicapped with lower extremity

disability at the rate of Rs. 75 per month.
(f) Actual cost of equipment subject to a maximum of Rs. 2000 per
student for a period of five years.
(ii) In the case of severely orthopedically handicapped children, it
may be necessary to allow one attendant for 10 children in a school.
The attendant may be given the standard scale of pay prescribed for
Class IV employees in the State/UT concerned.
(iii) Disabled children residing in school hostels within the same
institution where they are studying may also be paid boarding and
lodging charges as admissible under the State Government
rules/schemes. Where there is no State scheme of scholarships to
33
hostellers, the disabled children whose parental income does not
exceed Rs. 5,000 per month may be paid actual boarding and lodging
charges subject to a maximum of Rs. 200 per month. However,
disabled children should generally not be placed in hostels unless the
required educational facilities are not available in the nearby schools.
(iv) Severely orthopedically handicapped children residing in school
hostels may need the assistance of a helper or an ayah. A special pay
of Rs. 50 per month is admissible to any employee of the hostel willing
to extend such help to children in addition to his/her duties.
Regulations for Relaxation of Rules

State Government/UT Administrations/other implementing agencies

should also frame regulations for relaxation of rules relating to
admissions, minimum or maximum age limit for admissions,
promotions, examination procedures, etc. for improving access of the
disabled children to education. Provision for admission of disabled
children older than the normal eligibility (up to 8-9 years instead of 6
years) is essential in the transitional phase at least till the target of
universal primary education (UPE) is achieved.
d. Focus Group on Special Education N C F 2005

The following curricular issues and concerns have emerged within the
Focus
 Making all options of education, such as, open schools, regular
schools, special schools, non-formal and alternative education
systems, available to all children including children with
disabilities.
 Developing strategies for meeting the educational needs of
learners with disabilities in large classrooms.
 Developing national support systems.

 Understanding the significance of early identification and

intervention.
 Emphasizing good teaching–learning practices.

 Making the curriculum flexible and accessible.

 Utilizing technology and assistive devices.

 Developing appropriate assessment and evaluation procedures.

 Capacity building and empowering teachers and stakeholders.

 Providing vocational education.
34
  Identifying suitable sports and other co-curricular activities for
optimal development of learners with SEN.
 Barrier-free intervention/educational environment (including
attitudinal barriers).
e. National Policy for Persons with Disabilities (2006)

 Under SSA, a continuum of educational options, learning aids

and tools, mobility assistance, support services etc. are being
made available to students with disabilities. This includes
education through an open learning system and open schools,
alternative schooling, distance education, special schools,
wherever necessary home based education, itinerant teacher
model, remedial teaching, part time classes, Community Based
Rehabilitation (CBR) and vocational education.

 IEDC Scheme implemented through the State Governments,

Autonomous Bodies and Voluntary Organizations provides
hundred percent financial assistance for various facilities like
special teachers, books and stationery, uniform, transport,
readers allowance for the visually handicapped, hostel
allowance, equipment cost, removal/ modification of
architectural barriers, financial assistance for purchase/
production of instructional material, training of general teachers
and equipment for resource rooms.

 Government of India is providing scholarships to students with

disabilities for pursuing studies at post school level.
Government will continue to support the sc
 holarships and expand its coverage.
 Medium and method of teaching will be suitably adapted to the
requirements of most disability conditions.

 Technical/ supplementary/ specialized system of

teaching/learning will be made available within the school or at
a common center easily accessible to a cluster of schools.

 Teaching/learning tools and aids such as educational toys,

Braille/talking books, appropriate software etc. will be made
available. Incentives will be given to expand facilities for setting
up of general libraries, e-libraries, Braille-libraries and talking
books libraries, resource rooms etc.
 National Open School and distance learning programmes will
be popularized and extended to other parts in the country.
35
  Sign language, Alternative and Augmentative Communications
(AAC) and other modes as a viable medium in inter personal
communication will be recognized, standardized and
popularized.

 Schools will be located within easy traveling distance.

Alternatively, viable travel arrangements will be made with the
assistance of the community, State and NGOs.

 In some cases due to the nature of disability (its type and

degree), personal circumstances and preferences, home-based
education will be provided.

 Course curriculum and evaluation system for children with

various disabilities shall be developed keeping in view their
capabilities. Examination system will be modified to make it
disabled friendly by exemptions such as learning mathematics,
learning only one language, etc. Further, facilities like extra
time, use of calculators, use of Clarke’s tables, scribes etc
would be provided based on the requirement.
 Three percent reservation for persons with disabilities in
admission to higher educational institutions shall be enforced.
Universities, colleges and professional institutions will be
provided financial support to establish Disability Center to take
care of educational needs of students with disabilities. They will
also be encouraged to make classrooms, hostels, cafeterias
and other facilities in the campus accessible to students with
disabilities.
f. Scheme of assistance to persons with disability for purchase/
fitting of aids /appliance (ADIP) Assistance to Disabled
Persons Scheme

The Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment operates a scheme,

under which assistance is given to persons with disability for the
purchase and fitting of aids and appliances. The objective is to
promote their physical rehabilitation as well as their capacity to
participate in economic activities.
Eligibility to get assistance

 Indian citizens of any age and sex.

 Persons who are employed / self-employed or getting pensions
and whose average monthly income from all sources does not
exceed Rs.5000.
36
  In case of dependents, the income of parents / guardians
should not exceed Rs.5000.
 Persons who have not received assistance from the
Government local bodies and non-official organization during
the last two years for the same purpose. However, for children
below 12 years of age this limit would be one year.
g. NHFDC (National Handicapped Finance and Development
Corporation)

National Scholarship for Persons with Disabilities through NHFDC

 Financial assistance for pursuing higher and technical
education and Post-Metric/Post Secondary Technical/
Professional courses having duration of less than one year.
 Financial assistance will be available to Indian students with at
least 40% disabilities certified as per definition under Persons
with Disabilities Act 1995.
 Financial assistance will be given for pursuing Post-Metric/Post-
Secondary technical and professional courses including Ph.D &
M.Phil from recognized institutions. However, for students with
disabilities of Cerebral Palsy, Mental Retardation, Multiple
Disabilities, and Profound or Severe Hearing Impaired, the
minimum educational qualification will be class VIII pass and
scholarship will be awarded to them for pursuing general,
technical, vocational or professional courses.
 Financial assistance can be given for computer with editing
software for blind/ deaf graduate and postgraduate students
pursuing professional courses and for support access software
for cerebral palsied students.
 Continuation/Renewal of the award for next year will depend on
successfully completing the course in the preceding year with
minimum 45 (forty five) percent marks for professional courses
and 40% for other courses.

 A scholarship holder under this scheme will not concurrently

hold any other scholarship/stipend. If already any other
scholarship/stipend awarded, the student is required to exercise
his/her option for choosing the scholarship that he/she
proposes to avail and inform awarding authority about the
same.

37
h. CBSE (Central Board of Secondary Education) / ICSE (Indian
Council of Secondary Education)
Relaxations extended to disabled children by the CBSE / ICSE in
the Secondary and Sr. Secondary School Examinations.

Following exemptions/relaxations have been extended for the disabled

children with regard to their appearing in Board Examinations by the
CBSE / ICSE.

 Exemption from examinations in the third language may be

granted to the blind students & those suffering from speech or
hearing defects.

 Blind and physically handicapped student appearing for the

Secondary School examination or Senior School Certificate
Examination is permitted to use an amanuensis & shall be
allowed additional half an hour (30 minutes ) time each paper.
 The Board will consider the Physiotherapy exercises as
equivalent to physical & health education course of the Board.

 Spastic candidates and candidates with visual and hearing

impairment have the option of studying one compulsory
language as against two. This language should be
inconsonance with the overall spirit of the three language
formula prescribed by the Central Board of Secondary
Education. Besides one language any four of the following
subjects to be offered Mathematics, Science, Social Science,
Another language, Music and Home Science.
 Exemption from examination in the Third Language.

 The exemption will apply to the examinations in class IX and XI

as well.
 The typing of answers by the candidate.

 The question paper may be read out, but not explained in any
way to candidates who have defective eyesight or a certified
reading disability.

 Permissions for the candidate to sit for the examination in

hospital under supervision arrangements having been approved
in advanced by the council.

 Rest of the conditions for appearing in the examinations shall

be laid down in the examination Bye-laws of the Board from
time to time.
38
3.4 Curriculum Adaptation

Adaptations are accommodations and/or modifications that allow

access to the general education curriculum for all students.
As we know that majority of the children with hearing impairment have
language related problems in both spoken and written language.
Because of language deficiency, those children with hearing
impairment find difficult to understand the information given in text
book or in any other learning materials. They may also find it difficult to
understand way of teaching, method of teaching, mode of
communication due to langue deficit. The only way to overcome this
difficulty is to make teaching learner-centric with the help of simple
words, simple sentences in place of complex sentences or reorganizing
the language in a way that child finds it easier to comprehend.
Illustrations, flow charts, speech balloons and diagrammatic
representations could also be used with the help of teaching learning
materials. Various examples may be given visually, orally or written to
make the information clear. Making such changes in teaching learning
material, teaching methods to help the process of learning by the
children with hearing impairment is called curriculum adaptation.
Procedure of curriculum adaptation, modification and
improvisation
Adaptations in its lay terms mean the act of fitting in a situation.
Curriculum adaptations of curriculum when planned well will certainly
benefit all students including children with hearing impairment. The
adapted curriculum should be helpful and advantageous to the all kinds
of students. As per the need of the children with hearing impairment
the curriculum transaction process should be adapted including special
support services, teaching methods, model of communication, co-
curricular activities, teaching learning materials and evaluation
procedures as well.
Many writers suggested the appropriate procedures for adapting
curriculum transaction procedure. The steps identified by Deschenes
et al. (1999); Dettmer et al. (2002); Hoover and Patton (1997) can be
summarized as

 Selecting the subject or topic to be taught

 Identifying the specific content to be included

 Deciding on the way the lesson will be organized and conducted
for most students

39
 Preparing any necessary adaptations like shorter assignments
and extra use of concrete materials
 Teaching the lesson along with the necessary modifications or
changes

 Providing additional assistance to certain students while the

lesson is in progress.
Adaptation can be made in different areas of curriculum
transaction process like the text book material, teaching strategies,
methods, mode of communication, language, teaching learning
materials and evaluation as well.

3.5 Specific Instructional strategies and Adaptations in

curriculum transaction process of students with Hearing-
Impaired

Concrete/Experiential Context

 When introducing new concepts, 1) provide concrete learning

activities, 2) relate the new concepts to their previous
experience, or 3) give them background knowledge.
 This provides a conceptual foundation for new information.
Activities can be an actual experience, a role-playing activity, or
a class discussion about related background information.
 The main goal should be to establish the student’s language
and knowledge base for the new information.
Visual Organizational Frameworks

 Manipulative material and visual representations provide a link

between the hearing impaired student’s experiential knowledge
and symbolic or abstract linguistic and cognitive information.
 Functional charts and graphs can be developed as new skills
and concepts are introduced.
 Initially, real objects, pictures, and/or printed words can be used
as visual aids until the student can interpret the information
independently.
 Charts containing learned skills or concepts can be hung in the
classroom or made into individual charts to be used as
references during independent learning assignments.

40
  Cognitive/Linguistic strategies, such as networking, semantic
mapping, charts (see attached), and/or outlining should be
taught directly, but gradually developed into independent use by
the student across the curriculum.

 These frameworks can provide the hearing impaired student

with the means of becoming an independent learner.
Pre / Post-Teaching

 Pre-teaching activities, conducted either in the class or

resource room, should assist the students in establishing the
knowledge base needed to understand new information as well
as exposing them to new terms and concepts.
 Prior to being taught new material, students need to have both
a list of vocabulary words and an outline of the content to be
taught during the lesson, either written on the board or
presented in a handout. If students are working with resource
teachers, providing a copy of the handout helps to integrate the
students’ lessons.
 Post-teaching sessions can be used to review key concepts,
clarify misconceptions, organize information, and expand the
student’s knowledge of content or skills emphasized during the
lesson.
Monitoring of Linguistic Information

 Because one cannot assume that students with hearing losses

possess the same language and conceptual bases as their
hearing peers, it is beneficial to hearing impaired students if
teachers frequently monitor these students’ comprehension of
hey vocabulary words and concepts presented during
instruction and independent reading assignments.

 Sometimes students are unaware of comprehension difficulties

and lack of strategies for requesting clarification or additional
information.
Restating Information

 Rephrase sentences using familiar vocabulary and less

complex sentences.

 Reduce the complexity of the tasks.

 Provide an experiential frame of reference.

 Provide response choices.
41
  Establish the student’s knowledge base, and/or analyze the
student’s difficulty, then re-teach information based on this
knowledge.
Adapting Teaching Learning Materials

 Use presentation formats that complement the students’

proficiency level, such as providing hearing impaired students
with visual context to support instruction, such as tables or
graphs.
 Establish the student’s knowledge base prior to introducing new
information, such as relating information to previous experience
or discussing background knowledge.
 Reduce the amount of extraneous information present by
highlighting main points contained in the text, such as providing
an outline or diagram.
 Control the amount and complexity of new vocabulary words
being introduced.

 Simplify grammar by using simple sentence structures and

reduce the use of complex sentences, especially when
introducing new information.

 Construct paragraphs so that the main topic is clearly presented

and the supporting details are correctly sequenced.
Peer Support/Buddy System (Inclusive Set-up)

 The buddy system is a support service that can assist both the
classroom teacher and the hearing student.
 Given the student-teacher ratio, it can be an impossible
situation for the teacher to keep the hearing impaired student
totally informed about changes in routine, announcements
made over the intercom, unexpected events like visitors, or
incidental occurrences such as student’s reactions to a loud
outburst of noise in the adjoining classroom. Repetition of
directions can also interrupt class procedures. In such
situations, a designated student – a buddy – would provide the
hearing impaired student with the required information.
 Additionally, providing hearing impaired students with
opportunities for being buddies to other students in the class
allows them to be contributing members of the class. Such a

42
 system can foster class spirit, while encouraging sensitivity for
others.
Peer Tutoring
 Peer tutors should demonstrate sensitivity and knowledge to
work with hearing impaired students in a positive manner.
 Hearing-impaired students also need to be given the
opportunity of being a peer tutor.

 Guidelines and appropriate procedures should be established

and clearly understood by the students.
 This approach can become a powerful means for promoting
learning and creating a positive interpersonal climate in the
classroom.
Cooperative Learning

 Cooperative learning is a technique in which students jointly

work on learning activities and are rewarded based on the
group’s performance. This technique has three essential
components: a task structure, a reward structure, and an
authority structure.
 Teachers are required to be trained in this technique so that
they learn the logistics needed to set up the structure and to
assist students to learn the process.
 The cooperative learning approach can facilitate constructive
interactions among the students, promote growth in learning,
and foster positive interaction between hearing and hearing
impaired students in a learning activity that can be rewarding to
the whole class.

3.6 Adaptations at various aspects

Curriculum adaptation for children with hearing impairment would

include adaption in
 Syllabus

 Teaching methods and techniques

 Language
 Teaching learning materials
 Co-curricular activities
43
  Evaluation procedure

 Adaptations of Syllabus in different levels

Preschool Level

Pre-school curriculum almost the similar to the normal schools and in

addition to the regular syllabus the focus should be on language, pre-
reading, pre-writing, pre-arithmetic skills and communication skills.
Activities are specially organized or planned to develop receptive and
expressive language along with pre-academic skills. The syllabus
should also be included listening training, auditory training, speech
reading, speech teaching activities to enhance both listening and
speech capabilities.
Primary Level

The syllabus at primary level is similar to that of the normal schools.

However children with hearing impairment needs only one language
which is compulsory as typically developed children might have two to
three languages. Primary focus should be given on language
development including reading, writing and arithmetic skills. The
syllabus should also be included listening training, auditory training,
speech reading, speech teaching activities to enhance both listening
and speech capabilities. Various activities to develop observation skills,
communication skills are included along with the regular school
subjects
Secondary Level
At the secondary level the syllabus is similar to that of the normal
schools but only one language is compulsory, rest of the two
languages are exempted for children with hearing impairment. There is
flexibility to choose the language either mother tongue or any other
language in which the child with hearing impairment has enough
competencies to complete their academic activities. Various vocational
subjects are offered in place of other two languages. However as the
children entered into the secondary level, emphasis on language
related activities can be reduced gradually. Subject teaching in various
subjects like maths, science, and social science also included.
Development of mathematical language is emphasized for solving word
problems and other equations through mathematics. Instead of
science they can opt for Home Science (Physiology and Hygiene).
Special vocational training subjects are also included in some state

44
educational boards; work experience is also included in the syllabus of
some state educational boards. Various activities to develop
observation skills, communication skills are included along with the
regular school subjects.

 Adaptations of Language in different levels

Preschool Level

In the Preschool activities language exercises are very much important

to develop langue competency in children with hearing impairment.
Pre-school stage is the foundation for language development. So,
enough exercises for both receptive and expressive should be
provided. As the children with hearing impairment lacks in language
related issues.
Primary Level and Secondary Level

While adapting the language for children with hearing impairment

 The language should be made simple

 Break up long sentences

 Reduce difficult vocabulary load
 Colloquial and idiomatic expressions should be made clear
through meanings.

 Adaptations of Teaching methods and techniques in

different levels

Preschool Level
Along with the teaching methods used in the normal schools like, some
specified and useful methods like natural, structural and maternal
reflective methods are also can be used to teach language to the
children with hearing impairment. Montessori Method, Activity method
and play-way method also can be used to teach language, different
concepts at preschool level. Various techniques like show and tell,
news conversation, storytelling, directed activity, field visits, poems
etc., can be used to enhance the language capacity of children with
hearing impairment. Calendar activities, mathematical skills
environment studies and physical activities are included to provide
enough langue experience. Along with language and other related
subjects some additional activities consisting language, listening and

45
speech skills are developed through listening training, auditory training,
speech reading, speech teaching is also enhanced.
Primary Level & Secondary Level
At primary level along with the routine methods used in the normal
schools some specialized methods like natural, structural and maternal
reflective methods are also can be used to teach language to the
children with hearing impairment. Various techniques like show and
tell, news conversation, storytelling, directed activity, field visits,
poems, auditory and speech training are to be continued to enhance
the language capacity of children with hearing impairment. However
as the children progress towards secondary level, emphasis on
language related activities is gradually reduced. Development of
mathematical language is emphasized for solving word problems and
other equations through mathematics. Various methods like play-way
method, activity method, project method, demonstration method,
heuristic method, lecture method are also used in an adapted form.
While teaching from textbooks, different techniques of teaching like
narration, questioning and dramatization are used instead of the
routine Listening, Reading and Speaking Method (LRS Method). Many
a times children are grouped for subject instructions as well as for
auditory training and speech teaching. Gestures and finger spellings
are also incorporated while teaching the primary and secondary level
children. Art and craft subjects are again supplementary lessons for
language development. Physical education is also used for
development of auditory skills and language.
 Adaptations of Co-curricular Activities in different levels

Preschool Level

In the preschool curriculum the sense training, drawing and craftwork

are considered as supplementary for language learning. The different
types of co-curricular activities like sense training activities, Physical
Activities, Social Activities, Citizenship Activities, Aesthetic
Activities, Recreational Activities to develop Physical Development,
Social Training, Moral Training, Civil Training, Recreational Interests,
Supplements The Academic Work. The activities must be planned to
involve the children with hearing impairment in different situations.
Primary Level & Secondary Level

All co-curricular activities are focused towards language development

of children with hearing impairment. Sense training activities can
continue in the initial stages of primary level schooling. Celebration of
46
functions and festivals are included not only for social purposes but
also providing language learning experiences. Competitions are also
conducted and organized with dual purpose of language teaching and
socialization, first to develop competitive spirit and secondly to provide
an experience to learn language. Field visits, Educational tour,
Excursion are taken for promoting social integration. Outdoor sports
are also conducted and these experiences are used for developing
integration and communication. Inter and Intra school competitions are
specially undertaken facilitate mainstreaming. Pre-vocational skills are
developed through activities likes fabric painting, book binding, screen
printing, computer training etc at the secondary level.
 Adaptations of Teaching Learning Materials in different
levels

Preschool Level
Amplification devices play a vital role for preschool children with
hearing impairment. So individual as well as group amplification
devices should be used according to the situation. In the group
amplification systems Induction Loop and Frequency Modulation
systems are age appropriate and allow them to move from one place to
another in the classroom. At the preschool level a variety of teaching
learning materials are required to teach children with herring
impairment. Flash Cards, charts, models, real objects, story books,
albums, scrap books for conversations, teacher made reading and
writing materials are also prepared. Sometimes experiences are
enriched through real objects, to realize the experience the materials
are used like pieces of different types of cloth, feathers, stones, sand
pebbles etc.,
Primary Level & Secondary Level

As we know that amplification devices play a significant role in the

education of children with hearing impairment. So individual as well as
group amplification devices are very much important in the classroom
environment. In the group amplification systems Induction Loop and
Frequency Modulation systems are age appropriate and allow them to
move from one place to another in the classroom for primary level
students, hard wired systems and infrared system, FM systems can be
used for the benefit of secondary level students. At the primary and
secondary level, to teach language and other subjects requires
teaching learning materials are Flash Cards, charts, models, real
objects, teacher made reading and writing materials are also prepared
are extensively used. Now-a-days Computer is playing an important
47
role as a teaching learning material in teaching learning process, which
is very much easy and useful to both students and teachers. Text
book adaptation is one of most important task for teachers of hearing
impaired. While adapting the text books, the language is made simple,
concepts are made clear through simple presentation and extra
examples, illustrations are also added and the presentation of matter is
made simple through use o bullets forms, tree diagrams, pie-diagrams
and flow charts etc.,
 Adaptations of Classroom Infrastructure and Arrangement
in different levels
Preschool Level

Adaptation of infrastructure has to be made in terms of light,

furniture including blackboard, level of teacher’s chair etc., The
classroom walls (more than 4 walls) should be constructed in such a
way that to avoid reverberation and reduce noise. The seating
arrangement can be done either in semicircular shaped. The
arrangement of a preschool is flexible as the small children have to
undertake various activities. Group activities are conducted in a semi-
circular seating arrangement to facilitate communication skills. While
as for other activities like free play, individualized teaching, reading,
speech teaching, the arrangement can be different.
Primary Level & Secondary Level

The seating arrangement in the primary and secondary school levels of

the students is semicircular or U-shaped and is usually fixed.
Arrangement of lights in the class is also adapted. Assistive listening
devices like glowing lights instead of bells etc are also some of the
adopted features. Apart from above mentioned adaptations, some
other important adaptation to be considered in the curriculum
transaction of children with hearing impairment in the school
Measure to Reduce External Noise
 Increase distance from noise source.

 Having sound barriers, E.g. Trees, shrubs, walls.

 Avoid long straight corridors.

Measures to Reduce Internal Noise outside Classroom

 The classrooms should have thick concrete walls.

 Acoustic tiles.
 Closed doors.
48
  Snugly (close) fitting doors with rubber and felt (Wool/cloth
made) linings.

 Try & have classrooms in the end of the corridors.

 Proper designing of the building.(6 or more walls)
Measures to Reduce Internal Noise inside Classroom

 Cover tops of desks with resilient material.

 Use black board that is rigidly attached to the wall.

 Rubber bushes on the legs of the furniture should be used.

 Make sure that the fan and any other equipment in the class is
serviced and does not produce noise.

 Train the children to avoid making unwanted noise.

The signal-to-noise ratio throughout the class should be +15dB
(ANSI, 2002).
Measures to Reduce Reverberation Time

 Simple ways to reduce the reverberation time is by using

material having higher absorption characteristics.

 Soft boards / felt boards for notice boards

 Thick cotton curtains with cotton backing
 Careful placement of absorptive and non-absorptive materials.
(Carpets, curtains etc..,)

 Proper designing of the room.

 Classroom Illumination should be optimum with the use of
diffused lighting.

 Adaptations of Time-table / Schedule in different levels

Preschool Level

The time-table at preschool level is very flexible. The duration of each

period is also flexible. Auditory training, listening training, speech
teaching, speech reading activities period are also should be included.
Filed visits usually find a place in time-table. Usually the morning
hours are allocated for the teaching of new things and later hours for
the drill work. The recess time is also utilized for providing learning
experiences and language learning experience by either the teacher,
or voluntary workers or teacher assistants in the school.
49
Primary Level & Secondary Level

Auditory Training, Listening Training, Speech Teaching, Speech

Training should have a place in the time-table along with other
subjects. Distribution of hours is need based. More hours are
allocated for language in both levels. Co-curricular activities also
should have place in the time-table.

 Adaptations of Evaluation in different levels

Preschool Level

In the Preschool level the assessment is a continuous activity

conducted as individually and in a group both oral and written as well.
Various standardized tests and teacher made tests are used for
assessing the development of linguistic, conceptual and literacy skills
in the children with hearing impairment. Multiple choice questions fill in
the blanks; match the following, picture description, arranging the
alphabets, numbers, words, showing the alphabets, numbers and
words in sequence. Need based adapted worksheets are prepared by
the teacher for evaluation. Depending upon the levels, teachers may
give clues in brackets, use pictures in the sheets, or give different kinds
of puzzles etc can be used. Both auditory and speech skills are also
be evaluated by using various techniques as above mentioned.
Primary Level & Secondary Level

At Primary level the evaluation can be done either in oral or written.

Multiple choice questions fill in the blanks; match the following, picture
description.

Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of
the Block.

5. What are the objectives of exclusive curriculum for children with

special needs?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
6. Mention few policies on provisions of Children with Special
Needs.

50
 ______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

UNIT 4 CURRICULAR NEEDS OF CHILDREN WITH HEARING

IMPAIRMENT IN NON- SCHOLASTIC AREAS

4.1 Home-Based Educational Support Program

The Home-Based Educational Support Program supports schools to

provide students with severe disabilities and comorbid fragile health
with an educational program when they are unable to attend their
enrolled school, due to the nature and impact of their disability and
health needs.
The purpose of the Home-Based Educational Support Program is
to:
 Provide eligible students with an education program
 To foster the student’s engagement with school and plan and
implement their transition back to school
 Assist schools to maintain ongoing relationships with enrolled
students with severe disabilities and Comorbid fragile health
and their families
 Home-Based Educational Programs must be developed to cater
the needs of mainstream or specialist school student is enrolled, in
cooperation with the student’s parent/guardian/care taker(s).

4.2 Individualized Education Programme (IEP) and remedial

education programmes
Each human being in the world is unique. Being human beings even
children with hearing impairment also have individual differences. As
per the individual needs and differences we should plan a programme

51
to meet their needs, because no two children are alike. In the IEP and
Remedial education programmes will cater the needs of this section of
children with hearing impairment in the classroom.
Nature and need for Individualized Education Programme

One of the key factors in successful mainstreaming is the guarantee

that students with hearing impairment will not be ‘dumped and
forgotten’ into the regular classroom. An Individualized Education
Programme is designed to meet the unique educational needs of one
(Particular) child, as there exists heterogeneity among children. Each
child is unique in their own way. So, it is a programme designed for
one student and must be a truly an individualized document. The IEP
must be tailored to the individual student’s needs as identified by the
evaluation process and must help teachers and related service
providers understand the student’s disability and how the disability
affects the learning process. It is a written statement for a specified
child. In other words, the IEP should describe how the students learn,
how the student best demonstrate that learning and what teachers and
service providers will do to help the students learn more effectively.
The programme is considered to be corner stone of a quality education
for children with disabilities and it is an important part to make inclusion
work. It is a programme which creates an opportunity for teachers,
parents, school administrators, related service personnel and students
to work together to improve educational results.

Important Information to Be Included in an IEP

 The strengths and needs that relate to the student’s learning. If
the student has been formally identified as exceptional, the IEP
should include the strengths and needs of the child.
 Relevant assessment data that support the identification of an
exceptionality or the reasons that give rise to the need for
special education programs and services.
 Any specialized health support services needed to enable the
student to attend school.
 A list of all subjects/courses in which the student requires
modified expectations and/or accommodations, and all
alternative programs.
52
  A list of the accommodations the student requires to help him or
her learn and demonstrate learning.
 The student’s current level of achievement in each modified
subject or course and/or alternative program area.

 Annual program goals and learning expectations for each

reporting period in each subject or course in which modified
expectations are required and/or in each alternative program
area.
 The assessment methods that will be used to assess the
student’s achievement of the modified or alternative
expectations.
 A clear indication of the way in which student progress will be
reported to parents.

(i.e., on the Progress Report Card and/or in an alternative

report) and the dates on which reports will be issued.
 Documentation of consultations with parents and the student
during the development of the IEP and any subsequent
reviews, and a record of the review and updating of learning
expectations by school staff.

 A transition plan.

Components of IEP

IEP must be written according to the needs of each student, who have
difficulty in following teaching learning process. The components
include the following

 The child’s present levels of academic and functional

performance.
 Measurable annual goals, including academic and functional
goals.
 Special education services, related services and supplementary
aids to be provided to the child.

 Schedule of services to be provided, including when the

services are to begin, the frequency, duration and location for
the provision of services.

 Program modification or supports provided to school personnel

on behalf of the child.
53
  Along with the above, a statement of post-secondary goals and
plan for providing the student’s needs to make a successful
transition.
The IEP process involves the following five phases

1. Gather information
2. Set the direction
3. Develop the IEP as it relates to the student’s special
education program and services

4. Implement the IEP

5. Review and update the IEP
Steps followed in Individualized Education Programme
Identifying the child
The initial step in IEP includes identifying, locating and
evaluating all children with disabilities who needs special education
and related services. It focuses on the intervention of individual needs.
Evaluating the child

The main purpose of evaluating the students is to know that if students

are learning at rates commensurate with their ability and handicap. It
also wants to know if their assessment procedures place students in
the most appropriate programme and if these procedures provide
useful information. It must assess the child in all areas related the
child’s suspected disability. The result this obtained could be used to
decide the child’s eligibility for special education and related services
and make decisions about an appropriate educational programme for
the child.
Planning for IEP

Systematic and intensive planning for each level follows evaluation.

While planning, the needs, requirements and levels of each child is
kept in mind. A proper planning for IEP will provide useful information
to document needs and support requests for additional resources. The
goals are formulated keeping in mind the strengths and weakness of
each child. The task to be taken is analysed and organized in a
sequential manner. Suitable activities are planned to develop the
concept. Short-term goals are set keeping in mind the target at
bringing will progress to reach the long-term goal.
Implementation of IEP

54
The teacher should make sure that the students IEP is being carried
out as it was planned and written. The implementation also includes
accommodations, modifications and spots that must be provided to the
students. According to Epsteintal (1992) teachers must not lose sight
of the spirit of individualization that should guide the IEP process.
Checking and reviewing the IEP
Checking and reviewing the IEP is necessary to see whether it is
helping the child in the desired way. If is not benefiting the child as per
the plan, the programme/plan could be changed or modified if the
expected outcomes are not achieved. The teachers, parents and the
other team members could decide whether a particular IEP is to be
continued / changed / modified after a revolution of the child.
Re-evaluation of the child

The child should be re-evaluated from time to time just to check

whether the IEP plan is as per the need and requirements of the child
and any further modification is required to help the child perform better.

An effective IEP could be implemented if parents, teachers,

educational professionals and often the students work together to
evaluate the individual needs of the student, thus designing an
educational programme that will support inclusion and progress in the
general curriculum,. Bond and Tinker (1957) states that many
individualized educational programme meet some degree of success
because the children are treated individually and many desirable
adjustment are made. The main objective of the individualized
educational programme is to guide the delivery of special educational
support and services for the student with disability.
What Is an IEP?
An IEP is...

 A written plan describing the special education program and/or

services required by a particular student, based on a thorough
assessment of the student’s strengths and needs – that is, the
strengths and needs that affect the student’s ability to learn and
to demonstrate learning;
 A record of the particular accommodations2 needed to help the
student achieve his or her learning expectations, given the
student’s identified learning strengths and needs;
 A working document that identifies learning expectations that
are modified from the expectations for the age-appropriate
55
 grade level in a particular subject or course, as outlined in the
Ministry of Education’s curriculum policy documents;
 A working document that identifies alternative expectations, if
required, in program areas not represented in the Ontario
curriculum;
 A record of the specific knowledge and skills to be assessed
and evaluated for the purpose of reporting student achievement
of modified and/or alternative expectations;
 An accountability tool for the student, the student’s parents, and
everyone who has responsibilities under the plan for helping the
student meet the stated goals and learning expectations as the
student progresses through the Ontario curriculum.
An IEP is not...

A description of everything that will be taught to the student;

 A list of all the teaching strategies used in regular classroom
instruction;

 A document that records all learning expectations, including

those that are not modified from the regular grade level
curriculum expectations;

 A daily lesson plan.

Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end

of the Block.
7. How does Home based Educational Support programme helps
the differently abled?
______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________
8. What is an IEP?
______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

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UNIT 5 CURRICULAR FRAMEWORK FOR 21ST CENTURY

5.1 Changing trends in curriculum development

1) Need based Curriculum

Researches in all the fields resulted in to specialization. Need based

curriculum is the foremost need of the present education system. Many
universities are developing need based short term programs for this
purpose. As per the needs of children with disabilities the curriculum
should be made to meet the needs of those children.
2) Inclusive Curriculum

An inclusive curriculum is a school curriculum that emphasizes the

strengths but accommodates the needs of all children in the classroom.
Although the term inclusion typically refer to the integration of children
with disabilities and developmental delays into the general classroom,
the inclusive curriculum expands that concept to include children with
varying abilities, children who are at risk of school failure or dropping
out, children from various minority groups and cultures, and children
with limited language skills. As a result, schools aim to successfully
educate all children in the same classroom while celebrating the
resulting diversity. There is no universal model for fostering and
implementing an inclusive curriculum. The philosophy behind inclusive
curriculum is that the same curriculum be taught to all the children by
using various learning strategies and learning materials in a conducive
learning environment. Thus as over national education policies and
curricular vision the curriculum should be developed in such a way that
it is flexible, balanced, and relevant to each context and individual.
3) Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

The term Universal Design refers to barrier free systems that meet the
needs of everyone including people with disabilities (Smith, 2007).
Initially UD was used to accommodate children with disability, later it
has expanded to include teaching and testing also. The philosophy
behind UD has been about equity and fairness, which has a premise
when something is being constructed, all people can use it. To
accommodate students’ individual needs and to give them the
opportunity to progress in content areas, UDL has come as an
alternative. Typical accommodations are Braille or recorded texts for
students with visual impairment, captioned materials for students with
hearing impairment, and customized supplementary material or
alternative texts to address cognitive disabilities. In most classrooms,
these accommodations can be added to the standardized curriculum
57
as a wheelchair ramp is added to a building where stairs provided the
only access. A more efficient way to provide student access is to
consider the range of user abilities at the design stage of the
curriculum and incorporate accommodations at that point. This “built-
in” access for a wide range of users, those with and without disabilities,
is the underlying principal in universal design.
4) Digital Diversity and use of Information and Communication
Technology
Present age is an age of ICT technology has touched to al the wakes
of human life. Technology has made various tasks easy, convenient
and of quality. To survive in the concern filed it is necessary for
everyone to have a knowledge and skill of technology. Education
makes man enable to contribute, it strengthens the capabilities. For the
effective transaction of curriculum ICT is must. Not only the
mainstream curriculum is influenced by technology, the field of special
education has also undergone many changes in terms of advancement
in technology. Modern technology is being used as teaching resources
because. Technology offers the promise of being a powerful tool for
within learning environments that are rich in opportunities to use
language for learning and thinking. The future uses of technology in
classroom lie with teachers. We think that the entire world is now
available to begin this incredible adventure.

Mass media can be used to support teacher training, facilitate

classroom learning, and be used for advocacy. Possibilities of
teaching and learning at varied paces, self-learning, dual teaching and
learning, dual modes of study etc could all benefit from the use of
technology. The increasing use of the internet has enabled the sharing
of information. Technological innovations are also necessary for
appropriate equipment and aids for meeting the learning requirements
of children with special needs. Computer Assisted Learning (CAL) and
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) are the techniques used to teach
children with special needs with the help of computers and internet.
5) 21st century skills and Education for Sustainable Development
(ESD)

Education for Sustainable Development aims to help people to develop

the attitudes skills and knowledge to make informed decisions for the
benefit of themselves and theirs, now and in the future and to act upon
these decisions. The UN decade of ESD-2005-2014 for which
UNESCO is the lead agency seeks to integrate the principles values
and practices of SED into all aspects of education and learning to
58
address the social economic cultural and environmental problems we
face in the 21st century. ESD wants to challenge us all to adopt knew
behaviors and practices to secure and promote holistic learning, value
based learning and critical thinking. Its aim is to change the approach
to education so that it integrates the principles, values and practices of
sustainable development.
All the curriculums of various courses should focus on 21st century
skills. Skills like collaboration, critical thinking, effective communication,
multitasking stress management, empathy are must for all the
personals.
6) Culturally responsive curriculum

Cultural responsive curriculum intends to integrate the culture of the

society to the education system. It is integrated and interdisciplinary
(Scherer, 1991 & 1992). It does not rely on one-time activities, add-on
units or sprinkling the traditional curriculum with few minority individuals
(Hillard 1992 & 1992; Series Looks, 1993). It is authentic, child-
centered, and connected to the child’s real life. It employs materials
from the child’s culture and history to illustrate principles and concepts.
The major idea of this curriculum is to incorporate strategies that utilize
cooperative learning and whole language instruction, including self-
esteem building. It recognizes multiple intelligence and diverse
learning styles. Culturally responsive curriculum has to be supported
by appropriate staff development and pre-service preparation.
7) Educational Television (ETV)
Educational Television programmes serve to enhance the motivation of
the children and provide them with reinforcement. The students will
benefit more from ETV programmes provided pre-reviewing work is
done. It will be helpful if the teacher can watch the programme first
and prepare the children for what to expect, giving them pre-viewing
activities before, and follow-up exercises after, they have a watched
the programme. While watching the programme, the teacher should
leave enough time to show the children other supplementary visual
materials or aids, particularly those relevant to voice-users.
8) Constructivism

Constructivist approach believes that learner should be given freedom

to construct his/her knowledge. Spoon feeding must be avoided. If a
learner is fully active in construction of knowledge then learning
process will be highly effective. In all the curriculums constructivist
strategies must be given important place.
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9) Education for Peace

The world is experiencing great technological breakthroughs that

ushered in the 21st century but these advancements are coupled with
rising incidences of physical, economic, political, psychological, and
ecological violence at personal and interpersonal levels as well as
communal, national and international levels. To tame this tide of
violence different countries are resorting to peace education as
instrument for institutionalizing the adoption of peace and non-violence
to conflict resolutions. The two arms of peace education being
implemented in most societies are education about peace which
implies peace as a subject of study in schools and education for peace
which is concerned with the in and out of school process of inculcating
in learners the knowledge, skills, attitudes and values to live in
harmony with oneself and others by adopting peaceful resolutions to
intrapersonal and interpersonal conflicts. In fact education for peace
presents peace as one of the aims of education. It is in this regard that
the United Nations (UN) has been piloting a global movement for the
establishment of a culture of peace through education by promoting
initiatives to help people recognize the role of education in establishing
a culture of peace. This is a culture in which people act with the
mindset of peace consciousness and peace becomes a way of life and
of doing things. Achieving this global objective of establishing peace in
the society through education requires the inculcation of peace
dimensions in different aspects of curriculum development, from
instructional goals to content, methodology and evaluation.

However, adequate curriculum development for education for peace

requires more than the addition of some peace topics to the learning
content of some school subjects. Consequently, while proposing peace
education as a transdisciplinary education that takes place in all
learning spaces, Akudolu (2010, p.7) observed that “since peace
behaviour is more caught than taught, it pays to complement school
learning of peace behaviour with concerted, conscious efforts to
promote peace behaviour in a systematic way both in-school and out-
of-school”. In-school promotion of education for peace implies
integrating basic elements of peace education appropriately into all
instructional activities in the school while out-of-school promotion
involves all strategies for the promotion of dimensions of peace
education in informal learning.
Curriculum development for peace education is aimed at developing
these basic elements of peace education in learners in all forms of

60
education (formal, non-formal and informal). This implies that the
emergent curriculum development for peace education is one that
covers education about peace and education for peace.
10) Education for Global Citizenship

One of the ways that a development in information and communication

technologies (ICTs) is reshaping human activities is in the area of
availability and accessibility of information anytime, anywhere and in
different modes. With ICTs, a person in one corner of the globe
communicates with another person at the other corner of the globe
simply at the press of a button. In the same vein, a person stays in the
comfort of her/his room and follows world events through the internet.
People stay in their houses in different countries and participate in
teleconferences and electronic discussions. Davy (2011, p.3)
summarizes these technology based developments by stating that “the
world is changing, and there is evidence that we are entering a post-
international environment: borders are weakening, multiple citizenships
are more common place, migration has reached record level, and we
have encountered the death of distance”.
The use of ICTs has removed the problem of distance in information
exchange and everybody appears to be close to everybody else
regardless of location. Consequently, the world at the present time is
often referred to as a global village. There is a growing need for people
to understand different cultures as well as the what, how and why of
global events. Every society hopes to satisfy this need through
education. Andrzejeski and Alessio (1999, p.7) opine that “by learning
how global issues affect individual and community lives, how and why
decisions are made which affect the planet and life on it, and, most
importantly, means by which the future can be influenced, education
can prepare students to become socially responsible global citizens”.
Since one of the goals of education is to prepare the learner for
effective life in the society, and the present 21 st century society is a
globalized one, education for global citizenship is an emergent issue in
curriculum development. This is the type of curriculum that can prepare
the learner for effective local citizenship and responsible global
citizenship.
Many countries all over the world are already implementing education
for global citizenship. The United Kingdom (UK) developed a
curriculum for Global citizenship in 1997. Education for global
citizenship (EGC) gives learners “the knowledge, understanding, skills
and values that they need if they are to participate fully in ensuring
61
their own, and others’ well-being and to make a positive contribution,
both locally and globally” (Oxfam, 2006, p.1). The aim is for the learner
to become a responsible global citizen. Oxford (2006) itemized the
three key elements of responsible Global citizenship as knowledge and
understanding, skills as well as values and attitudes. The element of
knowledge and understanding covers social justice and equity,
diversity, globalization and interdependence, sustainable development,
as well as peace and conflict. Items in the skills element are critical
thinking, ability to argue effectively, ability to challenge injustice and
inequalities, respect for people and things as well as co-operation and
conflict resolution. Items in the values and attitudes element are sense
of identity and self-esteem, empathy, commitment to social justice and
equity, value and respect for diversity; concern for the environment and
commitment to sustainable development as well as belief that people
can make a difference. These skills, knowledge and values should
guide the development of curriculum for global citizenship.
Education for global citizenship (EGC) is a global ideology that covers
all areas of the curriculum. It is made manifest not only in what is
taught and learnt but also in the schools decision making process, the
entire school ethos, and the relationship among learners, teachers,
parents, members of the community and other stakeholders in the
school. In fact the curriculum for EGC encompasses the whole school
from the learning content to presentation strategies as well as the
people and the culture of the school.

5.2 Curriculum Change

Curriculum plays very important role in the field of education. For every
course curriculum is a backbone which reflects the structure of the
course and clears all the dimensions, aims and objectives instructional
strategies and so on. Curriculum should be relevant to the changing
time, if there is a lag between the requirements and components in the
curriculum then all task of teaching-learning becomes futile. Curriculum
should be update. In the modern scenario many changes are taken
pace e.g. ICT has taken predominant position in every walk of life.
There is an emergence of learning society. Not only information but
building of knowledge is equally important .In this regard all these
changes should be reflected in the curriculum then and then only
application of earning is possible. Various emerging trends which
should be reflected in all types of curriculum are discussed in this unit.

62
From time to time revisions are made in curriculum and in recent
decades there has been a system of 'rolling' revision under which each
subject is reviewed and revised independently of the others. The
twenty-first century is characterized as the age of globalization,
protection of human rights and child rights, demand for peace,
emphasis on gender and social equity, protection of the environment,
and global flow of information and communication. Hence, improving
access, equity, relevance, and quality of education have become the
focus of the twenty-first century education.
The National Curriculum Framework (NCF) have heralded a new era
with the development of a new national curriculum statement
encompassing all subjects the establishment of bodies which must
accept major responsibility for teacher development and institution
innovation. But how does the curriculum change? What are the
processes at work? To answer these questions, some of the recent
theoretical ideas in change theory and organizational management are
needed.
In the light of changing societal needs and aspirations, certain high
demand-driven areas are likely to have an impact on the school
curriculum. It appears that, among other areas, language education,
values education and information technology shall be matters of
serious debate in the forthcoming curriculum review process. Art
education is also scheduled for reform in the curriculum review
process.
Perhaps the first requirement of a strategy for curriculum change is to
differentiate between curriculum improvement and change. As currently
managed, curriculum improvement means changing certain aspects of
curriculum without changing the fundamental conceptions of it or its
organization. Improvement consists mainly of an extension of the
existing conceptions of the curriculum and its organization. A different
problem altogether is posed in producing changes in the current
curriculum scheme: in the way of organizing it, in ideas about what its
content, its scope, and its sequence should be.
An effective strategy of curriculum change must proceed on a double
agenda, working simultaneously to change ideas about curricula and to
change human dynamics. To achieve both, the strategy of curriculum
change requires a methodology, which may be summarized as follows:

1. Curriculum change requires a systematic sequence of work which

deals with all aspects of curriculum ranging from goals to means. A
piecemeal approach, no matter how effective, does not produce
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sufficient change either in thinking about the curriculum or in the actual
practice. A planned strategy, thus, must establish a sequence of steps
or tasks in effecting curriculum change. Constructing this strategy
involves the following kind of question: in initiating curriculum change,
where does one begin? What is the order of step or tasks that must be
followed by a given working team either on a segment of the
curriculum, or in developing a total plan? A strategy for curriculum
change involves creating conditions for productive work. Under what
conditions does productivity flourish or languish? What processes need
to be employed to enhance creative productivity? What are the guiding
principles for the ways of working? Which human relations factors
operate, and how does one deal with these? What role do such
devices as committees, study groups, individual experimentation, and
work teams play and how do these means operate in the various
sequential steps?
2. Effecting curriculum change involves a large amount of training, new
skills need to learned, new cognitive perspective must be acquired,
and new modes of thinking need to be initiated. Since, as pointed out
above, curriculum decisions, no matter what their scope, require
applications of theoretical principles, what balance of theoretical insight
and practical know-how is needed? What kind of training does that
imply, and how and when should it be provided? What is the role of
research and experimentation in this training? Change always involves
human and emotional factors. To change thinking about curriculum one
needs to change people's attitudes toward what is significant and
perception about role, purpose, and motivation. To effect changes
means to destroy dependencies on previous habits and techniques of
work, with whatever personal meanings these have. To work in groups
means to learn new group techniques.
3. Since curriculum development is extremely complex, it requires
many kinds of competencies in different combinations at different
points of work. These competencies need to be organized into effective
working teams so that all resources are made available. Who should
be involved at what points? What should be the roles of administrators,
curriculum specialists, content specialists, specialists in group
dynamics and research, laymen and students? To develop an
adequate use of the manifold talents and resources, it is necessary to
practice the principle of levels of involvement. Not every type of
competency is relevant at every point of curriculum development. Not
everyone needs to participate in everything.

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4. Managing curriculum change requires skilled leadership. It also
requires distributed leadership. What are the chief attributes of such
leadership? Who can assume which leadership roles? How do these
roles change at various stages of the process? What are the ways of
extending leadership roles? What is to be relationship between the
official position and leadership roles? How self-sufficient is an
institution system? What resources in leadership roles must the
institution draw from outside? How should it use these outside
consultants?
a. International move towards change in curriculum

The UNESCO document “Learning: The Treasure Within”, known as

Delor’s report (1996), has taken a critical look at the total educational
scenario and has given a vision for the twenty first century education
based upon the four pillars of learning: ‘learning to know’, ‘ learning to
do’, ‘learning do be’, ‘learning to live together’. This new vision has set
a direction for rethinking and reorganizing the education system.
The United Nations has set the Millennium Development Goals (MDG)
for education with a focus on achieving the universal primary education
and eliminating gender disparity at all levels of education by the year
2016. Similarly, Education for All Dakar Framework of Action agreed in
2000 has set the following six goals of education by the year 2015:
1. Expanding and improving early childhood care and education
2. Ensuring access to education for all children
3. Meeting the learning needs of all young people and adults
4. Achieving a 50% improvement in levels of adult literacy
5. Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary
education; and
6. Improving all aspects of the quality education.
7. These millennium goals have set a framework on the latest
changes in the curriculum development.
b. National move towards change in curriculum

Curriculum development is a continuous process aimed at ensuring the

continued relevance and responsiveness of the curriculum to societal
needs. Since life in the society is dynamic, curriculum development for
effective life in the society is also a dynamic process. It is in this regard
that the present discussion focuses on emerging trends in curriculum
development in India.

The development of these 21 st century required skills and

competencies constitute a driving force for the emergent trend in the
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aim of education which is the preparation of learners for effective life in
a knowledge economy that is known for its networked and volatile
characteristics. The quest for the achievement of this aim of education
in different learning contexts in India is resulting in the emerging issues
in curriculum development in the country.
These issues among others are curriculum development in Education
for peace, education for global citizenship, electronic learning, teacher
education, gender studies as well as diversification and enrichment of
learning content.
Since Independence, our education system has accomplished much to
be satisfied with. Some of the basic concerns of education like to
enable children to make sense of life and develop their potential, to
define and pursue and recognize the right of others to do the same,
stand uncontested and valid even today. In India two major
developments in the recent years form the background to the present
reforms in curriculum. One is the political recognition of
Universalization of Elementary Education (UEE) as a legitimate
demand and the state commitment towards UEE in the form of 86 th
Amendment, 2002, which has led to the Right to Education Bill, 2008.
The second is the National Curriculum Framework (NCF) for School
Education (2000) and (2005) which was initiated specifically to address
the problem of curriculum load on children. It emphasized that learning
should be a joyful experience, so we change our perception of the child
as a receiver of knowledge only and move beyond the convention of
using textbooks as the basis for examination. It stressed the need to
have faith in children’s own creative instinct and their capacity to
construct knowledge out of their experiences.
These changing trends in the world as well as in India are to be
reflected in the curriculum development. When we are talking about
changing trends, the change is required to enable to overcome the
internal rigidity and its indifference to changing circumstances.
Changing trends in curriculum development point to holistic approach,
which not only encompasses aspects of classroom teaching but all the
other aspects related to teaching and learning. For curricular and
training practices to remain relevant in decentralized system, it is
necessary to articulate the objectives and methods of reform with
clarity and precision.

Curriculum development involves bringing practices in classrooms and

teaching plans closer together through an evaluation of classroom
practices by teachers. In the recent years there has been a wave to
66
improve the practise in education as a result of many developments in
the national and international scenario. It has influenced the present
education system enormously. Some of those ideas, philosophical
thoughts that given a refreshing dimension to present day curriculum
development are discussed below:
Curriculum that satisfies the changing needs of the society is quality
curriculum. Such type of curriculum only can bring desired changes
and positive output. According to the recent developments emerging
trends following aspects should be reflected in curriculum of all the
braches of study.

5.3 Curriculum review

Curriculum Reviews can focus on the general (e.g. program aim and
goals), or on the specific (e.g. individual course competencies), or both.
Curricular content is the main factor at the core of the educational
process. Efficient teaching, readiness of the student, support by
parents are some of the other factors essential for successful learning.
According to the changing trends the curriculum content and the goals
of learning should change. Curriculum review is a process that
compares the actual learning with the anticipated learning and
examines its suitability to the present day scenario.
The major idea behind curriculum review is to analyze the outcomes of
curriculum transactions. In order to know whether the learners have
realized the aims and objective set in the curriculum, it has to undergo
systematic curriculum evaluation and review if required. Thus a
curriculum review process would include examining the existing
curriculum, considering various ideas for changes and trying to arrive
at recommendations for a new curriculum. Curriculum review should
be done periodically to update the curriculum with the current trends in
the context of education. Curriculum review will provide information to
all those concerned in the education process of children. It pinpoints
the area where change is mandated. Curriculum review is an ongoing
process concerned with the achievement by the pupils of the
sequential intermediate objectives postulated in the curriculum as
leading to the terminal objectives.
Curriculum review deliverables

Typically, a Curriculum Review will result in the following set of

deliverables:

67
  Revised program aim and goals
 Revised program map

 Revised outlines
 A final report, complete with internal feedback,
recommendations and implementation plan.
When to have a curriculum review?

Curriculum reviews should be conducted as part of the overall program

review, and for most programs this is done about every 5 years.
However, since Curriculum Reviews can provide substantiated
evidence for change, they should also be held whenever a department
wishes to make significant changes to the program direction and/or
program courses. Typical examples of significant changes to program
direction or courses include:

 Dropping entire courses from the program

 Adding new courses to the program

 Reducing or increasing the number of credits or hours for a
course in the program

Components of curriculum review

Curriculum review will be done to update the curriculum due to

perceived social, political and educational need. The major
components of curriculum review are
Content – Updating of the syllabus and content as per the need.
Modern ideas, thoughts and accuracy need to be given importance.
The review will consider altering the content if there are some divisive
elements like negative depiction of a particular ethnic, political or
religious group. New topics will be inserted which are considered as
important for the life of the individual like health and environment or
which crests behaviour change that protects them. The review looks
into the utility of the content to the local needs. It is essential that the
curriculum have to be responsive to the circumstances in the local
areas as well as in the country.
Methodology - Latest Pedagogical improvements will be suggested
according to the current scenario. Curriculum and methodologies that
is learner centered needs to be included. As much as possible
experiential and active learning will e suggested. Teacher training

68
regarding the new methods will be provided. Implementation in trail
basis will be taken up in model schools.
Classroom culture – Classroom management techniques among
students and as well as teachers should be updated. Classroom
practices are crucial in the success of any educational programme.
There are very sensitive issues, which may go unnoticed in the day
today curricular transaction. Review will have to consider the positive
classroom practices, which include honoring learner diversity, treating
individuals with dignity and respecting the local profession.
Teaching Learning Material – Latest technology and innovative
teaching learning materials should be replaced with existing teaching
learning materials. It should do as per the availability in the locality and
varies from subject to subject and topic to topic.
The process of curriculum review
The process of curriculum review takes place when a new beginning is
sought. The beginning could be change of policy, change in society or
even felt need by the community. The following actions will have to be
carried out in the process of curriculum review. The actual process of
curriculum review is a very elaborate ad tedious task. It requires
resources as well as national commitment to progress. A group of well
experienced personnel who are national educational authorities,
experts in curriculum development process and in writing have to work
in coordination. Conduct curriculum and textbook analysis. Initiate a
rapid review of curriculum and textbook to identify elements that are
out dated, that may fuel conflict and that may be conveying
contradicting ideas.
 Prepare a plan of action for renewal of curriculum framework,
syllabi and textbooks through a constructive process involving
all stakeholders.
 Include National Curriculum Framework objectives for
behaviour, skills and concepts and value development that
support peace, human rights and active citizenship.
 Assemble expert group to review the key content areas of the
curriculum.

A quality educational program must have below mentioned objectives,

 Have clearly defined outcomes it intends to produce,

 Use the best combination of learning experiences to help each
learner achieve these results,
69
  Include an assessment process that shows whether the results
are being achieved, and
 Use the findings of assessment to improve program
effectiveness.

If the above said objectives are not met with content, methodologies,
teaching learning materials and other related activities in the curriculum
transaction process, the review are necessary to overcome the
problems faced by teacher and students as well.
An approach to continuous program improvement that asks the right
questions can provide academic administrators, faculty members, and
others with the information they need to develop an appropriate,
effective, and efficient academic program.
Listed below are a number of key questions to ask when reviewing
curriculum. Most of them are useful whether a curriculum is in general
education or a specialized field. Although designed for reviewing
curricula that already exist, many of these questions also can be
helpful when beginning to design a new curriculum.
Asking these questions can help ensure the maximal learning possible
with available resources and minimal waste.
A. Being clear about purpose and desired results: Mission
statements, goals, and objectives

1. Is the curriculum consistent with and does it naturally flow from

the mission statement?
2. What assumptions have been made about entering students'
developmental levels, knowledge, skills, and affective
characteristics – all important inputs for the curriculum and each
course? Have entering students been carefully assessed to
ensure these assumptions are correct?

3. Does the curriculum have a formal set of intended learning

outcomes that articulate the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
values it proposes to introduce or reinforce and that every
student should have achieved upon expected grade?
4. Are these intended outcomes written in specific language that is
understandable in the same way to students, faculty members,
and all other users?

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 5. Are the intended outcomes stated in terms of effective goals
and objectives that permit assessment of student’s success in
achieving them?
6. When identifying and developing these intended outcomes, was
there appropriate input from all concerned stakeholders,
depending on the type of curriculum, such as faculty members,
professionals in various fields, employers, and alumni?

7. Have agreed-upon intended learning outcomes been identified

for each of the major areas within the curriculum – for the
humanities, natural and social sciences, and fine arts within
general education or for a major field curriculum within the
disciplines?
8. Does each course have a set of clearly stated intended
outcomes derived from the intended outcomes of the
curriculum?
9. Do these outcome goals and objectives prominently include
higher-order cognitive and other complex behaviors as
appropriate?
10. Will achieving each course's intended outcomes materially
contribute to learner’s achieving the outcomes of the curriculum
in a deliberate and predetermined way?
11. When the intended outcomes of all the curriculum's courses are
considered together, will every student have ample opportunity
to achieve each of the specific intended outcomes of the
curriculum itself?
12. For a major field in which certification or accreditation exists,
are all of the outcome goals and objectives required for
certification built into the curriculum's intended outcomes; or if
requirements are stated in terms of courses, are all of these
courses part of the curriculum?
13. Is the curriculum carefully sequenced such that the learning
outcomes of prerequisite courses provide all required inputs for
successive courses?
B. Monitoring program quality: Knowing and improving actual
results

1. Is there an assessment plan that can ensure graduates of the

program have the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and values
described as intended outcomes of the curriculum?
71
 2. Is the curricular program being assessed as a whole and not
merely by assessment of the intended outcomes of each of its
individual courses?
3. Are diverse methods of assessment being used as appropriate
for each type of learning engaged in and outcome desired?
4. Is there a close alignment between the intended outcomes of
each course and the ways in which students are assessed in
the course? Are a variety of assessment techniques being
used?
5. Are intended outcomes being measured directly in both
curriculum and courses – as opposed to surveying students'
opinions about their learning – to reveal clearly what graduates
know and can do, including their important affective qualities?

6. Are the findings of assessment made public and effectively

communicated, as appropriate, to all interested stakeholders in
a timely manner and in language they can understand?

7. Specifically, how have faculty members used information

generated by assessment to improve the amount of learning
produced?

8. Do faculty members collect data from students about their

perceptions of and their level of satisfaction with the courses
they have taken? Specifically, how is this information being
used to improve courses?
C. The education process: Producing learning
1. Are the educational processes employed to help students learn
in each course or activity fully consistent with research on
learning and student development and thus appropriate for
reaching both the course's or activity's specified outcomes and
those of the curriculum?
2. Has the curriculum been designed such that each student has
the sustained opportunity to apply to important issues,
situations, and problems the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and
values that have been identified as intended outcomes?
3. What percentage of class time do students spend passively
listening to traditional lectures?
4. Are students consistently actively involved in learning, not only
in their courses but also through such methods as participating

72
 in internships, practica, and work-study and study-abroad
programs?
5. Do students understand the purpose, structure, and processes
of the curriculum, their responsibilities for learning, and how
their progress will be assessed? Is each student helped to
understand these things at the beginning of the curriculum and
throughout every course?

6. Is the formal academic curriculum specifically linked to non

course-based opportunities for learning on campus such as
orientation, developmental academic advising, the co-
curriculum, residence life, and employment?
D. Other important considerations
1. Are students able to enroll in both required and elective courses
as needed? Are they completing the curriculum in a timely
manner? If not, specifically why not?
2. Is the program attracting an adequate number of students to
support accomplishment of the institution's or unit's mission
and to make it cost-efficient? If not, specifically why not?
3. Are students completing the program and each of its courses at
a high rate? If not, specifically why not?
4. Do the dropout or failure rates in the curriculum as a whole and
in each of its courses indicate a problem and, if so, has the
problem been identified and is it being appropriately
addressed?
5. Do graduates find appropriate employment in their major fields
after graduation? If not, specifically why not?
Implications of curriculum review for children with hearing
impairment

Curriculum review would benefit everyone involved in the education

process of children. An educator who is with the student for long hours
will know the results of the curriculum. Constant review of the practice
will guide them to improve the day today activities. For children with
hearing impairment the implications are given below-
The teachers know that each student is in school for a fixed period of
time. The real test of the value of the curriculum is how students fair
once they exit the program. Keeping this in mind the teacher’s focus
will be help children to fulfill their needs after they leave the school.

73
For children with hearing impairment, communication and social
integration will be the focus.
Review ensures consistency with each individual’s transitional needs
across levels of schooling and life span. For children with hearing
impairment the concurrent needs of maximum interaction with non-
disabled peers, access to the general education curriculum and
attention to crucial special curricular needs that are absent from the
general education curriculum will be accommodated. Speech and
language development becomes part of regular teaching.
The benefits of curriculum reviews

Regular Curriculum Reviews can benefit a program in many ways,

including the following:
 Maintaining a current and dynamic curriculum

 Improving understanding of the program and the importance of

each individual course
 Improving the vision of the short and long term purpose of a
program
 Improving communication and motivation among all faculty in
the program.

Curriculum Reviews give direction for long term planning that goes far
beyond current implementation plans. The review process provides
space for reflection, and an overall view that may often be missing from
day-to-day schedules. In a complete curriculum review, faculty consult
with professionals in the field at a level of complexity not always
possible in regular advisory committee meetings.

Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of
the Block

9. Explain about UDL.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________
10. Why a curriculum should be reviewed?
______________________________________________________

74
 ______________________________________________________

LET US SUM UP

In the past, the term ‘curriculum’ signified a course of studies followed

by a pupil in a teaching institution. Today, it means in general term, the
contract between society, the State and educational professionals with
regard to the educational activities that learners should undergo during
a certain phase of their lives to learn something desirable.
Curriculum is the heart and soul of any educational process. In the
curriculum the activities range from classroom, to playground, and
beyond. Curriculum has been viewed by different people in different
ways.

Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) looks at the curriculum

as, “It must be clearly understood that according to the best modern
educational thought, curriculum in this context does not mean only the
academic subjects traditionally taught in the school but it includes the
totality of the experiences that a pupil receives through the manifold
activities that go on in the school in the classroom, library, laboratory,
workshop, playgrounds and in the numerous informal contacts
between teachers and pupils. In this case, the whole life of the school
becomes the curriculum which can touch the life of the students at all
points and help in the evolution of balanced personality”.
The other terms that are commonly used as synonymous to curriculum
are syllabus and course. But curriculum can refer to any level of an
educational experience, from that of a particular area within a course,
to the course itself, to a broader program of study that comprises a
number of different courses around a particular content area.
Curriculum is often used to refer to a focus of study, consisting of
various courses all designed to reach a particular proficiency or
qualification; Syllabus refers to the content or subject matter,
instructional strategies and evaluation means of an individual course.
The collective syllabus of a program of study represents a map of the
curriculum for that program. A curriculum is developed through
planning for a larger program of study and then building syllabi for
courses to manifest the curriculum design and plan. However, even
developing a syllabus for a specific course can be thought of as a form
of curriculum development.

75
GLOSSARY

 Concomitant curriculum - those experiences that are part of a

family's experiences, or related experiences sanctioned by the
family.
 Covert curriculum - covert curriculum refers to those aspects of
schooling, other than the intentional curriculum, that seem to
produce changes in learners' values, perceptions, and
behaviors.
 Curriculum adaptation - an ongoing dynamic process that
modifies and adapts the prescribed program of studies to meet
the learning requirements of a student with special needs.
 Curriculum change -- an efforts made by education authorities
to change and adapt there aims and objectives of teaching and
learning according to the values, culture, philosophy as well the
resources at their disposal.
 Curriculum designing - Curriculum design is the planning period
when instructors organize the instructional units for their course.
Curriculum design involves planning activities, readings,
lessons, and assessments that achieve educational goals.
 Curriculum review - Curriculum Review is a critical examination
of academic programs for the purpose of optimizing student
learning experiences led collaboratively by academic staff who
teaches within the program.
 Curriculur framework - A curriculum framework is an organized
plan or set of standards or learning outcomes that defines the
content to be learned in terms of clear, definable standards of
what the student should know and be able to do
 Democratic values - The ideas or beliefs that make a society
fair, including: democratic decision-making, freedom of speech,
equality before the law, social justice, equality, social justice.
 Explicit curriculum - Curriculum that has been carefully
designed, pilot tested by teachers and students, and then
presented or published.
 Instructional strategies - Instructional strategies are techniques
teachers use to help students become independent, strategic
learners. These strategies become learning strategies when
students independently select the appropriate ones and use
them effectively to accomplish tasks or meet goals.
 Remedial education - Remedial education is assigned to assist
students in order to achieve expected competencies in core
academic skills such as literacy and numeracy.
76
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Secondary Education Commission (1952-53) looks at the

curriculum as, “It must be clearly understood that according to
the best modern educational thought, curriculum in this context
does not mean only the academic subjects traditionally taught in
the school but it includes the totality of the experiences that a
pupil receives through the manifold activities that go on in the
school in the classroom, library, laboratory, workshop,
playgrounds and in the numerous informal contacts between
teachers and pupils. In this case, the whole life of the school
becomes the curriculum which can touch the life of the students
at all points and help in the evolution of balanced personality”.

2. Tyler’s model indicate that in order to identify the purpose we

need to gather information from three sources, namely, society,
students and subject matter. As the purposes derived from these
sources will be general in nature, we need to translate them into
precise instructional objectives. Once the objectives are
identified and stated in precise terms, we take up the task of
selecting appropriate learning experiences which suit the
objectives. Tyler’s last principle of evaluation gives us feedback
about whether or not the intended goals have been achieved.

3. There are four major stages which are interdependent and

interrelating in the process of curriculum development namely:
a. The selection of aims, goals and objectives;
b. The selection of appropriate learning experiences and
content for the achievement of the aims, goals and
objectives;
c. Organization of learning experiences;
d. Evaluation of the extent to which the objectives
identified in step 1, have been achieved.

4. Principles of Curriculum Development for children with hearing

impairment
i. Principle of Residual hearing

ii. Principle of Individual deference

iii. Principle of Language across the curriculum.

77
5. The objectives differed as per the philosophy and the models of
rehabilitation i.e special / mainstream / integration / inclusion.
The objectives to have an exclusive curriculum for children with
special needs are

a. Restoration of the lost hearing through amplification

devices and appropriate training for the use of residual
hearing capacity.
b. To develop functional and communicative language
through the preferred and feasible mode of
communication.
c. Use of strategies for developmental or remedial methods
for acquisitions of content knowledge of the subjects
offered in the curriculum.
d. Use of various teaching learning materials to make them
understand different abstract and concrete concepts.
e. Use of adaptive materials including text book, content,
language, methods of teaching, teaching learning
materials, classrooms, schools etc., for the successful
academic transaction.
f. To enrich the curriculum to provide for over all development
of children rather remain textbook centric.
g. To make examinations more flexible and integrated into
classroom life.
h. To include and retain all children in school through a
programme that reaffirms the value of each child and
enabled all children to experience dignity and the
confidence to learn.
6. Mention few policies on provisions of Children with Special
Needs.
Various policies on provisions of Children with
Special Needs are,

i. NPE, 1986

ii. PWD Act, 1995

iii. IEDC Scheme, 1992

iv. National Policy for Persons with Disabilities, 2006

v. NHFDC
7. The Home-Based Educational Support Program supports
schools to provide students with severe disabilities and comorbid

78
 fragile health with an educational program when they are unable
to attend their enrolled school, due to the nature and impact of
their disability and health needs.
8. Individualised Education Programme (IEP) is a written plan
describing the special education program and/or services
required by a particular student, based on a thorough
assessment of the student’s strengths and needs – that is, the
strengths and needs that affect the student’s ability to learn and
to demonstrate learning.
9. To accommodate students’ individual needs and to give them
the opportunity to progress in content areas, Universal Design
Learning (UDL) has come as an alternative. Typical
accommodations are Braille or recorded texts for students with
visual impairment, captioned materials for students with hearing
impairment, and customized supplementary material or
alternative texts to address cognitive disabilities.
10. According to the changing trends the curriculum content and the
goals of learning should change. Curriculum review is a process
that compares the actual learning with the anticipated learning
and examines its suitability to the present day scenario.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Bunch, G,I, (1987). The Curriculum and the Hearing Impaired

student: Theoritical and Practical considerations. Boston,
MA: College-Hills Press.
Calvert, D. and Silverman, S. (1983). Speech and deafness (2nd Ed.).
Washington, D.C.: Alexander Graham Bell Association for the
Deaf.
Curriculum and Teaching Strategies, Tamil Nadu Open University,
ISBN No.978-93-5168-237-0.

Gathoo, V. (2006). Curricular Strategies and Adaptations for

children with Hearing Impairment New Delhi: Kanishka
Publishers.
Hegarty, S. and M. Alur (eds) (2002). Education and Children with
Special Needs. New Delhi: Sage
J. S. Rajput; National Council of Educational Research and
Training (India) (2004). Encyclopaedia of Indian Education:
A-K. NCERT. pp. 365–. ISBN 978-81- 7450- 303-9.
79
Mohite, P. (1994). Working with Disabled Children:
Curriculum and Assessment. Independent Study. Baroda: The
Maharaja Sayaji Rao University of Baroda
Moores, D.F., Martin, D.S. (2006). Deaf Learner: Developments in
curriculum and Instruction. Gallaudet University Press.
Sharma, P. L. (1997). “Education of Children with Hearing
Impairment”, The Primary Teacher 12 (1): 26–29
Stephen, W. & Dougals, P. (1972). Curriculum Evaluation, Bristol :
NFER Puiblishing Co. Ltd

Web resources

 https://thesecondprinciple.com/instructional-design/types-of-
curriculum/
 https://thesecondprinciple.com/instructional-design/types-of-
curriculum/
 https://www.studocu.com/in/document/university-of-kerala/bed-
mathematics/principles-of-curriculum-development/26488287

 https://www.iitms.co.in/blog/curriculum-development-models.html

80
BLOCK 2 DEVELOPING LITERACY SKILLS: READING

Structure

Introduction

Objectives

Unit 6 Pre-requisites for reading and emergent reading skills

6.1 Development of Literacy Skills

6.2 Reading and Literacy Development

6.3 Pre-requisites for reading skills

6.4 Emergent Literacy Skills

6.5 Pre-requisites for emergent Reading skills

Unit 7 Assessment of reading skills at different levels
7.1 Purpose of assessment of reading skills

7.2 Reading assessment Techniques

7.3 Assessment examples for specific areas of reading

Unit 8 Approaches and Strategies to develop reading skills and
independent reading

8.1 Approaches for improving reading skills and

independent reading

8.2 Strategies to develop reading skills and

independent reading
Unit 9 Types and Models of developing reading skills

9.1 Types of developing reading skills

9.2 Models of developing reading skills
Unit 10 Challenges and Remedial strategies

10.1 Challenges in developing reading skills

10.2 Remedial strategies in developing reading skills

Let us Sum Up

Glossary

Answers to Check your Progress

Suggested Readings

81
INTRODUCTION

Literacy is the foundation for all learning. When we are literate, we can
acquire new knowledge, connect it to our world, and use it. For
students, literacy learning is about acquiring, creating, connecting, and
communicating meaning in a wide variety of contexts through listening,
speaking, reading, and writing. Literacy is most commonly understood
as reading and writing. But before children can read and write, they
need to learn about sounds, words, language, books and stories.
Learning how to read is one of the most important things a child will do
before the age of 10. That’s because everything from vocabulary
growth to performance across all major subjects at school is linked to
reading ability.

Children start to learn to read in the first grade and continue to do so

throughout school. Teachers use different approaches to early reading
development such as the alphabetic, linguistic, phonics, analytic,
synthetic, language experience, whole language and balanced
approaches. Next to this the teachers may also use variety of reading
types and models to develop reading skills of children. In this Block we
will discuss about pre-requisites for reading and emergent reading
skills, assessment of reading skills at different levels, approaches and
strategies to develop reading skills and independent reading, types and
models of developing reading skills, and challenges and remedial
strategies.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Block you will be able to:

 Describe the Pre-requisites for reading and emergent reading
skills.

 Understand Assessment of reading skills at different levels

 Explain the approaches and Strategies to develop reading skills
and independent reading

 Describe the Types and Models of developing reading skills.

 Explain the Challenges in developing reading skills.
 Narrate the Remedial strategies in developing reading skills

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UNIT 6 PRE-REQUISITES FOR READING AND EMERGENT
READING SKILLS

6.1 Development of Literacy Skills

Literacy is continually evolving, beginning at birth, through interactions

with others and the environment in which a child lives. While the
sequence of literacy development follows the same general pattern,
individual rates of growth may vary. Literacy skills help students gain
knowledge through reading as well as using media and technology.
These skills also help students create knowledge through writing as
well as developing media and technology. Lacking vital literacy skills
holds a person back at every stage of their life. As a child they won't
be able to succeed at school, as a young adult they will be locked out
of the job market, and as a parent they won't be able to support their
own child's learning. This intergenerational cycle makes social mobility
and a fairer society more difficult. Developing children's literacy skills
is dependent on the mastery of several areas in the language.
Children can build up their literacy skills in a number of ways, from
practical hands-on activities. But before child learns to read and write,
he/she needs to develop the building blocks for literacy – the ability to
speak, listen, understand, watch and draw.
Reading a text is very important at any age in any sphere of life. Some
children have serious problems in reading and sometimes they are
encouraged to read more and faster in order to prove the quality of
their reading skills, however, rate and understanding do not always
correlate. Skills to understand and analyse the text are of primary
importance in reading process. Usually the first reading experience is
acquired during elementary school when children master their basic
reading skills and form their attitude to reading. Skills to understand
the text is one of the basic requirements for successful study process.
Understanding of the text and reading skills do not only mean relating
the text to spoken words and merging letters in words; they also imply
skills to understand, analyse and evaluate the written text.
Even though developmental accounts of literacy tend to focus
predominantly on the early years, there is the need to account for the
"long term developmental process to investigate how reading
develops across the lifespan by building on the vast literatures in
developmental psychology, cognitive psychology, expertise,
motivation, and domain-specific learning, as well as reading research"
(Anderson, 2007, pg. 415). A conceptual model to describe how
literacy develops is shown in Figure 1. It shows several key factors
83
that affect learners’ literacy development—the learning context, texts
and tools, literacy activities, and the learner—and it also shows the
aspects of each of these factors that are possible to influence through
instruction.

FIGURE 1: Model of the development of literate practice

6.2 Reading and Literacy Development stages in reading

Reading

Reading is a process of comprehending ideas from printed or written

symbols to associate the know meaning with these symbols.

Anderson, Heibert Scott and Wilkinson (1985) defined reading as a

process in which information from the text and the knowledge
processed by the reader act together to produce meaning.

Stage 1: Emergent Readers and Spellers

Stage 2: Alphabetic Readers and Spellers
Stage 3: Word Pattern Readers and Spellers

Stage 4: Intermediate Readers and Spellers

Stage 5: Advanced Readers and Spellers

6.3 Pre-requisites for reading skills

The process of reading requires different skills which may have

influence on reading. The important certain skills are,

84
 Visual skills Needed
Acuity
Sustained Clear Focus
Eye Tracking
Binocularity
Eye-Hand Coordination
Visual Bilaterality
Visual Memory
Visualization
Auditory Skills Needed

Auditory Processing

Auditory Memory
Processing of Spoken Language
 Laterality

Brain Laterality
Cross Lateral Motor Control
This complex process of reading requires various lower and higher
order skills like perceptual skills, conceptual skills and cognitive
skills. The pre-requisites of reading are,

 Knowledge of symbols that is finite. (Knowledge of alphabets

e.g.., a, b, c).
 Knowledge of pronunciation of the symbols (phonic skills).

 For example, in the other words ‘puppy’, ‘p’ is read as /p/.

 Ability to visually discriminate the symbols and the groups them
to form meaningful words.

 Ability to understand what is meant by word and how empty

space separates one written word from others.
 Ability to understand that the words have to be read from left to
and lines of text from top to bottom (for most of the Indian
languages).
 Ability to identify written words automatically and to understand
their meaning in a given context.
 Ability to work out the pronunciation of unknown root words with
the help of their spelling. E.g., ‘hippopotamus' has to be read as
hip po po ta mus’

85
  Ability to work out pronunciation and earning of unknown
derived and inflected words. E.g., word ‘floating’ is derived from
‘flat’ and has to be read as ‘floating’.
 Ability to apply appropriate suprasegmental aspects like
grouping words into phrase, proper intonation and stress.
 Ability to make semantic connections between the parts of a
sentence (subject, verb and object) and across separate
sentences.

 Ability to make text-based and knowledge- based inferences.

 Ability to recall (memory).

6.4 Emergent Literacy skills

The research and theoretical developments of the last decade have
dramatically altered how we view young children's movement into
literacy (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). The term literacy relates to both
reading and writing and suggests the simultaneous development and
mutually reinforcing effects of these two aspects of communication.
Literacy development is seen as emerging from children's oral
language development and their initial, often unconventional attempts
at reading (usually based on pictures) and writing (at first, scribbling) --
hence the term emergent literacy. Within an emergent literacy
framework, children's early unconventional attempts at reading and
writing are respected as legitimate beginnings of literacy.
Emergent Reading Skills: Pre-literacy Skills to Teach Children
A child’s pre-literacy period is about learning to read. Unlike when they
are learning to talk, they do not come ready to read, and they will need
your help in learning about letters, words, and books. Learning to read
is a process that has three stages: emergent literacy, early literacy, and
conventional literacy.
A child in the emergent phase (pre-literacy) is learning about print and
sound. This is when they develop oral language, alphabet knowledge,
print awareness, awareness of spoken sounds and how these sounds
are blended together to form words, and emergent writing skills.
During the early literacy phase, children learn to decode and recognize
words. This phase is all about letter sound relationships and sounding
out words to gain meaning. A child in the conventional literacy stage is
reading and writing for meaning. Strong emergent literacy skills are a
very good predictor of reading success. Since no two home
86
environments are the same, children learn emergent literacy skills at
different times and at different rates depending on what they are
exposed to. This is why it is so important to have a lot of reading
material available to give your child the opportunity to learn these skills.
Teaching does not always mean sitting at a table with a pencil and
paper! Teaching can be rewarding and fun for both you and your child.
Talk about pictures, letters, sounds, words, symbols, signs, and books.

6.5 Pre-requisites for Emergent Reading Skills

Oral Language: Oral language plays a large part in reading, as well,
because it encompasses well-developed receptive and expressive
language skills. A child that learns new vocabulary, correct grammar,
can recount events, and tell stories will more readily learn to read.
Talking to your baby and providing as much opportunity for your child
to learn to talk will greatly improve his reading skills.
Alphabet Knowledge: A child who can name the upper and lowercase
letters of the alphabet and identify the corresponding printed symbol
has alphabet knowledge. By Kindergarten, children are expected to
recognize and name both upper and lowercase letters. Before they
enter Kindergarten, try alphabet puzzles and matching games to
prepare your child.

Phonological Awareness: Phonological awareness has to do with a

child's sensitivity to the spoken sound of the language. A child who can
think about the sounds in a word, and identify, make judgments and
manipulate spoken sounds is using his phonological awareness skills.
Rhyming is a big part of phonological awareness, and this is the phase
where a child learns about words in sentences and concentrates on the
sound of the word.

Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of
the Block
1. What are the Visual skills Needed for reading?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
2. What are the three stages of reading literacy?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
87
UNIT 7 ASSESSMENT OF READING SKILLS AT DIFFERENT
LEVELS

Assessment is an essential element of education used to inform

instruction (Wren, 2004). The first step in implementing good reading
instruction is to determine student baseline performance. Students
enter the classroom with diverse backgrounds and skills in literacy.
Some students may enter the classroom with special needs that
require review of basic skills in reading, while other students may have
mastered the content a teacher intends to cover. Due to these various
student levels, it is necessary to design literacy instruction to meet the
individual needs of each student. Individual needs can be determined
by initial and ongoing reading assessments. These assessments
provide teachers with the information needed to develop appropriate
lessons and improve instruction for all students, including students with
disabilities (Rhodes & Shanklin, 1993). The information gained from
appropriate assessment enables teachers to provide exceptional
students with improved access to the general education curriculum.

7.1 The purpose and benefits of assessment of reading skills

Research provides evidence that specific early literacy concepts can
predict young students' later reading achievement (De Bruin Parecki,
2004). These reading concepts include letter knowledge, phonemic
awareness, decoding, fluency, and comprehension. An effective
reading program includes assessments of all of these concepts for
several purposes.
One purpose is to identify skills that need review. Assessment provides
teachers with information on what skills students have and have not
mastered. It is needed to help teachers know the skill levels of their
students, since students have varying experiences and knowledge.
A second purpose is to monitor student progress. A teacher can learn
which students need review before covering additional content and
which students are ready to move forward.
A third purpose is to guide teacher instruction. Through consistent
assessment, a teacher can make informed decisions about what
instruction is appropriate for each student.
A fourth purpose is to demonstrate the effectiveness of instruction. The
information gained from assessment allows teachers to know if all
students are mastering the content covered. It is important for teachers

88
to use instructional time effectively, and this can be done when
teachers are knowledgeable about what their students are ready to
learn and what they already know. Therefore, the information gained
from assessment allows a teacher to create appropriate instruction for
their students.
Additionally, a fifth purpose of assessment is to provide teachers with
information on how instruction can be improved.

7.2 Reading Assessment Techniques at different levels

Reading assessment will be varying according to the level of the

students. Generally the systematic procedure in the assessment of
reading also differs from one level to another (Pre-primary, Primary,
Secondary and higher secondary). The given below techniques and
methods can be selected as per the level by the teachers. Many types
of assessment techniques are also followed by the teachers to assess
the reading skills of the students as per the level. Apart from the above
the assessment can also be done at phoneme, phonological,
semantics, syntax level etc.,
The different types of assessment that can be used for measuring
development in reading skills in the hopes that teachers will better
understand how single skills can be assessed by multiple measures.
This description of the various assessment techniques may also help
teachers to design their own classroom assessments, and may help
teachers to better understand the district or campus assessments that
are already being used with their students.
Each of the elements of the framework is briefly described, and
descriptions of various forms of assessments that could be used for
that framework element are provided.
Reading comprehension: Reading comprehension assessments are
the most common type of published reading test that is available. The
most common reading comprehension assessment involves asking a
child to read a passage of text that is leveled appropriately for the child,
and then asking some explicit, detailed questions about the content of
the text (often these are called IRIs). There are some variations on
reading comprehension assessments, however. For example, instead
of explicit questions about facts directly presented in the text, the child
could be asked to answer inferential questions about information which
was implied by the text, or the child’s comprehension might be tested
by his or her ability to retell the story in the child’s own words or to
89
summarize the main idea or the moral of the story. Another common
reading comprehension assessment is called a "cloze" task — words
are omitted from the passage, and the child is asked to fill in the blanks
with appropriate words. Also, young children’s reading comprehension
can be assessed by asking them to read and follow simple instructions,
such as, "Stand up" or, "Go look out the window."
Reading comprehension should not be confused with reading
accuracy, another very common form of reading assessment. In a
reading accuracy assessment, a child is asked to read a passage of
text clearly, without making any mistakes. The mistakes that the child
does make are analyzed to find clues about the child’s decoding
strategies (not comprehension strategies). Very often, an assessment
combines these two different assessments into one assessment — the
child reads a passage out loud while the teacher makes note of errors
the child makes (sometimes called a "running record"), and then the
child is asked some comprehension questions about the passage.
However, it is worth noting that a beginning reader’s comprehension
usually suffers when he or she is asked to read a passage of text out
loud. When children read orally, they usually concentrate on reading
accurately, and do not pay as much attention to comprehension of the
content. Oral reading accuracy does give insights into decoding skills
and strategies, but that is a separate test. A reading comprehension
test is most accurate if the child is not reading for an audience.
Language comprehension: Because comprehension is what is being
measured, language comprehension can be assessed in basically the
same way reading comprehension is assessed. With language
comprehension assessment, however, the child should not be
expected to read any text. Everything from the instructions to the
comprehension questions should be presented verbally to the child. It
is also worth noting that a child’s listening comprehension "level" is
usually considerably higher than her reading comprehension "level." A
child that is not able to read and understand a passage of text usually
has no difficulty understanding the text if somebody else reads it to her.
For most young children learning to read, their ability to read and
understand text is limited by their decoding skills, not by their
comprehension skills (That is not to say that most children have "good"
comprehension skills or that comprehension skills are not a reading
teacher’s concern. The point here is that even when a child’s
comprehension skills are poor, their decoding skills are usually worse.).
However, sometimes teachers find that a child who cannot read and
understand a passage of text also does not understand it when the
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teacher reads it to the child. It is always worthwhile to compare a
child’s language comprehension with her reading comprehension to be
sure that her ability to understand text is not being limited by her ability
to understand language.
Decoding: As mentioned earlier, oral reading accuracy is one form of
decoding assessment, but it is not a very "clean" assessment.
Teachers need to be aware that, in their early attempts to acquire
reading skills, children apply many different strategies, some of which
are hard to detect. Children often attempt to guess words based on the
context or on clues provided by pictures — most of the time, a child’s
guesses are inaccurate, and their difficulties with decoding are
revealed, but sometimes the child guesses correctly, making the
teacher believe that the child accurately decoded the word. Teachers
who use oral reading as a decoding assessment need to pay careful
attention to the child as they read, and need to be aware that the child
may know some words because those words are in the child’s sight-
vocabulary, and the child may know other words because she is
guessing.
Typically, decoding skill is measured through the child’s ability to read
words out of context. Isolated words are presented to the child one at a
time, and the child is asked to say the word aloud (this is not a
vocabulary test, so children should not be expected to provide
meanings for the word). The words selected for a decoding test should
be words that are within the child’s spoken vocabulary, and should
contain a mix of phonetically regular and phonetically irregular words.
A child can be tested on their accuracy (Is each word pronounced
correctly?), their fluency (How much does the child struggle with word
naming?), or their "level" — Leveled lists of words are provided by
many publishers, and the child can be assessed as to her ability to
decode words that are of varying difficulties. Sometimes teachers test
children’s ability to "recognize" sight words as a test of decoding skill,
but "recognizing" words is not the same as decoding them. Decoding is
a strategy that readers can use on all words, even words they’ve never
seen before. Sight-word reading has to do with memorizing the "image"
of a word or a specific feature of a word, and with this strategy, only a
select few words are learned. All children go through a stage as they
learn to read where they memorize a few sight words, and sometimes
they are even encouraged by teachers who use Dolch word lists and
frequency indexes to focus the child’s attention on the most useful
sight words. However, memorizing sight words does not help a child to

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learn how to decode words, and testing the child’s knowledge of
specific, well-practiced sight words does not provide a measure of her
decoding skill.
Background Knowledge: There are many assessments on the
market that measure a child’s general knowledge of facts about the
world. Usually some estimation is made of what one could reasonably
expect children in the first grade to know (e.g. birds build nests in trees,
or bicycles have two wheels), and the child is asked to answer these
simple "fact" questions (similar to what would be found on the old
intelligence tests). However, the assessment we are suggesting is a
measure of the child’s relevant background knowledge, and by
"relevant" we mean "related to the task at hand." For example, if a child
is expected to listen to and understand the story Charlotte’s Web, the
child should have some background knowledge about farm animals
and spiders. Children know a lot of things; children raised in the city
know about public transit, taxis, traffic jams, shopping malls, and sky
scrapers. Children raised in other settings know about other things. A
particular child may not know much about a particular topic, and it is
worthwhile to assess a child’s relevant background knowledge before
expecting a child to be able to accomplish a task.
Linguistic Knowledge: Linguistic Knowledge is the synthesis of three
more basic cognitive elements -- phonology, semantics, and syntax.
Linguistic knowledge is more than the sum of its parts, but it does not
lend itself to explicit assessment. A child may have a grasp on the
more basic cognitive elements, but still have trouble blending these
elements together into a stable linguistic structure. If a child appears to
have a grasp of the more basic cognitive elements, but is still having
difficulty expressing themselves or understanding others, it is likely that
the child has not yet managed to synthesize those elements.
Phonology: The most common assessment for phonology involves
discriminating between two words that sound similar. In this
assessment, the child is asked to listen to the teacher say pairs of
words and decide if they are the same word repeated twice (which
sometimes, they should be), or if they are different words. When pairs
of different words are presented, they should only differ by one
phoneme (and they should be similar phonemes, such as /sh/ and /s/
or /d/ and /g/). Also, when pairs of different words are presented, the
location of the difference within the words should be varied (Sometimes
the difference should be at the beginning, as in RHYME-LIME
sometimes in the middle, as in MUD-MADE and sometimes at the end

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of the word, as in RIP-RIB). Also, attention should be paid to both
vowels and consonants. In a phonology test, the pairs of words do not
have to be real words the child is familiar with. If a teacher wishes to
make up a phonology test, she might find it easier to use made-up
words. There is some merit to this approach because the child’s
attention is focused on the words themselves, and not on the meanings
of the words.
Semantics: Semantics is a general term that just refers to "meaning."
Vocabulary specifically refers to the meaning of isolated words, and
morphology specifically refers to the meaning of word parts, but
semantics can generally be applied to the meaning of word parts,
whole words, sentences and discourse. There are several ways to
assess semantics at each of these levels, but one common thread
involves the question of whether the items on the test are presented in
written form. If the child is expected to read the items, the test becomes
more of a decoding test than a test of semantics.
Although the items should not involve printed text, it is very common to
use pictures in semantics assessments. A child might be asked to
provide a name for pictures as a test of expressive vocabulary, or to
match spoken words with pictures as a test of receptive vocabulary. A
test of semantics at the larger-than-word level may involve asking a
child to arrange a series of pictures to reflect a logical sequence of
events.
Another common assessment involves asking a child to provide a word
that best matches a definition presented (verbally) by the teacher as a
test of expressive vocabulary, or to ask a child to provide a definition to
a word as a test of receptive vocabulary. Similarly, a test of vocabulary
knowledge could require that the child be familiar with several words in
order to answer each item correctly. For example, the child could be
asked to select a word which does not belong in a group of words (e.g.
THREAD, STRING, ROPE, KNOT). In this sort of assessment, the
child must know the meaning of most if not all of the words in each item
in order to be successful. Similarly, a child might be asked to provide a
synonym or an antonym for words, which is a test of both receptive and
expressive vocabulary. Again, in this case, more than one vocabulary
word is being tested at a time — the child must know the meaning of
the test item, and must know a word which either has the same
meaning or an opposite meaning.
Morphology assessments often involve asking a child to describe how
a word’s meaning changes as parts of the words are changed. For
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example, a child could be asked to break compound words into their
component parts and to describe the meaning of those component
parts (e.g. DAY-BREAK, BASE-BALL, HEAD-ACHE). Or, a child could
be asked to describe what happens when affixes are added to words
(as in SKIP versus SKIPPED) and to explain those affixes (What do
UNWRAP and UNTIE have in common?). Similarly, a child’s
appreciation of morphology can be assessed by asking the child to
describe how words with similar parts are related (e.g. EARACHE,
EARRING, EARDRUM).
Semantics assessments at the larger-than-word level usually depend
on identifying words or sentences that do not make sense in the
context (e.g. "Billy had a dog. He loved his dog. His fish was orange.
His dog could fetch a ball."), or they depend on the child identifying
logical inconsistencies (e.g. "Billy’s dog could fetch and he could roll
over. He was a good dog, but he didn’t know any tricks.").
Syntax: It is difficult to assess a child’s syntactic knowledge without
using printed text, but as was the case with semantics, if the child must
process text to take the test, then the test becomes more of a decoding
skills test than a test of syntax. It is possible to make some estimations
about the child’s productive syntactic knowledge by listening to the
sentences that the child forms when he or she is talking. Further, a
child can be asked to identify sentences (spoken) that are syntactically
incorrect (e.g. Jane and her dog the hill they climbed it.), and
additionally, the child can be asked to restructure the sentence
correctly.
Another common syntax test involves presenting the child with
sentences which have one word omitted, and asking the child to
suggest words that could fill the blanks. In this case, the meaning the
word is not what is being evaluated, but instead, the child is graded
based upon the syntactic appropriateness of the word. So, for
example, the child may fill in the sentence, "Mary fell off of the ___"
with any of several obviously appropriate words such as "chair"
"house" or "wagon," but credit should be given for any noun that the
child supplies (e.g. "leaf" "brain" or "mop") because they are all
syntactically correct.
Another assessment of syntax that could be used involves the child’s
ability to combine simple sentences into complex sentences, and to
add modifiers appropriately. So for example, "Brownies taste good"
could be combined with, "Mary likes to eat brownies" to make the
complex sentence, "Mary likes to eat brownies because they taste
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good." Similarly, children could be asked to appropriately insert the
words, "brown" "big" and "quickly" into the sentence, "The spider ran
up the wall" to make a more complex sentence such as "The big,
brown spider quickly ran up the wall." Similarly, a child’s syntax can be
assessing through a test of their ability to change tense and modifiers
of sentences. A child could be asked to restructure, "I went to the
store" to the future tense.
Phoneme Awareness: Phonological awareness is a general term, and
phoneme awareness is a specific term which is covered by the
phonological awareness umbrella. As such, there are many tests that
can be described as phonological awareness tests, but only a few of
those tests are specific enough to also be called phoneme awareness
tests. Specifically, phonological awareness tests are tests which reflect
the child's knowledge that words are made up of sounds (linguists call
this a "metalinguistic" skill), while phoneme awareness tests are tests
which reflect the child's specific knowledge that words are made up of
phonemes. So, to test phonological awareness, one could ask the
child to rhyme words (expressive) or to pick words that rhyme out of a
set (receptive). The child's ability to rhyme reflects an appreciation of
the sounds within words, and an implicit understanding that words are
made up of sounds.
Similarly, the child's appreciation of alliteration (words that start with
the same sound) can be tested. The child's ability to produce words
that start with the same sound (e.g. what word starts with the same
sound as the word MILK?), or the child's ability to match words based
on alliteration (e.g. which words start with the same sound - MAN,
MORE, FISH) also reflect the child's understanding that words are
made up of sounds. Children's awareness of the fact that words are
made up of sounds can also be assessed through word length
comparisons - a child is (verbally) presented with two words, and is
asked to determine which word is longer. This assessment is especially
effective for young children if the phonemes of one word are contained
within the second word (e.g. KING and KINGDOM or PIE and SPY -
note that PIE and SPY have the same number of letters, but SPY has
more phonemes.).
Another test of phonological awareness involves the child's ability to
break spoken words up into parts - the child would say the word out
loud, but would pause after saying each part. This type of task is called
a "segmentation" task, and it can be used in a variety of ways. First, a
child could be asked to segment compound words into their parts (as in

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"BASE (*pause*) BALL"). Similarly, a child can be asked to segment
words into syllables (e.g. "PEN (*pause*) CIL"). Also, a child can
segment the onset of the word (the sounds before the vowel) and the
rest of the word (sometimes called the "rime" - not to be confused with
"rhyme"). In an onset-rime segmentation task, the words are almost
always monosyllabic, and the child would say each word with a pause
after the onset (e.g. "M (*pause*) OON")

The opposite of segmentation is blending, and every test of

phonological awareness that involves segmentation can be reversed
and used as a blending test. In a blending test, the teacher would say
each word with pauses in the appropriate places, and the child would
try to figure out what word the teacher is saying. Blending is usually
much easier for children than segmentation. To test phoneme
awareness, segmentation and blending techniques can also be used,
but in a phoneme awareness task, the pauses would be inserted after
each phoneme (either when the teacher segments the word or when
the student segments the word). So in a phoneme segmentation task,
a pause is inserted after each phoneme (/sat/ � /s/ /a/ /t/), and in a
phoneme blending task, a segmented word is blended together to
make a whole word (/s/ /a/ /t/ � /sat/).
In addition to phoneme segmentation or blending tasks, there are
several other phoneme awareness tasks can be used to show that the
child is aware of all of the phonemes in spoken words. For example, a
child can be asked to count the number of phonemes in a word (e.g.
how many phonemes are in the word PIN?), or a child may be asked to
delete a phoneme from a word (e.g. What would PIN be if you took out
the /p/ sound?), or add a phoneme (Add an /s/ sound to the beginning
of PIN), or substitute a phoneme (replace the /i/ in PIN with an /a/
sound). Also, children can be asked to rearrange the sounds in a word
(move the first sound of SIT to the end - Note, children who have been
taught "Pig Latin" are particularly good at this task.).

Finally, children clearly have phoneme awareness if they are able to

identify a phoneme in different words. Children should know that the
words SAT and TOP both contain the /t/ sound, and that GAME and
PLAY both contain the /a/ sound. It is worth mentioning that some of
these phoneme and phonological awareness tasks are harder than
others. Blending is easiest, but can be made more difficult if the word,
when blended together, does not form a word that the child is familiar
with (e.g. SAZ or VIKE). Segmentation is more difficult than blending,
and becomes considerably more difficult if the word to be segmented

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contains consonant clusters (sometimes called digraphs -- e.g. MASK,
SPIN or SLIP). Phoneme addition, deletion and manipulation, the most
difficult tasks, are also made more difficult by creating words the child
is unfamiliar with, and by adding consonant clusters.
Knowledge of the Alphabetic Principle: A child’s understanding of
the alphabetic principle can be assessed very early, even before the
child can read or write simple words. The most direct approach is to
ask the child to write words that you dictate — even if the child cannot
write the words accurately, her understanding of the alphabetic
principle is revealed by whether or not she writes one symbol for each
sound in the word. Young children often represent a whole word with a
single symbol (Sometimes the symbol the child chooses is the first
letter of the word, so a child might represent the word DOG with the
letter D). This reflects their view that a word only exists as a
representation of an object. Children who have an understanding of the
alphabetic principle, however, will attempt to encode all of the sounds
they hear in the word, although they may not use the right letters — in
fact, they may not use letters at all. The child who has internalized the
alphabetic principle may write the word BALL with three symbols, and
ironically may represent the word BOX with four symbols (e.g. BOKS).
Similarly, a child’s knowledge of the alphabetic principle can be tested
in other ways. Children can be presented with two words (written) —
one long word and one short word. The teacher asks the child to pick
the word they think she is saying (and she would say either a very long
word or a very short word; e.g. HAT or HIPPOPOTOMOUS. The words
can get closer in length as the child learns the object of the
assessment.). Even if the child cannot read yet, an understanding of
the alphabetic principle will allow her to pick the right word.
Letter Knowledge: Typically, testing a child’s knowledge of the letters
of the alphabet involves presenting the child with a page full of letters,
and asking the child to name them. The page usually contains upper-
case letters and lower-case letters, and a few odd characters like the
two versions of the lower case "a" and the lower-case "g". This is not,
however, the only approach to assessing letter knowledge.

Young children who do not know the letter names yet can be given a
pile of manipulatable letters and numbers and symbols and asked to
separate the letters from the numbers and symbols. Similarly, children
can be asked to "tell what they know" about each letter — they may not
know the name of the letter, but they might know a sound that it
represents or a word that starts with that letter. Children that know all
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the letter names can be further tested by their ability to separate the
letters into upper- and lower-case groups, or to separate them into
vowels and consonants.

7.3 Assessment examples for specific areas of reading

There are various ways to gather assessment data (Rhodes &

Shanklin, 1993). Teachers can test students, analyze student work
samples, observe students performing literacy tasks, or interview
students on their reading skills. Teachers can gain the most information
by administering all of these methods to collect data. The following
information describes various types of assessments for different areas
of early reading. Each assessment identified is described in the
resources section of this brief.
Letter knowledge: the ability to associate sounds with letters

One example of an assessment for letter knowledge is to present a

student with a list of letters and ask the student to name each letter.
Another example is to have a student separate the letters from a pile of
letters, numbers, and symbols. Students can also be asked to separate
and categorize letters by uppercase and lowercase (Torgesen, 1998;
Wren, 2004).
Phonemic awareness: the ability to hear and manipulate sounds
in words

These assessments examine a student's knowledge of how sounds

make words. A student can be asked to break spoken words into parts,
or to blend spoken parts of a word into one word. Additionally, a
student can count the number of phonemes in a word to demonstrate
understanding, or a student can delete or add a phoneme to make a
new word (Torgesen, 1998; Wren, 2004).
Decoding: the process of using letter sound correspondences to
recognize words

An assessment that examines a student's decoding skills looks at a

child's reading accuracy. One example of this type of measure is to
have a student read a passage of text as clearly and correctly as
possible. The teacher records any mistakes that the student makes
and analyzes them to determine what instruction is needed. Another
example of an assessment of decoding skills is to present a student
with isolated words and ask them to read each word aloud (Wren,
2004).
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Fluency: the automatic ability to read words in connected text

The most common example of an assessment for fluency is to ask a

student to read a passage aloud for one minute. Words that are
skipped or pronounced incorrectly are not counted. The number of
correct words read is counted and this total equals a student's oral
reading fluency rate.
Reading comprehension: the process of understanding the
meaning of text
There are many types of reading comprehension assessments. One
type involves a student reading a passage that is at an appropriate
level for the student, and then having the student answer factual
questions about the text. A second type involves a student answering
inferential questions about implied information in the text. A third type
involves a student filling in missing words from a passage. A fourth
type is to have a student retell the story in their own words (Fuchs &
Fuchs, 1992; Wren 2004).

Figure 1 : Optimal reading by grade level

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 Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of

the Block.
3. What is the purpose of reading assessment skills?

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

4. How language comprehension is important in assessment

of reading skills?
____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________
5. Give an example of an assessment for letter knowledge.
____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

UNIT 8 APPROACHES AND STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP

READING SKILLS AND INDEPENDENT READING

8.1 Approaches for developing / improving the reading skills

and independent reading

One of the first things you learn about teaching is that there are
different reading techniques and the students should be aware of
which technique is most suited, depending on the reading task required
by the text or by their teacher. Training students to know their reading
techniques and deduce when best to apply them is indeed important,
especially under exam conditions when time constraints come into play
and decisions need to be made depending on time availability and the
importance of the task at hand.
When children have trouble comprehending what they read, teachers
are faced with an especially difficult responsibility. It is not always easy
to improve the comprehension of problem readers. There is no magic
method that will work for all teachers and for all children. The teacher's
responsibility is made even more difficult by some of the suggested
methods of teaching reading comprehension, which often are vague or
else limited to simple questioning of children after reading. The
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comprehension ability of problem readers will not be helped a great
deal by relying entirely on questioning. The teacher's specific task is to
help problem readers translate the thinking they do in speaking and
listening situations to the written language before them. Techniques
teacher’s use must tap the thinking of the problem reader, and help to
organize it in such a way as to result in understanding. This goal
cannot be accomplished without continuous guidance. Teachers must
be keenly aware of this so that they do not leave the understanding
side of reading to chance. What can teachers do to improve
comprehension ability? What are some specific procedures,
techniques, and strategies that will help problem readers develop a
systematic approach for getting meaning from what they read?
The suggested approaches for increasing the reading.
1. Develop Listening Comprehension
The most logical step in helping students to understand what they read
begins with oral language experiences. Helping pupils to think about
what they have heard will help prepare them to comprehend what they
read. Listening is closely related to reading, for both are receptive
communication processes. In listening activities, children should focus
on the spoken message so that they can understand more mature and
interesting material than if they were silently reading the text. Before
the reader can pass on the book to the next reader, all of the students
in the group have to agree on what the first reader said. This exercise
forces students to not only listen for understanding but to read for
understanding as well. If the message was not understood by the
group, then the pupil reads it again, this time trying to communicate
(and therefore read) more clearly.
2. Use Pictures or Photos

Taylor (1978) suggests the use of pictures or photos for improving

comprehension ability. Pictures are valuable in developing the reading-
related language skills of observing, thinking, listening and speaking. In
analyzing pictures, students will be practicing the thinking skills
required in reading for understanding.
The following activities provide a framework for improving the specific
comprehension skills of locating details, identifying main ideas and
making inferences. Have students:
a. Look at a picture and write or tape-record as many details as they
can see.

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b. Compare two pictures that are alike in some way. Explain how they
are alike and why.
3. Introduce Unfamiliar Vocabulary
Vocabulary deficiencies are often associated with difficulty in
comprehending. Before children as making up sentences using key
words, breaking words into meaningful parts, creating new words
based on inflectional endings, affixes and roots, or simply keeping a
word bank of key vocabulary.
4. Use a Structured Instructional Procedure for Guiding Student
Reading

A procedure for directing the problem reader through the

comprehension of a story is suggested by Schwartz and Sheff (1975).
Children are guided through three specific steps as they read: posing
problem, reasoning while reading, and verifying. The posing of a
problem is initiated by the teacher. The title or a representative picture
may be the stimulus that encourages the students to think about what
they are going to read. After students have speculated about the title or
picture, they read a short portion of the passage. The teacher then
asks literal questions about the portion read, and the students answer
the questions. Following this discussion, another problem is posed
which relates to the literal information discussed. The students then
read another portion of the passage to identify information that will
solve the new problem. This procedure continues throughout the
reading of the story, and new problems can focus on higher level
comprehension skills. This procedure actively involves students in
shifting their attention from one piece of meaningful information to
another as they read through the reading selection.
5. Develop Visual Imagery

Improving visual imagery has been shown to improve reading

comprehension (Levin 1973, Lesgold, McCormick, and Golenkoff
1975). Begin by having students try to visualize a few specific things--a
favorite object, a place they like, or an event. Then, in small groups,
have students tell about their visual images and listen to the
descriptions of others. After this introduction to visual imagery,
stimulate students to form visual images by reading stories to them.
6. Use the Retelling Technique

Asking pupils to elaborate on what they read by retelling story content

aids comprehension. This technique is based on the assumption that

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students will develop the mental set to read for more meaning if they
see reading lessons as activities in which they will have the opportunity
to share and discuss what they have read in a story. Students will, in
effect, develop the attitude that they have some valuable ideas to
share with the other students and the teacher. In this procedure the
teacher simply says to students after they have read a selection, "Tell
me everything you can remember about the story." When pupils stop or
hesitate, ask for more information. The teacher might say things like "Is
there anything else you can remember?", "Go on.", or "What happened
next?" After students finish telling all they can remember, follow with
more specific questions so they have a chance to expand or clarify
what they said. Whenever appropriate, ask students to give reasons for
their answers.
7. Use Cloze-Type Exercises
The strict cloze procedure involves copying a reading passage and
deleting every fifth word for students to fill in after reading the passage
in its entirety. Lopardo (1975) suggests that modifications of this
technique can be used to improve reading comprehension. The initial
step calls for students to dictate a story to the teacher who transcribes
it on an experience chart. Before meeting with students again, the
teacher rewrites the story on another chart this time deleting every fifth
word. The students then read the new version putting in words that
make sense to fill the blank spaces. The students check their work by
comparing the two experience charts. This technique forces students to
think about what was read rather than just reading word-by-word from
memory
8. Use the Request Procedure

The purpose of a reciprocal questioning procedure(Manzo 1979) is to

improve pupil questioning behaviour and reading comprehension.
9. Use the Structured Comprehension Procedure
The structured comprehension procedure (Cohn1969) is useful for
students who have difficulty understanding sentences or paragraphs
from content area or factual reading materials. Have students read the
first sentence and answer the question "Do I know what this sentence
means?" This forces the reader to be an active participant rather than a
passive reader.

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10. Use Repeated Readings

The method of repeated readings (Samuels 1979) consists of

rereading a one hundred word meaningful passage several times. The
passage must be at student’s reading instructional level. Students are
next given the passage and told to read it silently so they can read it
orally with few errors and at a comfortable rate. After silent reading, the
passage is read to the teacher, who counts oral reading errors per one
hundred words. If the passage is too difficult, an easier one should be
chosen. If not more than five errors per one hundred words are made,
the teacher tells students the time it took, and suggests that they
practice the material silently again so they can read it more fluently
next time. This processes repeated until students have read the
passage three or four times with an increase in rate and fluency each
time. The repeated readings method enhances comprehension
because with each reading the reader is required to give less attention
to decoding and more attention is free to be used for comprehension.

Figure 1 : Strategies used for reading development

8.2 Strategies to develop reading skills and independent reading

There are some other strategies for developing reading skill:-

1. Reading Aloud.

Here, the teacher or tutor reads a text loud to students. This allows
tutors to model reading, engage students in a text that may be too
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difficult for them to read on their own, and let students sit back and
enjoy the story.
2. Shared Reading.
In Shared Reading, tutors and students read together, thus allowing
student to actively participate and support one another in the process.
Tutors point to text as they read to build word recognition. And tutors
also read slowly to build a sense of story.
3. Guided Reading.
Guided reading prepares tutees with strategies that allow for more
independent reading. In guided reading, tutors create purposeful
lessons that extend beyond the story. These lessons challenge tutees
in a number of areas: vocabulary building, character comparisons,
story structure comparisons, relating text to personal experience, and
so on. The goal is to provide tutees with strategies that they can repeat
independently.
4. Independent reading.

Even those who support transactional definitions of literacy typically

also engage students in independent reading since successful
independent reading strategies will help them succeed in school.
Students read by themselves or with partners, choose their own texts,
and employ strategies that they have learned through other reading
activities.
Ways to help students develop / improve reading skills

Developed reading skills allow students to get the most from their
education—one of the many reasons why it’s part of the curriculum, no
matter the grade level. Teachers in primary grade levels focus on
helping students develop a strong foundation, while teachers in higher
grades reinforce that foundation and show how reading is necessary
for the real world. Regardless which grade you focus on, if you’re
looking for assistance in helping your students develop stronger
reading skills, here are five approaches to test out.
Utilize various reading materials: Be creative by teaching reading
through different formats. Books, magazines, books on tape, CDs, and
other recorded reading can give students multiple ways to connect with
the material. Have students practice reading along with a book on tape.
They will gain experience seeing the words on the printed page while
hearing them on the recording. Other technologies, such as text-to-
speech software, can refocus a reading exercise into one where
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students can pay attention to the sentence structure and words without
getting discouraged by their own comprehension.
Relate reading to other areas of the student’s life: Encourage your
students to read selected material and then discuss it in relation to
other books, movies, news items, or TV shows. Have your students
make the comparison: What did they like about how each format
portrayed the topic? How would they have changed a format to better
match the topic? What was the message the writers intended the
reader/observer to get from the material? Being able to connect what
has been read to something else in their lives helps students think
abstractly about the material.
Have fun with words: As students work on their reading assignments,
ask them to write words or phrases down that they don’t understand
and bring them to class on an index card. You can then conduct a
classroom discussion on the words until everyone understands the
various meanings and uses. Additionally, students can then put their
cards up on a wall creating a record of challenging language they have
mastered. Depending on the type and format of the classroom, these
cards could be used for subsequent writing classes to help students
further develop their vocabulary.
Create a record of progress: Help students create a journal of their
reading work. Have them list the reading they have done and a brief
summary of the material. Make a section of challenging words or
phrases; another section can be used for passages they don’t readily
understand. Finish with the students’ opinion of the material, likes,
dislikes, and whether they would read more from this author. Review
these journals with the students regularly and celebrate their progress
with them. Use the journals at parent-teacher conferences so the
parents can also see the progress.
Make reading about communication—not just a tool: Prepare
several lessons where students read a number of different written
materials: grocery store ads; instructions on how to put together a
bookcase; a recipe; a newspaper article; part of your state’s driver
education handbook—all great examples. Start a discussion on how
important it is to be able to read these items accurately and understand
them. In each case, ask: what is the important information being
conveyed? Where might students encounter the material currently in
their lives? These real-world examples help students understand the
long-term importance of quality reading skills and comprehension. As
you well know, your role as a teacher cannot end with a simple reading
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assignment. Part of your charge is to help root a passion for reading so
all students can achieve. And if it just so happens that you’re looking to
take on more of a reading interventionist role, we can help with that.
Independent reading: Independent reading is reading without
assistance. Many things that further facilitate growth in reading
comprehension ability- general knowledge, vocabulary, and syntactic
knowledge are developed through independent reading. This is reading
extended pieces of textbooks, magazines, newspapers etc. the
benefits of reading independent level material are:
 It allows for the consolidation and realistic use of what had been
taught.
 It moves attention away from individual words to the meaning of
connected text.

 It fosters good habits in reading.

 It adds to the reader’s knowledge of the world.

 Promotes self-confidence and arouses greater interest in
reading.
Strategies to develop independent reading skills
 Meta-cognition.

 Graphic and semantic organizers.

 Answering questions.
 Generating questions.
 Recognizing story structure.

 Summarizing.

Some other strategies to develop reading and independent

reading skills
When reading for different purposes, the fluent and effective reader will
develop and refine different strategies that allow them to:

 Read closely, as when absorbing information

 Read thoughtfully, as when considering an argument

 Read aloud for others and themselves

 Skim a text to gain an overall impression

 Scan to find a particular item of information
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 Read imaginatively, as when visualizing or recreating things or
situations described
 Read responsively and actively, as when following or predicting
the course of a narrative or report

 Read critically, as when assessing the force of an opinion or

argument
 Read analytically

 Read appreciatively, recognizing the writer’s skill in using ideas,

techniques and effects
 Read with an awareness of the writer’s viewpoint

 Realize that a text does not always mean what it says,

understanding the nature of irony and ambiguity as well as
accepting the existence of multiple levels of meaning in a text

 Make selections and read in order to elicit information from a

number of texts, identifying key points, collating information,
 Making comparisons and synthesizing material from different
sources
 Evaluate what they read in terms of quality, effect and reliability.

Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end

of the Block.

6. How the use of Pictures develop reading skills?

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

7. List the Strategies to develop independent reading skills.

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________
8. What is shared reading?
____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

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UNIT 9 TYPES AND MODELS OF DEVELOPING READING
SKILLS

19.1 Types of developing reading skills

Reading is one of the most useful skills in learning a foreign language.

It serves as a means by which the “unbounded field of knowledge” lies
open before us and we are able to know new facts and relationship.
According to Gray, “Reading is a form of experience.” Indeed good
reading habits promote ‘self education’ which helps in the modification
of personality. Reading , trains our mind and broadens our outlook. If
one has developed a taste for reading in school days, he will realize
that nothing but reading is the best utilization of his hours of leisure. Of
all the linguistic skills, reading is perhaps one that requires our
attention most and lacking which we find that there are great
retardation in reading activities of our pupils.
It’s important to say that when discussing reading skills, one should
always have in mind the language in which we want to analyze or
develop the reading skills. The first step towards improvement of the
students’ reading skills is being aware that it is our job as instructors to
help them develop the reading skills, and to include it in our course
outline as an objective among the others. Then, students should also
be (made) aware of the need for well-developed reading skills.
Instructors should provide information on the nature of the reading skill
and guidelines on how it can be improved regardless of the course
they teach. Finally, reading shouldn’t be only assigned as homework.
From time to time, reading activities should be done in class as well.
There is a long and rich history of research in the field of reading
comprehension. The study of reading comprehension is well-
developed and it’s based on long tradition of theory and research. I will
try to simplify and outline certain tips that students can be reminded of
like every reading activity must have a clearly stated aim. You should
know why you are reading, and what the purpose is. In order to
understand the aim of the reading more easily, the purpose or the aim
should be embodied in a follow up activity provided by the instructor,
students must be aware of the reading techniques and know which one
they should use in order to complete the task depending on the type of
text and the aim/follow-up activity and reading education materials is
one of the important early aspects in the process of learning and being
educated.

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Types of reading can be based on purpose, type of material, style of
reading and level of assistance. We can see them in the following
sections.

Figure : Types of developing reading skills

The reading experiences can be differentiated into various:

Developmental, Remedial, Functional, Recreational, conversational,
text based, loud, silent, guided, independent, intensive, extensive and
Supplementary reading. It makes possible to separate and integrate
the teaching of reading and the teaching of language through reading.
Developmental reading (Reading known language):

Developmental reading consists of designed and planned reading

lessons. Its purpose is to systematically develop and promote
sequential skills in reading. Ideally, developmental reading is
conducted with material where the language is completely known to
the child so there is no interference with the child’s development of
mature reading habits and skills.

In this type of reading the child is presented with appealing reading

material. The teacher observes and s the child to strengthen the
growing skill in reading. This helps the child to learn to use appropriate
reading skills to independently figure out the meaning of known
language. Whenever unknown language interferes with this process,
the teacher takes steps to remove this obstacle. He/She either pre-
teaches the unknown linguistic forms, or freely explains them in depth
afterwards. The early readers and textbooks are especially useful for

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developmental reading as they provide a gradual progression from
easy to more difficult level through grades.
Remedial reading (Teaching language through reading):
The aim of remedial reading is to correct specific language
deficiencies. Remedial reading is especially used to promote
language, but the activities can serve varied purposes. The teacher
can return to the language forms found difficult during developmental
reading and teach them thoroughly during remedial reading. The
teacher can construct games, exercises and tests for further drill in
understanding and use of these linguistic forms. The teacher can
construct games, exercises and tests for it. Systematic programmes
may also be devised to teach aspects of vocabulary (synonyms,
antonyms, idioms, multiple meanings, figures of speech etc.),
morphology (plural, verb forms, etc.) and syntax (clauses, question
forms et).
Remedial reading may also be used to provide drill in specific reading
skills. Children who need more practice than is provided in
developmental reading may benefit from special remedial activities.
Remedial reading thus becomes part and parcel of special education.
Also, as language and reading go hand in hand developmental reading
and remedial reading go hand in hand.
Functional reading (Reading as means to an end):

Functional reading represents reading in its natural form. In functional

reading, reading is not the primary activity but there is a task, which is
to be completed through reading. E.g. Reading a recipe to make a food
item like pulav, follow directions to complete a puzzle, read label to
know the owner of a book etc
There are numerous occasions for functional reading - following
directions for a new game, putting together things to assemble a toy,
comparing weights and prices on boxes of food items etc. All such
activities demonstrate the children the importance of reading in life.
Recreational Reading (reading for pleasure and information):

Reading to gain pleasure is recreational reading. Structured reading

activities are usually difficult task for the children. Therefore it is very
important to include reading without struggling in the reading
programmes. Children should be given daily opportunities to read
whatever material they choose, whatever purpose they set for
themselves, in whatever way and whatever level of comprehension

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they are capable of, without adult interference or guidance. Children
should be provided with access to good libraries in class, in school and
at home.
Conversational reading:

Conversational reading is one of the level of reading proficiency

developed gradually in the early school year. It is a transition step from
informal to formal reading. It is the reading of any non-commercial text
that deals with the interest and experiences of a child or group of
children. The teacher writes a normal conversation that goes on during
the various activities. The words and sentences used in language
activities e.g., news conversation and other activities like project about
family, food, holidays. etc. through direct experiences through trips,
visits, etc. are written on the board, charts, cards or in teacher made
books. Types of conversation reading are news and direct
experiences.
Text-based reading:

In this reading, the meaning has to be explicitly or implicitly drawn from

the written words. It means that the meaning may either be clear or
may be hidden and has to be understood. In schools teachers
undertake text-based reading i.e., they impart information and
knowledge usually through reading textbooks. There are two types of
text usually used in school such as : narrative text, expository text and
procedural text.
Loud reading:
Loud reading refers to reading aloud, i.e., using vocalization for
reading. This is also known as oral or aloud reading. Oral reading can
serve various purposes such as instruction, diagnosis and sharing.
Loud reading should be introduced after the students have been given
some training in two months on the points concerning pronunciation,
intonation, stress, pitch and other aspects of a language.
Oral reading provides the thought from the printed page, while silent
readers absorb the thought from the text. Oral reading actually follows
an instant recognition of a thought, while silent readers immediately get
the thought. Oral reading is a complex process which involves mental
interpretations based on eye sweeps of the text accompanied by
vocalization. With oral readers, the pronunciation of the words is most
important, with silent readers, the meanings of the words are most
important. Vocalization reduces and limits the speed of oral readers
that doesn’t affect silent readers. Reading requires much guessing at a

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variety of levels. Readers can use guessing to their advantage to go
and organizational relationships and the meaning of words.
Silent reading:
Silent reading is sometimes considered as recreational reading or
independent reading as in silent reading something is read in a relaxed
mood and only a single individual remains concerned about it. The
primary purpose of silent reading is to get or construct an author's
message. Silent reading is assumed to be faster than the loud
reading, because the eye movement on the text is faster. This type of
reading can be used in classroom instruction when the focus is not on
teaching reading and the children know to read. It should be used with
increasing grades, as he children should learn to construct meaning
from the text rather than just pronouncing it.
Reading silently improves student’s understanding because it helps
them concentrate on what they are reading, rather than the
pronunciation of individual words. When we read silently, we can form
mental pictures of the topic being read and discussed. Also, we do not
need to read one word at a time. As teachers when you encourage
your students to read silently, you are helping them develop the
strategies they need for reading fast, and with better comprehension.
This is called reading efficiency, and it will help your students to read
any text with maximum attention to meaning. Silent reading also helps
develop the skills of reading for a purpose, as the focus is on
understanding the content without having the additional burden to pay
attention to pronunciation. This is because silent reading helps
students to focus their attention on the text, their increased
concentration on the text is sustained until the entire text is read. This
also helps students absorb ideas into their subconscious mind and
then use them in their daily lives.
The difference between loud reading and silent reading is that reading
is heard and silent is not heard. In silent reading sub-vocalization is
commonly present. Sub-vocalization, also called as inner speech is
mental pronunciation of words that is neither heard nor seen. It is
observed that sub-vocalization may facilitate the comprehension of
difficult material by focusing the reader’s attention on meaning.
Guided reading:
Guided reading is an important step for a lesson. It is useful for
monitoring the student’s progress. Guided practice can be written or
oral. It gives a chance to the students to use what they have learnt
while teacher is supervising. Since the students are being observed

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they can get a prompt feedback. Developmental, Remedial and
Functional reading are types of guided reading.
Independent reading:
Independent reading is reading without assistance. Many things that
further facilitate growth in reading comprehension ability-general
knowledge, vocabulary, and syntactic knowledge are developed
through independent reading. This is reading extended pieces of
textbooks, magazines, newspapers etc.
Intensive reading:
Intensive reading involves learners reading in detail with specific
learning aims and tasks. Intensive reading is a detailed study of the
prescribed text in order to train the students is an important aspect of
language teaching, i.e. reading. Intensive reading activities include
skimming a text for specific information to answer true or false
statements or filling gaps in a summary, scanning a text to match
headings to paragraphs, and scanning jumbled paragraphs and then
reading them carefully to put them into the correct order. As the name
suggests, intensive reading refers to reading short texts thoroughly and
with clear goals, such as to answer reading comprehension questions
or to identify how sentences are linked.
Intensive reading, on the other hand, focuses on closely following a
shorter text, doing exercises with it, and learning it in detail. According
to this approach, this helps language learners really understand the
language’s grammar and syntax. The proponents of this method use a
range of exercises to complement the reading itself. Foreign language
students can, for example, read a short paragraph and then answer
questions about the text, order sentences, or find specific words.
In intensive reading, learners usually read texts that are more difficult,
in terms of content and language, than those used for extensive
reading. To help learners make sense of texts that may present a
significant challenge in terms of vocabulary, grammar and/or concepts,
teachers should focus on reading skills, such as identifying main ideas
and guessing the meaning of unfamiliar words from context
(Macalister, 2011).
The teacher has to carefully plan teaching of intensive reading as it
plays an important role, not only in examination but also in practical life
as well. Intensive reading: reading shorter texts, to extract specific
information. This is more an accuracy activity involving reading for
detail.

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Extensive reading:
Extensive reading to read silently and quickly in order to understand
the subject matter and derive the meaning as a whole without the help
of the teacher and expand passive vocabulary. Extensive reading is
reading as much as possible, for your own pleasure, at a difficulty level
at which you can read smoothly and quickly Extensive reading, free
reading, book flood, or reading for pleasure is a way of language
learning, including foreign language learning, through large amounts of
reading. Extensive reading can essentially also be referred to as
reading for joy. This approach advocates reading as much material in
your target language as humanly possible. This way, its advocates
claim, you will be exposed to the widest range of vocabulary and
grammatical structures. All of this is supposed to make you a better
language learner and help you on the way to fluency. Extensive
reading should be undertaken only when the students have mastered
at least a vocabulary of about 500 words, implying it should be started
in the middle classes and not prior to it, and the students should have
developed the ability to recognize words at sight.
Supplementary reading:
Supplementary reading quite resembles intensive reading. It is carried
out under the direct control and general supervision of the teacher.
Extensive reading is the most important aspect of supplementary
reading; as such it is also called subsidiary reading. The chief purpose
of supplementary reading is to supplement intensive reading of a
detailed prose lesson. It is generally introduced in the middle stage
with one to three supplementary readers. The method of teaching is
just like the extensive reading. It may be carried out twice or thrice in a
week as the teacher or school administration deems fit. Supplementary
readers are recommended in the middle and high classes where prose
text forms the basic course. Supplemental reading instruction provides
a way to improve the reading outcomes of students at risk for reading
difficulties and to meet the challenges produced by increases in
student diversity in today’s classrooms.

9.2 Models of developing reading skills

The Reading models are the ways of the educators in teaching reading
skills to students. Children are directly instructed in letter/sound
relationships while reading words, sentences and larger text. The
three important models of reading strategies such as bottom-up model,
top-down model and interactive model are discussed below:

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Bottom-Up model:

Bottom-up theories hypothesize that learning to read progresses from

children learning the parts of language (letters) to understanding hole
text (meaning)" Much like solving a jigsaw puzzle & bottom-up models
of threading process say that the reading puzzle is solved by beginning
it an elimination of each piece of the puzzle and then putting pieces
together homage a picture"

Teachers who believe that bottom-up theories fully explain how

children become readers often teach the sub skills in which they begin
instruction by introducing letter names and letter sounds & progress to
pronouncing whole words & then show students ways of connecting
word meanings to comprehend. To become readers & students must
compare their knowledge and background experiences to the test in
order to understand the authors message" truly & the whole purpose of
reading is comprehension"
Top-Down model:

Top-down reading models teach students to read by introducing them

to literature as a whole" 3nstead of teaching students to read by
sounding outreach word in a sentence& teachers read whole passages
of a text". students begin to use content clues to decipher unfamiliar
words" the top-down reading model theory encourages students to
focus more on understanding the main ideas of a passage than
understanding every word" .if students do not understand each word&
they are likely to grasp the meaning of a tests a whole".
The top-down reading model encourages students to rely on their own
knowledge and use content clues to understand new concepts or
words" the teaching model allows students choose books to read
based on their own interests" teachers urge students to select
materials of personal interest so they are more likely to be motivated to
read it" instead of assigning one book for an entire class to read
together & the teacher might take the entire class to the library and
allow them to choose their own books, few readers will begin to
understand new vocabulary and increase reading fluency as they read
engaging and interesting books".

Teachers will encourage readers to develop speaking and listening

skills by reading aloud to the class or to a smaller group of students"
instead of stopping students to correct a pronunciation mistake & the
teachers will urge the reader to continue reading& even if struggling
with a particular passage"

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Interactive model:

An interactive reading model is a reading model that recognizes the

interaction of bottom-up and top-down processes simultaneously
throughout the reading process. The interactive Reading Model
describes a model of the reading process and the way linguistic
elements are processed and interpreted by the brain" the model
combines both surface structure systems -- the sensory & bottom-up
portion of reading-- with deep structure systems -- the thinking & or top-
down & aspects of reading -- to build meaning and memory for all
learners "Readers use both knowledge of word structure and
background knowledge to interpret the tests they read" for example & a
student who encounters an unknown word might use surface structure
systems like graph phonic & or letter-sound & knowledge to decode the
word". " when used in the classroom setting & students should be
encouraged to share their knowledge with classmates or peers" this
model allows the reader to bring his own background to reading
knowledge and to interact with others to build meaning and memory
from the test"

Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of

the Block
9. How the types of reading can be classified?
_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
10. Which reading is for pleasure and information?
_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________
11. What is Bottom-Up model?

_____________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________

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UNIT 10 CHALLENGES AND REMEDIAL STRATEGIES

10.1 Challenges in developing reading skills

Not every student acquires reading skills at the same rate. Reading
begins with mastering pre-literacy skills, including learning the alphabet
and enhancing phonemic awareness. This is followed closely by
phonics instruction that teaches children how to map sounds to letters
and sound out words. As more terms become familiar to a beginner
reader, the process speeds up via whole word recognition or sight-
reading. This can be encouraged through direct instruction in high
frequency vocabulary. When students move into middle school they
will be asked to achieve greater feats of comprehension which include
understanding complex texts and processing more information in
shorter amounts of time. Being a fast and efficient reader is important
for classroom based lessons but also for satisfying homework
requirements and performing well on standardized exams.

Most reading problems can be observed when the child attempts to

read out loud. You will notice a labored approach to decoding or
“sounding out” unknown or unfamiliar words. Reading is typically
hesitant and characterized by frequent starts and stops. If asked about
the meaning of what was just read, the individual frequently has little to
say. Not because he or she isn’t smart enough: in fact, many people
with reading problems are very bright. Poor comprehension occurs
because they take too long to read the words, leaving little energy for
remembering and understanding what was read.

Individuals who are most at-risk for reading difficulties are those who
enter school with limited exposure to oral language interactions and
little prior understanding of concepts related to the sounds of our
language, letter knowledge, print awareness, and general verbal skills.
Children raised in poverty, with limited proficiency in English, speech
and hearing impairments, or from homes where little reading takes
place are especially at-risk for reading failure. However, there are a
substantial number of children who have had substantial exposure to
language, literacy interactions, and opportunities to learn to read who
have significant difficulties acquiring reading skills. Whether the causes
are environmental or genetic in nature, the reading problems occur due
to deficits in phoneme awareness, phonics development, reading
fluency, reading comprehension, or combinations of these.
Most children can learn to read if difficulties are detected in
kindergarten and first grade and the appropriate early interventions are

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applied. Prevention and early intervention programs that teach
phoneme awareness and phonics skills and develop reading contexts
where children have an opportunity to practice skills are more
beneficial than approaches that are less structured and direct. Help
needs to be provided before nine years of age; after that time, children
respond more poorly to reading instruction.
Developing strong reading skills in students is one of the key goals of
every early education program. It is through reading that students
expand their vocabulary and learn about the world. Reading is also the
key to success in spelling and writing. And while 6 and 7 year olds are
fluent speakers, they require instruction in how to navigate print. If a
student is having problems with literacy skills, it can affect their
performance across the school curriculum and have a negative impact
on motivation to learn and self-esteem.
Common reading problems for students
Sometimes there may be an undiagnosed learning difficulty to blame –
as is the case for students who struggle with dyslexia or slow
processing. In these situations parents and educators are tasked with
understanding the root of the problem and providing children with
appropriate coping strategies to ensure they continue to progress and
achieve reading milestones.
Issues with de-coding

Also known as sounding out words, decoding is when children are able
to put sounds to letters in order to sound out written language. It’s
common for beginner readers to struggle when they meet new or
unfamiliar terms but typically decoding becomes easier with phonics
instruction and repeated practice with reading out loud. If a child
continues to struggle, there may be a specific learning difficulty present
or a physical impairment that is preventing them from physically seeing
the letters or hearing the sounds in spoken language.
Poor comprehension

There’s a lot going on in reading, from letter and word recognition to

understanding meaning at the phrase, sentence and paragraph level.
When a beginner reader encounters vocabulary they do not know or do
not recognise due to inaccurate decoding, they are likely to skip ahead.
The more blanks in a line of text, the harder it is to make meaning and
the more cognitively challenging and frustrating the reading task
becomes. That’s why poor comprehension can result when a student
struggles with decoding, has a limited vocabulary or attempts to read a
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text that is at too high of a level. However, reading also requires being
able to pay attention to narrative. Students need to identify gist, main
ideas, and specific details and even make inferences about what they
are reading.
Speed

The more students read, the more they encounter unfamiliar terms.
Quite often the context in which these new words are found gives
children all of the clues they need to guess at meaning. As students
expand their vocabulary, they recognize more words by sight and
reading speeds up. Students who continue to decode may benefit from
over learning sight words such as those on the commonly used word
List. If speed is still an issue, there may be an underlying problem,
such as slow processing slow processing. Reading is a cognitively
demanding task and holding so much information in the mind while
continuing to process text can exhaust children with slow processing.
Strategy instruction may help but it’s important that these students be
allowed extra time to complete tasks that require extensive reading.

10.2 Remedial strategies in developing reading skills

Literacy skills are one of the most important areas of ability children
develop in their first few years at school. They begin by sounding out
words and learning to recognize common vocabulary from books and
classroom materials. With sight reading and spelling practice comes
greater fluency. Reading speeds up and comprehension of more
complex texts becomes possible as vocabulary knowledge grows
exponentially. However, not all students find learning to read such an
easy process. Struggling readers can quickly fall behind their peers
and may develop low self-esteem and a lack of confidence as a result.
Because reading ability impacts performance across all areas of the
curriculum, including writing skills, it’s important to provide adequate
strategy training as early as possible. Ideally remediation is tailored to
the individual student’s needs, particularly when a learning difficulty is
involved.
Reading strategies that can help

Activate ideas

Help students activate their prior knowledge of a topic and take

guesses about what they are about to read by analyzing pictures and
titles or skimming a text to assess the main idea. You can also create

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mind-maps as a pre-reading activity or put a few questions on the
board and have the students start by discussing them in order to
prepare for the reading.
Build vocabulary

The more words a student knows, the easier it will be to recognize

them in reading. Teaching vocabulary is also helpful for spelling skills.
Teachers can provide a glossary alongside a text or pre-teach key
terms before the reading begins. As learning words in context provides
additional depth in meaning, teachers might also consider providing
instruction on contextual guessing.
Teach the commonly used word List

Repeated exposure to high frequency terms that are common across

children’s books and school worksheets can help children save their
cognitive energy for decoding harder and less frequent vocabulary.
Directly teaching these words and using a bespoke module from a
computer program like Touch-type Read and Spell to reinforce them,
can help kids read more quickly and efficiently.
Some other remedial strategies in developing reading skills
1. Use shared reading to model the synthesized process of reading.
Shared reading means that the teacher reads stories, articles, poetry,
songs, etc. out loud to students to model the whole reading process.
Students need to see and hear modeled reading that integrates all of
the reading skills with a focus on meaning-making. Without this “whole
to part” modeling, isolated reading skills instruction will fail to develop
readers who read well on their own. The teacher shares the reading
strategies as she reads that help her understand, interpret, and enjoy
the text. She models self-questioning strategies and problem solving.
Learn how to do a reading think-aloud and teach self-questioning skills.

2. Use guided reading to teach discreet reading comprehension

strategies. Guided reading means that the teacher reads or plays an
audio book and stops to help students practice a pre-selected reading
comprehension strategy. At stops, students share whole group, pair
share, or write responses to the comprehension strategies. Students
do not read out loud as they are generally poor models. Learn how to
teach the following SCRIP reading comprehension strategies:
Summarize, Connect, Re-think Interpret and Predict.
3. Teach independent reading by getting students to practice guided
reading strategies on their own. Teach students to make personal

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connections with the text. This does not mean that students relate
aspects of the reading to their own experience. Instead, readers
access their prior knowledge and experiences to understand and
interpret the reading. The focus is on the author-reader relationship.
Learn how to teach students to visualize and connect their lives and
knowledge to the text to increase reading comprehension.
Assign reading homework with required parental discussion, even at
the middle school level. We have to get students practicing reading for
at least two hours weekly at 5% unknown word recognition with
accountability. SSR in the classroom won’t get this done, even with
response journals. Immediate discussion at the summary and
analytical levels builds comprehension. Parents can quite capably
supervise this independent activity. Learn how to develop a successful
independent reading homework component.
4. Teach the reading and writing connection. Reinforce the
reading/writing connection by showing how expository and narrative
texts are organized and how each should be read according to their
own characteristics. Wide experience across many reading genres will
help build comprehension and writing ability. Learn the reading-writing
strategies that “kill two birds with one stone” and learn how to teach an
effective read-study method for expository text.
5. Teach vocabulary explicitly and in context. Vocabulary acquisition is
essential to reading comprehension. Teachers need to expose
students to challenging text, teach context clues, teach the common
Greek and Latin word parts, teach vocabulary strategies such as
semantic spectrums, and practice “word play” and memory tricks to
increase vocabulary proficiency.
6. Teach content. Teaching content is teaching reading
comprehension. Good readers bring content, prior knowledge, and
experience to their side of the author-reader relationship. Content-
deficient readers can’t make relevant personal, literary, or academic
connections to the text and comprehension suffers. Pre-teaching story
background is essential to build comprehension. For example, why not
show the movie first, once in awhile, before reading the novel? Pull
aside a group of struggling readers and pre-teach key concepts to
scaffold meaning.
Remedial readers often practice reading skills ad nauseum, but grow
more deficient in content. For example, a seventh grade student who is
removed from an English-language arts class for remedial reading will
probably lose the content of reading two novels, learning grade level
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grammar and vocabulary, missing the speech and poetry units… you
get the idea. Not to mention, the possibility of losing social science or
science instruction if placed in a remedial reading class… Both content
and reading strategies are critical for reading development.
Some common Strategies for developing fluency in reading skills

Record students reading aloud on their own.

If certain sound-letter combinations or words are causing problems,

teachers will benefit from listening to the child read out loud. However,
this activity can be extremely stressful in front of a classroom of kids,
particularly for a student who struggles with fluency. It is best to avoid
calling on struggling readers during group reading and instead have
them work through a paragraph on their own. Make a recording that
can be analyzed later on by a teacher or by a tutor in order to provide
help to the targeted group.
Ask kids to use a ruler or finger to follow along.
Decoding is easier when students don’t lose their place as they move
across a page. It’s up to the individual student how they go about this.
Some may want to use a pen or pencil, others a piece of paper that
they move down to cover the bottom of the page and stay focused on
the sentence in front of them. This is also a good strategy for readers
with ADHD because it involves a kinesthetic element.
Have them read the same thing several times.

When you’re trying to improve fluency, it helps to see the same text
multiple times. Each reading becomes easier and motivation goes up
as students experience enhanced fluency thanks to repeat exposure to
words and phrases. It can also help when it comes to developing
comprehension skills as readers have more opportunities to notice
contextual cues.
Pre-teach vocabulary.

Prime the words a student is going to see in a text and practice reading
them in isolation or in phrases. You might do this via an interactive
classroom based activity. Get student to use the words and then
practice reading them from the board or on a piece of paper.
Crossword puzzles can be an effective teaching tool or playing a
spelling game. It’s much easier to read a word if it is fresh in memory.

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Drill sight words.

Some words are more common than others and students who have a
hard time with fluency will find it is much easier to read when they are
familiar with 90% of the vocabulary in a text. Around 50% of all books
and classroom based materials for young readers are composed of
words from the most commonly used word List.
Make use of a variety of books and materials.

If a student has difficulty with reading it can be even more of a struggle

to practice with material that is not of interest to them. Sometimes all it
takes is getting readers excited about a topic to help them lose
themselves in the activity. Try chapter books, comics and poems. Even
picture books can work as long as the student doesn’t perceive the
material as being below their level. Experiment with texts of different
lengths starting with shorter material and gradually working up to
longer pieces. TOP TIP: Where fluency is concerned the emphasis is
on the quality of the student’s reading, not the quantity of pages or
speed at which they read them.
Try different font and text sizes.
If there’s a visual impairment that is causing some of the difficulty,
reading larger text or text printed on colour tinted paper can sometimes
make things easier. If you’re accessing this article on your computer
check the top right corner of the screen for an “Accessibility Me” button
which will allow you to experiment with different colour, font and size
combinations while you finish reading this list. There are specific fonts
which are more appropriate for anyone with learning difficulties,
including dyslexia, because they help with discerning letters and
decoding language.
Create a stress free environment.

When students are enjoying a book, anxiety and stress are reduced
and fluency is enhanced. It’s also possible to foster a relaxing
environment by removing any deadlines, time-limits or assessment
related goals and just focusing on classroom reading for reading’s
sake.
Guide students to help them establish a steady pace.

One of the hallmarks of fluent reading is establishing a consistent

rhythm and pace that guides students through a text. This doesn’t need
to be fast and in the beginning new readers should have the option to
start slow and increase their pace as they become more comfortable.
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Some students will want to have a guide, such as a metronome, which
gives them a rhythm they can match. Others will find this strategy
stressful. Playing music in the background might also work – or not!
Introduce a typing course.

If a student continues to struggle with fluency, teachers, tutors and

parents may consider introducing an extra-curricular programme
designed to enhance literacy skills. A multi-sensory course like Touch-
type Read and Spell can be used at home and in school to learn
keyboarding and enhance spelling and sight reading at the same time.
An audio component accompanies letters on the screen while students
type the corresponding keys. Automated feedback and coursework is
divided into discrete modules and independent lessons foster self-
directed learning and enhance motivation and self-efficacy in new
readers.
Teach All Skills Directly
Always explicitly teach the student exactly what they need to know.
Never leave it to chance for a student to discover essential elements
on his own. Direct instruction prevents situations where the student
does not learn simply because they inadvertently missed essential
information or skills. While some students may be able to learn with
indirect, analytic, embedded or incidental approaches, many do not.
Statistically the majority of children fail to learn to read with indirect and
embedded instructional methods. At best, these methods are
inefficient. To maximize effectiveness and efficiency all skills should be
directly taught to the student. Direct instruction is particularly critical in
remediation as these students previously failed to acquire necessary
skills. Direct instruction helps insure the student learns all necessary
skills.
Teach In a Systematic Manner

Present information in a deliberate, pre-planned carefully controlled

manner. This step-by-step instruction allows the student time to
practice and master individual skills before additional information and
complexities are taught. Start simple. Introduce new skills and
knowledge a bit at a time, adding complexity as the student learns.
The English language is complex. Systematic presentation helps
students manage and master the complexities. A carefully designed
program that directly teaches the complete code and progressively
builds skills and knowledge in a direct systematic manner prevents the
chaos and confusion that is created when you toss the entire complex

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English language at the student at one time. Systematic presentation
helps the student make sense of our complex written language. The
purpose of a carefully controlled systematic presentation is to help the
student learn.
Always Provide Immediate Correction

Do not allow the student to learn or practice skills incorrectly.

Immediate correction is especially critical in remediation. Correction is
necessary to help the student extinguish incorrect approaches and
develop necessary skills. It is a disservice to allow a student to
perform a skill incorrectly. It is always easier to learn the correct way
than to try and unlearn incorrect habits. If the student can not correct
himself, or does not understand then you need to teach them the skill
they are lacking. As the teacher, it is your job to ensure the student is
learning correctly. Correction is NOT a negative action but rather a
positive opportunity to help the student learn correctly.
Develop Phonemic Awareness

Directly develop phonemic awareness skills. Although some children

and adults have a definite natural phonological weakness, phonemic
awareness (PA) can be taught and learned. The scientific evidence
proves that PA instruction has a significant positive effect on both
reading and spelling. Directly teach students how to hear, recognize
and manipulate sounds within words. To maximize effectiveness the
program needs to directly link the phonemic awareness skills to print.
When remediating older students it is particularly important not only to
develop PA but to link these oral PA skills directly to the printed
phonemic code.
Develop and Engrain Proper Tracking
It is essential the student develops and engrains proper directional
tracking where they process letters in order from left to right. It is
especially important to directly teach and emphasize proper directional
tracking to remedial readers. Many struggling readers make frequent
tracking errors. They try to look at all the letters at once or hop around
searching for words or portions of words they recognize. Overcoming
these incorrect strategies requires direct work on proper tracking skills.
Physical pointing, with either the finger or other pointer, is a highly
effective way to directly teach this critical skill. The multisensory
benefits of having the student physically move their finger or pointer
(kinetic motion) develops and engrains this essential sub skill.
Especially in remediation, you need to ensure the student processes all

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the letters in a word in order from left to right. Teach this essential skill
until proper tracking is automatic.
Teach Smooth Blending
The skill of smoothly blending individual sounds together into words is
critical. The student needs to learn how to say the sounds smoothly
without pausing between the sounds. The instructor needs to always
demonstrate the correct blending technique of not pausing between the
sounds. Choppy/segmented sounding out makes it very difficult for
some students to push the sounds back together into a word. They
might know all the individual sounds but by the time they get to the end
of the word with separated choppy sounding out they forget what
sounds they just said or add in extra sounds when they try to put it all
together. If the student keeps the sounds smoothly ‘hooked’ together,
the word doesn’t ‘fall apart’. If the student has any difficulty with this
essential skill, it is important to directly teach smooth blending.
Teach the Complete Phonetic Code

Directly teach the complete phonetic code. All necessary phonograms

need to be directly and systematically taught. The phonograms are the
alphabetic letters or groups of letters that symbolize the smallest
speech sounds of English. The student must have knowledge of the
direct print to sound relationship. Although it is best to start with the
simple and most frequently encountered sounds, it is not adequate to
stop there. It is essential to teach the complete code necessary to
master our phonemic based written English language. This includes
teaching: the sounds written with more than one letter (/th/ /sh/ /ch/
/oy/..); the multiple sounds for the vowels (o=/o/, /oa/ and /u/); the
numerous vowel-combinations (ee, ea, oa, oi, ai, ou) the multiple
sounds for certain letters/combinations of letters ( s = /s/ in sit & /z/ in
has); the r-controlled vowel combinations (ar, or, ir, ur, air, ear. etc.,)
and other complexities (ph=/f/).
The student needs to look at the black printed letter(s) and
immediately and directly know and process the correct sound.
Teaching activities should establish this direct accurate print = correct
sound efficient processing. The sound knowledge needs to be direct,
automatic, and phonetically correct print to sound. Avoid indirect
processing as it is inefficient and makes reading harder for the student.
For example, activities that link the sight of printed letters to a
word/object (‘b’ = book), or link letters or sounds to a picture ‘b’ or /b/ =
 are indirect processing. A well designed direct systematic phonics
program teaches the complete phonetic code including the multiple
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sounds for the vowels, the consonant digraphs, vowel combinations,
r-controlled vowels and other complexities. It uses direct and accurate
print to sound instruction. It includes systematic presentation and
allows the student time to practice so that the sound knowledge is
automatic. An effective program helps the student acquire automatic,
direct knowledge of the complete phonemic code, an essential skill for
proficient phonologic processing.
Use Targeted Multisensory Processes
Multisensory processes refer to utilizing the different senses to aid
learning. The general concept is we learn and remember more when
we involve multiple senses including visual processes (pictures,
‘seeing’ images), auditory/oral processes (listening and talking), and
physical/kinetic processes (motion, hands on, doing). Multisensory
instruction applies two or more of these senses to enhance learning.
However, to be effective in developing reading skills these multisensory
activities must be carefully targeted. Multi-sensory approaches in
themselves will not help a student learn to read unless they directly
build the exact skills necessary for proficient reading. Effective
multisensory activities directly teach correct directional tracking,
develop phonemic awareness, create a direct and automatic link
between print and sound, teach smooth blending, and establish correct
proficient phonologic processing. It is not the multisensory process
itself but the application of these multi-sensory processes to the
development of specific skills that is key to enhanced learning.
For instance, neural research clearly identifies the direct link between
print and sound is necessary to develop proficient reading pathways.
This automatic direct link between printed letter and the correct sound
is the required skill activities need to target. An effective multisensory
instructional activity is having the student write the printed letter while
saying the sound. This simple action directly links the motion of
forming the printed letter (kinetic), image of the completed letter (visual)
to saying and hearing the correct sound (auditory). This targeted
application and integration of the multisensory processes is highly
effective in helping the student learn the necessary skill.

In contrast, multisensory activities that are not targeted to develop

necessary skills (based on the science of proficient reading) have
limited benefit. Activities can even be detrimental if they unintentionally
create incorrect processing or utilize energy for unnecessary indirect
efforts. A jumping jack, dance or hand sign are misguided application
of the kinetic process because these motions are unrelated to skills
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necessary for reading print. These activities may actually develop
indirect, inefficient processing. We know auditory and oral processes of
saying and hearing sounds are critical to phonologic processing.
However, saying sounds incorrectly, practicing sounds without linking
them visually to the printed letters, orally chanting words or singing
songs will not directly develop necessary skills of converting printed
letters to their correct sound, blending these sounds into words and
developing phonologic processing pathways. Similarly, looking at
objects or images, color coding, and other such unrelated visual
activities are misguided. Teaching a student to visual ‘recognize’ words
by their overall appearance (sight word approach) can be detrimental
because it undermines the phonologic processing essential for
proficient reading. Remember to be effective, multisensory activities
must focus on developing necessary skills.
Mixed in with the multisensory instruction, there is often a good deal of
discourse about ‘multiple intelligence’ and ‘multiple learning styles’.
These terms refer to theories about how individuals have specific
strengths and how some children learn better with certain styles. This
theory professes views such as a student with strong ‘visual
intelligence’ learns better with visual instructional approaches and a
student with strong ‘auditory intelligence’ learns best with oral
instructional methods. It is very important to realize while individuals
absolutely do have specific strengths, this does not mean that
proficient reading is achieved by many different pathways. The neural
science is clear. To read proficiently the student must convert print to
sound and develop phonologic processing pathways. An assumption
such as strong visual learners would best learn to read using visual
processing completely ignores the science of proficient reading. In
fact, this false assumption is most detrimental to the students with the
naturally strong ‘visual intelligence’ and weak phonemic awareness as
these students are least likely to develop the necessary phonemic
processing on their own. Instruction that encourages the use of visual
processing actually leads these strong ‘visual’ students further down
the incorrect processing pathways. Reading instruction needs to be
designed to develop the specific skills necessary for proficient reading.
An individual’s unique strengths and weaknesses make it even more
important to directly develop necessary skills. It is especially important
to specifically teach, emphasize and develop strong phonemic
processing skills in students who are naturally weakest in these areas.
Left on their own, many students with poor phonemic awareness rely
on their natural strengths and fail to develop necessary phonologic
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processing pathways. It is also important to realize building a student’s
skills for proficient reading never negates or somehow minimizes their
other natural strengths. For instance, if a student has strong visual
skills, developing their phonemic awareness and teaching them to read
with phonologic processing skills will not eliminate their strong visual
skills. It will simply teach them to apply phonologic processing when
reading. Effective reading instruction is not designed to match an
individual's existing strengths but rather designed to intentionally
develop and build skills and processes necessary for proficient
reading.

In summary, multi-sensory activities are effective tools in helping

students learn to read. However, these activities must be carefully
designed and targeted to directly teach and reinforce the
skill/knowledge necessary for proficient reading. While students may
naturally have specific learning strengths and weaknesses, proficient
reading requires the development of phonologic processing pathways.
Effective reading programs use a variety of carefully designed and
targeted multi-sensory activities to directly teach and develop the skills
necessary for proficient reading.
Emphasize Attention to Detail
To read proficiently, the student needs to learn to pay attention to
detail. Teach the student to carefully look at all the sounds within a
word and stop him immediately if he skips details. This emphasis on
attention to detail is especially important with reading remediation as
you need to extinguish the old habit of not looking at all the details and
replace it with the careful attention to detail. Proper tracking is also
intertwined into the attention to detail skill. An effective remediation
program should be designed to directly teach, develop and reinforce
this critical skill that is essential for skilled reading.
Develop Phonologic Processing (Use a Direct Systematic Phonics
Approach)

The student needs to learn to read by using phonologic processing.

The most effective way to ensure students convert print to sound and
develop the phonologic processing necessary for proficient reading is
to teach them with a strong phonics-first direct systematic phonics
program. Directly teach students to convert letters into sounds and
blend these sounds into words. Validated research shows this type of
direct-systematic-phonics instruction has significant benefits for
children in K through 6 th grade and in children having difficulty learning
to read. True phonics based programs teach students printed letters
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represent specific sounds and how to blend these sounds into words.
To maximize effectiveness, you need to teach the student explicitly and
directly in a systematic and complete manner. An important note: this
absolutely is not a blanket endorsement for all ‘phonics’ programs.
Many programs labelled ‘phonics’ use indirect, embedded methods or
are in fact just sight word programs with a token addition of a few
sounds. Other ‘phonics’ programs are incomplete or rely on indirect
memorization of long complex lists of rules.
Remediation is not only teaching the correct skills but also helping the
student overcome old incorrect habits. By design remediation programs
need to insure the student develops and uses correct techniques.
Teaching strategies must also prevent the use of incorrect strategies.
Remember phonologic processing is more than knowing the sounds.
Efficient phonologic processing requires integration of direct knowledge
of the complete phonemic code, proper directional tracking, smooth
blending, and attention to detail.
Research provides neurobiological proof effective instruction using
direct-phonological-based reading programs can develop the neural
pathways for proficient reading in both children and adults. Effective
programs that specifically taught letter-sound correspondence not only
improved reading skills in struggling readers, but actually changed
brain activity form incorrect neural pathways to the “correct” pathway
that good readers use.
Ensure Phonologic Processing - Avoid Sight/Whole Word Reading
It is important to avoid teaching a sight word approach where the
student learns to “read” by trying to recognize what whole words “look
like”. Many students who struggle with reading have adopted this
incorrect ‘whole word’ visual word recognition strategy. Remediation
must focus on eliminating this detrimental habit of trying to visually
recognize the entire word.
A ‘whole word’ approach to reading fails because there are too many
words and words are too similar to learn by overall visual appearance.
Initially, a simple short list can be successfully “read” by whole word
strategies and guessing. For example, a short list of visually different
words like a, the, cat, ball, house, green. This whole word identification
“instant reading” may be exciting at first but can encourage the child to
develop incorrect reading strategies where they think “reading” equates
to simply looking at what the word looks like, recognizing a few letters,
and then “word guessing”. Some children, especially those with strong
visual memory skills, are very good at this in the beginning. However,
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as vocabulary expands visually similar words are encountered. The
student who has adopted a whole word reading strategy is certain to
fail. Not only are there absolutely too many words but words are too
visually similar. A child starts school with something like a 24,000 word
speaking and listening vocabulary. His vocabulary is up above 40,000
by 3rd grade. It is impossible to learn such an extensive vocabulary
visually as whole words. Remember, only 26 letters make up all those
words. To read proficiently, the student must look at each and every
letter in order and process it phonologically. The neural imaging
studies confirm this. The linguistic fact is our written language is NOT
made up of whole word “pictures” but sounds that blend together to
form spoken words. In linguistic history, written alphabets replaced
pictographs precisely because there were too many words to represent
by pictures.
The problem is apparent when you observe students who have been
instructed in whole word methods and adopted ‘whole word’ visual
reading strategies. Their reading errors clearly show how they
mistakenly look at appearance or physical structure of the word, look
only at a few letters or at part of the word, mix up the order of the
letters, or simply make wild guesses. These students say “very” for the
word every, “made” for dim, “doctor” for describe, “sleep” for speed,
“smell” for small, “volume” for value, “have” for van, “poured” for sprout,
“mile” for lime and “soft” for often. They wildly guess un-common
learned words like “chimp” for chart and “prehistoric” for plenty.
Frequently, the ‘wild guesses’ are words they specifically have tried to
visually memorize. They look at very simple phonetic words like “rod”
and “fat” and say, “I don’t know the word”. They cannot read very
simple phonetic words even when they quickly recognize a word like
‘elephant’. All of these are actual examples I have observed. In closer
evaluation, these students often have poor phonemic awareness, do
not know many necessary sounds, do not track letters in order left to
right, do not look at all the letters, and have poor segmenting and
blending skills. Sadly, they never learned HOW to read and instead
adopted a strategy of trying to memorize the entire look of the word - a
strategy guaranteed to fail. The brain imaging research on dyslexia
confirms and explains why whole word approaches fail. Proficient
reading is dependent on phonological analysis. While some words are
not completely phonetic and are read partly by “sight”, visual
recognition sight word/ whole word reading should not be taught as a
reading strategy.

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Teach Phonetically Accurate Representations of Print - Avoid
teaching “word families” and “blended consonants” as unique
units
Use phonetically accurate representations of print. Avoid teaching with
inaccurate representations of print such as word families (at, ig, it, am
& the hundreds of other possibilities) and blended consonant clusters
(bl, cr, fl, sc, sl, bl & the other 60+ possible beginning and ending
blended consonant sounds) as unique letter/sound units. There is no
need to do this. All it does is add hundreds of additional combinations
for the student to learn. Teach the necessary single sounds and
blending skills and the student can then read all possible combinations.
For example by knowing 6 sounds (a, e, m, n, d, t) and developing
blending skills the student can sound out 10 different common
combinations (am, an, ad, at, and, em, en, ed, et, end). At best, the
teaching of blended consonant and word family units is an inefficient
and indirect way to teach the necessary blending skill. However, the
serious concern is these incorrect representations actually create
reading difficulties in some students.
Problems arise when students adopt a strategy of trying to memorize
the cluster groups as a visual unit instead of processing each sound.
Not only is the sheer number of combinations overwhelming but the
visual similarities between the clusters make visual “what it looks like”
strategies very difficult for a child to master (such as bl, pl, lb, ld). In
addition, if students hop around within words looking for familiar
clusters and word families, they often confuse the left to right tracking
and sounding out skills that are absolutely necessary. They
inappropriately pull out word family combinations from words. They pull
out ‘it’ from wait, ‘in’ from coin, and ‘ag’ from page. These blended
consonant clusters and word family units encourage some students to
not look at all the letters. By overlooking the necessary attention to
detail, students who learn with consonant clusters frequently insert
blended sounds when they are not present. They read camp as
‘clamp’, tack as ‘track’, fake as ‘flake’, tide as ‘tride’, set as ‘sent’.
Because they learned the cluster as a ‘hunk’ they actually ‘see’ the
cluster when it is not there. These difficulties are all actual errors made
by students who were taught word family and consonant cluster
techniques.

It is simpler, more effective and prevents potential reading problems to

teach students the necessary sounds and develop phonemic
awareness and blending skills so they are able to combine any letters.

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Students often do need direct practice the blended consonants sounds
as individual sounds within these consonant clusters are more difficult
to distinguish. For example, many children hear the first sound of ‘grip’
as /gr/ instead of /g/. These students need to develop phonemic
awareness to distinguish the separate sounds. Always teach the
blended consonants as processing and blending of the individual
sounds NOT by learning cluster units. For example, teach flap as
blending /f/ /l/ /a/ /p/ NOT /fl/ /a/ /p/. Same with the common “word
families”; teach the blending of sounds /s/ /a/ /t/ NOT /s/ /at/.
Word families and blended consonant clusters are an inaccurate
representation of our language. From the very beginning, we need to
teach students to carefully process at all the letters in order by sound.
Shortcuts that bypass this process can unintentionally create reading
difficulties in some students. This careful attention to phonetic accuracy
is particularly important in remediation situations.
Guided Oral Reading is Essential

Guided reading is reading out loud to an adult, or other proficient

reader, with feedback. This is NOT independent silent reading. The
key part is ‘guided’. Correction and instruction helps the student learn
and improve skills. The validated research shows guided out loud
reading has significant beneficial impact on word recognition, fluency
and comprehension across a range of grade levels. Guided reading
benefits both good and struggling readers. In contrast, silent
independent reading may not actually improve reading skills for
beginning readers. Numerous studies show the best readers read the
most and poor readers read the least. However, these studies are all
correlational. It may be the good readers simply spend more time
reading. Although it sounds like a good idea to have students read
more alone, there is no research evidence showing independent silent
reading actually improves reading skills. If a poor reader sits flipping
pages and struggling with the reading and making errors, their skills will
not improve, no matter how much time they spend. In contrast, guided
oral reading instruction helps the student improve skills. This is NOT
saying students should not read to themselves, or there are no benefits
for children looking at books, or students do not need to read more.
Rather, it says to improve skills, particularly in learning stages,
students need to read out loud with feedback. At more advanced
levels, silent reading does improve the higher skills of fluency,
comprehension and vocabulary.

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Guided reading has a significant beneficial impact on developing
reading skills and should be a part of reading instructional programs.
Guided reading is particularly important tool in remediating struggling
readers. Guided reading also is the ideal time to help students develop
higher level skills in comprehension.
Develop Fluency
Fluency is the ‘fast’ or ‘automatic’ reading where words appear to be
almost instantly recognized. Fluent readers read quickly and
accurately without effort. Fluency is the objective for phonologic
decoding. The critical information to keep in mind for effective reading
instruction is that fluency or ‘fast reading’ is developed word by word
based on repeated accurate phonologic processing of specific words.
To build fluency, we first have to be sure the student is reading by
correct, accurate phonologic processing (sounding out the word
correctly). This foundation of correct phonologic processing is
mandatory in order for the student to develop fluency. Students do not
become ‘fluent readers’ overnight but rather build fluency word-by-word
over time. With repeated practice correctly reading individual words,
the student adds to their storehouse of ‘fast’/fluent words. Effective
tools to directly build fluency include guided oral reading and a
program of spelling/writing words by sound.
Teach Strategies for Handling Multi-syllable Words

The majority of English words are multi-syllable so it is critical to read

them effectively. It is more difficult to process multi-syllable words. It
requires more advanced strategies and techniques than decoding
simple one and two syllable words. Many struggling readers have
difficulty with multi-syllable words. A remediation program should
include both direct instruction and guided practice in handling multi-
syllable words. Direct practice with common affixes is also effective in
helping students learn how to handle multi-syllable words. If
conducted correctly, spelling can be used as an effective tool for
learning how to process these longer words.
Expand Vocabulary Knowledge
Expanding a student’s vocabulary knowledge is important to reading
development. Vocabulary instruction leads to gains in comprehension
(noted by the National Reading Panel). A comprehensive reading
program needs to include vocabulary development. The student can
acquire vocabulary both incidentally through exposure and through
direct vocabulary instruction. It has been shown that various

135
techniques designed to directly build vocabulary are effective in
expanding vocabulary knowledge and improving reading
comprehension. Optimal learning occurs when vocabulary instruction
involves a combination of different techniques.
Directly Develop Reading Comprehension Skills

Comprehension is deriving meaning from text. Comprehension is a

complex higher level skill. You can take direct actions to help students
develop specific comprehension skills and strategies. While readers
acquire some comprehension strategies informally, explicit or formal
instruction in the application of comprehension strategies has been
shown to be highly effective in enhancing understanding (from the
Report of the National Reading Panel). These strategies help students
think about, remember and understand what they are reading. These
comprehension strategies are effective for non-impaired readers.
Remember, if the student has decoding difficulties you need to first
establish the necessary fundamental decoding skills of proficient
phonologic processing. Otherwise the difficulty decoding will likely
inhibit the development of the more advanced comprehension. Some
students have no difficulty decoding but struggle with comprehension.
These students need direct instruction in developing comprehension
skills. Remediation programs should include direct instruction in
developing comprehension skills. The majority of comprehension
development can be accomplished as a part of guided reading.
Practice reading: Read! Read! Read!
Daily reading is critical. Students should read a minimum of 20-30
minutes every day. Of course, the more reading is better! In learning
and remediation stages the majority of this reading time should be
guided reading (out loud with feedback). As the student’s skills
develop, their reading will shift primarily to independent silent reading.
Practicing correct reading skills is essential to proficiency.
In general the student should read level appropriate material.
Obviously, ‘appropriate’ is a relative term and the student’s reading
level will change and advance as the student gets older and as their
skills advance. The appropriateness of material also varies depending
if they are reading alone or reading out-loud with feedback. Multiple
formal methods and systems for evaluating and rating ‘reading level’
exist. Most are based on readability factors such as vocabulary,
number of multisyllable words, sentence length and structure,
grammar, and complexity of story plot. A few rating systems consider
suitability of the content. Many of these systems provide numerical
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ratings to evaluate and compare books. These technical methods
attempt to provide objective information on the actual ‘reading level’ of
a particular book. The reading level then needs to be considered
relative to the individuals’ skills to determine what is ‘appropriate’ for
the student. In addition to the formal methods, you can simply listen to
your student read and then adjust material to fit.
The following simple rule of thumb can be used to help you determine
if a book is the appropriate reading level for a particular student at a
certain time and situation:
Independent level: This is material the student can read with few
errors. If the student is making only a few errors on a page the material
is at the independent level. This ‘easy’ or independent level is ideal for
silent reading.
Instructional level: The learning level material is where the student
reads with some errors and skill building. If the student is making 4 or
more errors per page the material is considered instructional level and
should be read to an adult as guided reading material. This
instructional or learning level is ideal for guided reading so you can
help the student develop skills.
Frustration level: This is where the material is ‘too hard’. The student
makes frequent errors in every paragraph. The reading level is really
too advanced for the student. It is best to avoid frustration level
material by finding another book. If frustration level material must be
read, it is should be read as guided reading with assistance.
When a student learns to read proficiently, they should be able to read
all grade level material. In other words, a 6th grader may have difficulty
reading a college level physics textbook but should not struggle with
their middle school science textbook or other classroom material. If
grade level material is consistently not ‘appropriate’ for your student,
chances are they are lacking necessary decoding skills and need direct
instruction in developing the necessary phonologic processing skills.
Share the joy of reading

And as always, share the joy of reading. Reading is wonderful.

Students have a natural excitement about reading that can be tapped
into. Teaching students to read using a direct systematic phonics
program does not preclude enjoyment and excitement with reading. In
fact, it is the ability to read well that removes roadblocks and provides
the route to reading enjoyment. The often quoted observation ‘good
readers’ like to read and ‘poor readers’ do not enjoy reading is
137
absolutely true. However, this is a correlational, not a cause and effect,
relationship. This tendency to spend time and enjoy what we are good
at is simply human nature. It is difficult to ‘enjoy’ an activity you don’t do
very well, make frequent frustrating errors and can only accomplish
with difficulty and work. When students learn how to read they are able
to become ‘engaged’ and ‘excited’ about reading. This is particularly
evident in students who have struggled with reading. Once these
students learn how to read there is often a complete 180° change in
their attitude toward reading.

Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of

the Block.

12. What are the common reading problems for students?

______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________
13. Which reading strategies Reading strategies that can help

in developing reading skills?

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________
14 .List some remedial strategies in developing reading skills.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

LET US SUM UP

In this Block, you learnt about development of Literacy Skills, literacy

development stages in reading, pre-requisites for reading skills,
Emergent Literacy skills, Emergent Reading Skills, Pre-literacy Skills to
Teach Children, Pre-requisites for Emergent Reading Skills. You
understood the various pre-requisites for reading and emergent
reading skills, Stages in reading development literacy as Emergent
Readers and Spellers, Alphabetic Readers and Spellers, Word Pattern
Readers and Spellers, Intermediate Readers and Spellers, Advanced

138
Readers and Spellers. After learning the several aspects as discussed
above now you may take the following exercise.

GLOSSARY

 Blended consonants - Consonant blends, also referred to as

adjacent consonants or consonant clusters, are composed of
two or three consonant graphemes that precede or follow a
vowel within a syllable.
 Coding - the process of assigning a code to something for
classification or identification.
 Linguistic knowledge - Linguistic knowledge is represented as a
system of constraints, a grammar, which defines all and only
the possible sentences of the language.
 Literacy - the ability to read and write / competence or
knowledge in a specified area.
 Meta cognition - Metacognition is, put simply, thinking about
one's thinking. More precisely, it refers to the processes used to
plan, monitor, and assess one's understanding and
performance.
 Reading skills - Reading skills are abilities that pertain to a
person's capacity to read, comprehend, interpret and decode
written language and texts.
 Supplementary reading - Supplementary is a little something
extra to fill in a gap, like when your teacher suggests
supplementary reading material that you may or may not get
around to checking out.
 Vocabulary - the body of words used in a particular language.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Visual skills needed for reading are Acuity, Sustained Clear

Focus, Eye Tracking, Binocularity, Eye-Hand Coordination,
Visual Bilateralism, Visual Memory, and Visualization.
2. The three stages of reading literacy are, emergent literacy,
early literacy, and conventional literacy.

3. The purpose of assessment of reading skills

 To identify skills that need review. Assessment provides
teachers with information on what skills students have and have
not mastered. It is needed to help teachers know the skill levels
139
 of their students, since students have varying experiences and
knowledge.
 To monitor student progress. A teacher can learn which
students need review before covering additional content and
which students are ready to move forward.
 To guide teacher instruction. Through consistent assessment, a
teacher can make informed decisions about what instruction is
appropriate for each student.
4. Language comprehension can be assessed in basically the
same way reading comprehension is assessed. However, the
child should not be expected to read any text. Everything from
the instructions to the comprehension questions should be
presented verbally to the child. It is also worth noting that a
child’s listening comprehension "level" is usually considerably
higher than her reading comprehension "level." A child that is
not able to read and understand a passage of text usually has
no difficulty understanding the text if somebody else reads it to
her.
5. One example of an assessment for letter knowledge is to
present a student with a list of letters and ask the student to
name each letter. Another example is to have a student
separate the letters from a pile of letters, numbers, and
symbols. Students can also be asked to separate and
categorize letters by uppercase and lowercase.
6. The use of pictures or photos for improving comprehension
ability. Pictures are valuable in developing the reading-related
language skills of observing, thinking, listening and speaking. In
analyzing pictures, students will be practicing the thinking skills
required in reading for understanding.
7. Strategies to develop independent reading skills
 Meta-cognition.
 Graphic and semantic organizers.
 Answering questions.
 Generating questions.
 Recognizing story structure.
 Summarizing.
8. In Shared Reading, tutors and students read together, thus
allowing student to actively participate and support one another

140
 in the process. Tutors point to text as they read to build word
recognition. And tutors also read slowly to build a sense of story.

9. The types of reading can be classified

 based on purpose

 type of material
 style of reading
 level of assistance

10. Recreational Reading (reading for pleasure and information)

Reading to gain pleasure is recreational reading. Structured
reading activities are usually difficult task for the children.
Therefore it is very important to include reading without
struggling in the reading programmes. Children should be given
daily opportunities to read whatever material they choose,
whatever purpose they set for themselves, in whatever way and
whatever level of comprehension they are capable of, without
adult interference or guidance. Children should be provided with
access to good libraries in class, in school and at home.
11. Bottom-Up model: Bottom-up theories hypothesize that learning
to read progresses from children learning the parts of language
(letters) to understanding hole text (meaning) Much like solving a
jigsaw puzzle & bottom-up models of threading process say that
the reading puzzle is solved by beginning it an elimination of
each piece of the puzzle and then putting pieces together
homage a picture.
12. The common reading problems for students are

Issues with de-coding: Also known as sounding out words, decoding

is when children are able to put sounds to letters in order to sound out
written language.
Poor comprehension: There’s a lot going on in reading, from letter
and word recognition to understanding meaning at the phrase,
sentence and paragraph level. When a beginner reader encounters
vocabulary they do not know or do not recognize due to inaccurate
decoding, they are likely to skip ahead.
Speed : The more students read, the more they encounter unfamiliar
terms. Quite often the context in which these new words are found
gives children all of the clues they need to guess at meaning. As

141
students expand their vocabulary, they recognize more words by sight
and reading speeds up.
13. Reading strategies that can help in developing reading skills
Activate ideas: Help students activate their prior knowledge of a topic
and take guesses about what they are about to read by analyzing
pictures and titles or skimming a text to assess the main idea. You can
also create mind-maps as a pre-reading activity or put a few questions
on the board and have the students start by discussing them in order to
prepare for the reading.
Build vocabulary: The more words a student knows, the easier it will
be to recognize them in reading. Teaching vocabulary is also helpful
for spelling skills. Teachers can provide a glossary alongside a text or
pre-teach key terms before the reading begins. As learning words in
context provides additional depth in meaning, teachers might also
consider providing instruction on contextual guessing.
Teach the commonly used word List: Repeated exposure to high
frequency terms that are common across children’s books and school
worksheets can help children save their cognitive energy for decoding
harder and less frequent vocabulary. Directly teaching these words and
using a bespoke module from a computer program like Touch-type
Read and Spell to reinforce them, can help kids read more quickly and
efficiently.

14. Some of the remedial strategies in developing reading skills

 Pre-teach vocabulary.
 Drill sight words.

 Make use of a variety of books and materials.

 Try different font and text sizes.

 Create a stress free environment

 Guide students to help them establish a steady pace.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Adams, M.J. (1990). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about

print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Aukerman, R. (1981). The basal reader approach to the teaching of
reading. New York: John Wiley and Sons develop reading and
writing skills, Washington: American Psychological Association.
142
Chall, J. S. (1996). Stages of reading development (2nd ed.). Fort
Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovic College Publishers.
Chappuis, J., Stiggins, R., Chappuis, S. & Arter, J. (2012). Classroom
assessment for student learning: Doing it right – using it well.
Pearson.
Curtis, M. E. (1980). Development of components of reading skills.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 72, 656–669
Davies, A. (2012). Making Classroom Assessment work. Connections
Publishing.
Ehri, L.C. (1988). Movement in word reading and spelling. In J. Mason
(Ed.), Reading and writing connections. Needham Heights, MA:
Allyn & Bacon.
Fairbairn, G. (1998). Reading, Writing and Reasoning. Buckingham:
Open University Press.
Ferreiro, E., & Teberosky, A. (1982). Literacy before schooling. Exeter,
NH: Heinemann.
Foes, K. & Sloan, M. (1999). Improving student independent reading
skills through direct phonics instruction. ERIC Document
Reproduction Service No. ED437620.
Greenall, D. & Swan, M. (1986). Effective reading skills for advanced
students. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Grellet, F. (1987). Developing reading skills – a practise guide to
reading comprehension exercises, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Holdaway, D.(1980). Independence in reading. Gasbord, NSW: Ashton
Scholastic.
http://blog.penningtonpublishing.com/reading/how-to-teach-reading-
comprehension/

http://www.coolcatteacher.com/6-reading-comprehension-problems/
http://www.readandspell.com/us/fluency-strategies-for-struggling-
readers.

http://www.readingrockets.org/article/early-reading-assessment-
guiding-tool-instruction
http://www.righttrackreading.com/elementsremed.html

http://www.theindependentbd.com/magazine/details/8098/Significance-
of-Silent-Reading http://education.seattlepi.com/advantages-
sustained-silent-reading-1638.html
https://education.cu-portland.edu/blog/classroom-resources/5-ways-to-
help-students-improve-reading-skills/
https://thisreadingmama.com/the-teaching-of-sight-words-part-1/
143
https://www.er-central.com/contributors/learn-about-extensive-reading-
and-listening/what-is-extensive-reading/
https://www.sedl.org/reading/framework/assessment.html
Johnson, Evelyn and Joseph Jenkins. (2009) "Formative and
Summative Assessment". Education.com. Retrieved online
October 2, 2012.
Juel, C., Griffith, P. L., & Gough, P. B. (1986). Acquisition of literacy: A
longitudinal study of children in first and second grade. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 78, 243–255
Lamme, L. (1985). Growing up reading. Washington, DC: Acropolis.
Lesaux, N. K., & Marietta, S. H. (2011). Making assessment matter:
Using test results to differentiate reading instruction. New York:
Guilford Press.
Liang, L.A. & Dole, J.A. (2006). Help with teaching reading
comprehension: Comprehension instructional frameworks. The
Reading Teacher, 59(8), 742-753.
Lust, B. (2006). Child language: acquisition and growth. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
Macalister, J. (2011). Today’s teaching, tomorrow’s text: Exploring the
teaching of reading. ELT Journal, 65(2), 161-169.
Marzano,R. & Paynter, D. (1994). New approaches to literacy- helping
students
Mendenhall, J. E. (1927). Supplementary reading. [Review of the book
The Supplementary Reading Assignment. C. V. Good]. Journal
of Educational Psychology, 18(8), 576.
Nunes, T., Bryant, P. (2009). Children's Reading and Spelling. Willey-
Blackwell, A John Willey & Sons, Ltd., Publication, p. 296.
Pearson, P; Kamil, M.; Barr, R. and Mosenthal, P. (1984) Handbook of
Reading Research, New York: Longman
Peterson, D. & van der Wege, C. (2002). Guiding Children to be
Strategic Readers. Phi Delta Kappan, p. 83, 437-440.
Peterson, D. & van der Wege, C. (2002). Guiding Children to be
Strategic Readers. Phi Delta Kappan, p. 83, 437-440.
Ryder, R. & Graves, M. (1994). Vocabulary instruction presented prior
to reading in two basal readers.Elementary School Journal, 95,
2, 139-53.
Smith, F. (1982). Understanding Reading. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston.
Strickland, D.S. (1991). Emerging literacy: How young children learn to
read. In B. Persky and L.H. Golubchick (Eds.), Early childhood

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 education (2nd ed.) (337-344). Lanham, MD: University Press
of America.
Teale, W.H., & Sulby, E. (1989). Emergent literacy: New perspectives.
In D.S. Strickland and L. M. Morrow (Eds.), Emerging literacy:
Young children learn to read and write. Newark, DE:
International Reading Association.
Tierney, R. & Readence, J. (2000) Reading strategies and practices: a
compendium. Boston (MA) : Allyn Bacon Publishers.
Tompkins, G. BRithg, R., Pollard M., Winsor, P. (2011). The reading
and writing processes. In Language Arts: Content and Teaching
Srategies (5th Ed.) (136-148). Toronto, ON: Pearson.
Wiley and Sons develop reading and writing skills, Washington:
American Psychological Association.

Web Resources
https://abcsofliteracy.com/pre-reading-skills-successful-readers/

https://www.readingrockets.org/article/early-reading-assessment-
guiding-tool-instruction

https://www.gemmlearning.com/can-
help/reading/programs/reading-problems-age/

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BLOCK 3 DEVELOPING LITERACY SKILLS: WRITING

Structure

Introduction

Objectives

Unit 11 Pre-requisites for writing and emergent writing skills

11.1 Development of Literacy Skills – Writing

11.2 Pre-requisites for writing skills

11.3 Emergent Literacy Writing skills

Unit 12 Assessment of written language at different levels

12.1 Assessment of written language

12.2 Suggestions for assessing student writing skills
12.3 Ways to assess Kid’s writing progress

12.4 Assessment of written language at different levels

Unit 13 Components and types of writing

13.1 Components and Types of Writing
13.2 Types of Writing

Unit 14 Steps and Strategies in Developing Writing

14.1 Steps in developing writing

14.2 Strategies in developing writing

Unit 15 Challenges and Remedial Strategies

15.1 Challenges in Writing

15.2 Remedial strategies to improve writing skills

Let us Sum Up
Glossary

Answers to Check your Progress

Suggested Readings

146
INTRODUCTION

Literacy development is a vital part of child’s overall development. It’s

the foundation for doing well at school, socializing with others,
developing independence, managing money and working. But before
your child learns to read and write, he/she needs to develop the
building blocks for literacy – the ability to speak, listen, understand,
watch and draw. Literacy skills help students gain knowledge through
reading as well as using media and technology. These skills also help
students create knowledge through writing as well as developing media
and technology.
Unlike any other academic skills, the ability to write well is something
that follows from elementary school all throughout the life, so it’s no
wonder there’s such an emphasis on it in school! From creative short
stories and descriptive paragraphs in elementary school to lengthier
prose and argumentative essays in high school, and then implementing
those skills to write many stories, paragraphs, exams etc., the students
spend a great deal of their formative years learning the proper
grammar rules and various writing types. Whether the students are still
in school (elementary, secondary or higher secondary), it’s never too
late to improve students writing skills. In this Block we will discuss
about the pre-requisites for writing and emergent writing skills,
assessment of written language at different levels, components and
types of writing, steps and strategies in developing wiring, and
challenges and remedial strategies.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Block you will be able to:

 Understand Pre-requisites for writing skills.
 Analyse the assessment of written language at different levels.
 Explain the Components and types of writing.
 Describe the Steps and Strategies in Developing Writing.
 Understand the Challenges and Remedial Strategies in writing
skills.

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UNIT 11 PRE-REQUISITES FOR WRITING AND EMERGENT
WRITING SKILLS

11.1 Development of Literacy Skills - Writing

Children can build up their literacy skills in a number of ways, from

practical hands-on activities. But before child learns to read and write,
he/she needs to develop the building blocks for literacy – the ability to
speak, listen, understand, watch and draw. And as he/she gets older,
the child also needs to learn about the connection between letters on a
page and spoken sounds. While most preschool programs will teach
children letter names, more relevant to cracking the code system for
reading is the letter-sound orientation. Thus, you can shortcut your
child’s learning curve by identifying letters by their sounds, as opposed
to by a letter’s name (a la Montessori). For example, instead of calling
the letter an “A,” call it an “aah,” using the short sound for early
learners. By the end of the preschool period, most children will know
their upper and lowercase letters, and understand that letters make up
the sounds in words. They are beginning to sound out words in their
environment or in books. They understand the basic conventions of
print, and can do some basic phonetic (sound-based) spelling in early
story writing or picture labeling. Preschool children understand many
print conventions, such as the left to right, top to bottom orientation of
English words. They know that spaces separate words and can identify
familiar words in favorite books or familiar environments (e.g., reading
the stop sign or a favorite restaurant name). Invite them to write sounds
or words on a dry erase slate and then trace (and erase).
Their fine motor skills vary and some children can produce all letters
and many pictures with precision and accuracy. Others may struggle to
maintain size and form. A fun way to support sound writing (over letter
writing) is to put hair gel, food coloring, and glitter into a zip lock bag.
Tape the bag to the table and use it as a squishy surface for drawing
sounds (e.g., you say “aah” as opposed to “a”) or words. To further
foster fine motor and writing abilities, have your child draw and write
letters or words in shaving cream, finger paint, sand, or rice. Invite your
child to experiment with all sorts of writing tools, such as paints, chalk,
bath crayons, clay, etc. Have him use blocks or magnets to put sounds
together and make early words based on phonetics (e.g., “rope” is
spelled the way it sounds: rop).

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11.2 Pre-requisites for writing skills

Pre-writing skills are essential for the child to be able to develop the
ability to hold and move a pencil fluently and effectively and therefore
produce legible writing. When these skills are underdeveloped it can
lead to frustration and resistance due to the child not being able to
produce legible writing or to ‘keep up’ in class due to fatigue. This can
then result in poor self esteem and academic performance.

Pre-writing skills are the fundamental skills children need to develop

before they are able to write. These skills contribute to the child’s ability
to hold and use a pencil, and the ability to draw, write, copy, and
colour. A major component of pre-writing skills are the pre-writing
shapes. These are the pencil strokes that most letters, numbers and
early drawings are comprised of. They are typically mastered in
sequential order, and to an age specific level. These strokes include
the following strokes: |, —, O, +, /, square, \, X, and Δ.
There are certain basic things which will help in writing of the children,
they are discussed below:
Good observation: Good observation skills need to be developed right
from an early age.
Hand and finger strength: An ability to exert force against resistance
using the hands and fingers that allows the necessary muscle power
for controlled movement of the pencil.
Hand eye coordination: The ability to process information
received from the eyes to control, guide and direct the hands in the
performance of a task such as handwriting.
Bilateral integration: Using two hands together with one hand
leading (e.g. holding and moving the pencil with the dominant hand
while the other hand helps by holding the writing paper).
Upper body strength: The strength and stability provided by the
shoulder to allow controlled hand movement for good pencil
control.
Development of Gross and fine motor skills: Gross and fine
motor skills should be developed in the children to enable them to
hold a pencil and write properly.
Good Memory: Writing also requires good memory, recall and
ability to recapitulate.

149
Crossing the mid-line: The ability to cross the imaginary line
running from a person’s nose to pelvis that divides the body into left
and right sides.
Pencil grasp: The efficiency of how the pencil is held, allowing age
appropriate pencil movement generation.
Object manipulation: The ability to skillfully manipulate tools
(including holding and moving pencils and scissors) and controlled
use of everyday tools (such as a toothbrush, hairbrush, cutlery).
Visual perception: The brain’s ability to interpret and make sense
of visual images seen by the eyes, such as letters and numbers.
Hand dominance: The consistent use of one (usually the same)
hand for task performance, which allows refined skills to develop.
Hand division: Using just the thumb, index and middle finger for
manipulation, leaving the fourth and little finger tucked into the palm
stabilizing the other fingers but not participating.
Regular practice : For developing writing skills the children should
regularly practice it at school and home.
Language development : It is an important prerequisites for
writing.
Reading comprehension : It is also necessary that the reading
comprehension of the child be developed.

Task Prerequisite Skills

Writing Mechanics

Graphemic realization of  Symbolic understanding

writing (symbols have meaning)
 Alphabetic principle (letters
represent speech segments)
 Memory for letters
 Visual discrimination
 Fine-motor skills (handwriting
and typing)

Spelling  Graphemic realization of

writing
 Sound-symbol connection

150
  Recognition and understanding
of spelling conventions and
patterns
 Memory for regularly and
irregularly spelled words

Vocabulary  Linguistic comprehension

 Memory for words

Grammar/syntax/semantics  Recognition and understanding

of grammatical patterns
 Memory for syntactically
correct patterns
 Understanding and application
of semantic conventions

Punctuation/capitalization  Memory for punctuation types

and capitalization rules
 Understanding and application
of punctuation and
capitalization

Writing Process

Acquire knowledge  Auditory, nonverbal, and

reading comprehension
 Short- and long-term memory

Retrieve knowledge  Short- and long-term memory

 Translation of cognitive
information into language

Plan text  Understanding of purpose and

goals of writing
 Knowledge of planning
processes and steps
 Knowledge of various text
structures
 Ability to use or invent
organizing tools to fulfill writing
goals

151
 Construct text  Understanding and application
of text conventions
o Words with appropriate
inflection
o Topic-centered
sentences and
paragraphs
o Organization of
information from broad
to specific
o Situation- and genre-
dependent demands
 Understanding of others'
perspective

Editing text  Application of writing

mechanics (above)
 Ability to recognize errors or
places for improvement
 Ability to monitor text
construction (above) and
monitor content cohesion and
revise text accordingly

Regulating entire process  Application of many of the

skills above
 Knowledge of distinct steps
involved in writing
 Ability to monitor own progress
(executive function)

Ways to improve writing readiness (Pre-Writing) Skills

Hand dominance: Determine and reinforce the dominant hand use in
precision task performance.
Experience: Encourage participation in activities that involve grasping
and manipulating small objects such drawing, puzzles, opening
containers, threading or other related tasks.
Poking and pointing: Practice tasks that use just one or two fingers
(not all at once) e.g. poking games.

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Praise and encouragement when your child engages in fine motor
activities, especially if they are persistent when finding an activity
difficult.
Hand and finger strength (e.g. scrunching, paper, using tweezers, play
dough, pegs).
Sensory play activities (e.g. rice play, finger painting) to assist the
development of tactile awareness.
Hand-eye coordination: Practice activities that involve hand-eye
coordination (e.g. throwing and catching) and crossing the mid-line
(e.g. reaching across the body to pick up items).
Upper limb strength: Encourage play activities that develop upper
limb strength (e.g. climbing ladders, wheelbarrow walking).
Threading and lacing with a variety of sized laces.

Play-doh (playdough) activities that may involve rolling with hands or a

rolling pin, hiding objects such as coins in the play dough or just
creative construction.

Scissor projects that may involve cutting out geometric shapes to then
paste them together to make pictures such as robots, trains or houses.
Tongs or teabag squeezers to pick up objects.

Drawing or writing on a vertical surface.

Every day activities that require finger strength such as opening
containers and jars.
Pre writing shapes: Practice drawing the pre-writing shapes (l, —, O, +,
/, square, \, X, and Δ).
Finger games: that practice specific finger movements related games.

Craft: Make things using old boxes, egg cartons, wool, paper and sticky
or masking tape.
Construction: Building blocks or other construction toys.
Prerequisites for Written Expression

If students are to become successful writers, they must develop the

ability to communicate effectively. Effective written communication
involves two prerequisite skills:

Transcription skills
Grammar skills

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To become successful writers, students must also regulate their writing
behavior and learn the prerequisite skills. Students who struggle with
these skills will find writing to be a frustrating undertaking. Those who
have to concentrate on transcription or grammar may be unable to
think about higher order skills during the writing process.
Transcription Skills: In the context of writing, transcription is the
process of transferring one’s thoughts and ideas into words and putting
those words on paper. Transcription skills are basic writing skills—
primarily handwriting and spelling—and proficient writing requires a
mastery of them.

If students have not yet mastered the mechanics of writing and need to
concentrate on putting their language on paper—for instance, if they
need to concentrate on how to write the letter “h”—they might have
difficulty attending to higher level skills, such as planning and
organizing their compositions. In order to promote effective and
efficient composition skills, teachers may need to adjust demands on
their students’ transcription skills. This can be accomplished by:

 Providing alternatives to handwriting

Keyboarding

Dictation
Software programs
 Telling students not to worry about handwriting and spelling on
the first drafts

 Allowing students to write shorter compositions

 Providing additional instruction that is explicit and
systematic (modeling how to write a paragraph without
addressing handwriting and spelling problems in the first
draft)
Grammar skills: The ability to use proper grammar is necessary if
students are to communicate effectively through written language.
Students must understand:

The order in which words occur

The way words change according to their relationship with
other words

How words are built up into units (e.g., sentences)

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Students who have not yet mastered the formal structure of language
will find it difficult, if not impossible, to construct coherent written
compositions. Imagine trying to write a story in a foreign language of
which you are unfamiliar. Even if you understood the meaning of words
in that language, it would be very difficult to write a coherent story
unless you had mastered its grammar.
Teachers who use explicit instruction (modeling, providing feedback
and ample time for practice) can effectively demonstrate grammar skills
to their students. For example, teachers can model how to revise
compositions by combining simple sentences into complex ones. “The
wind was blowing. There were branches all over the yard” might
become, “The wind blew branches all over the yard.” Teachers can
model additional examples to support students as they learn this skill.
Students can then continue to practice with their teachers’ help;
eventually, they can work with peer partners to practice sentence
combining. Finally, teachers can instruct the students to go back to
their compositions and look for places where they can combine simple
sentences to form complex ones.
11.2 Pre-writing expectations from the children

Age Pre-writing expectation

 Randomly scribbles
1 -2  Spontaneously scribbles in vertical/horizontal and/or
years circular direction
 Imitates a horizontal/vertical/circular direction

 Imitates a horizontal line

2–3
 Imitates a vertical line
years
 Imitates a circle

 Copies a horizontal line

 Copies a vertical line
3–4  Copies a circle
years  Imitates +
 Imitates / and \
 Imitates a square

4 -5  Copies a +
years  Traces a line

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  Copies a square
 Copies a / and \
 Imitates X
 Imitates Δ
 Grasps pencil in writing position

 Copies X
5 -6
 Copies Δ
years
 Recognizes between a big and small line or curve

Table: Pre-writing expectations from the children

11.3 Emergent literacy writing skills

Learning to read is a process that has three stages: emergent literacy,
early literacy, and conventional literacy. A child in the emergent phase
(pre-literacy) is learning about print and sound. This is when they
develop oral language, alphabet knowledge, print awareness,
awareness of spoken sounds and how these sounds are blended
together to form words, and emergent writing skills.
During the early literacy phase, children learn to decode and recognize
words. This phase is all about letter sound relationships and sounding
out words to gain meaning. A child in the conventional literacy stage is
reading and writing for meaning. Strong emergent literacy skills are a
very good predictor of reading success. Since no two home
environments are the same, children learn emergent literacy skills at
different times and at different rates depending on what they are
exposed to. This is why it is so important to have a lot of reading
material available to give your child the opportunity to learn these skills.
Teaching does not always mean sitting at a table with a pencil and
paper! Teaching can be rewarding and fun for both you and your child.
Talk about pictures, letters, sounds, words, symbols, signs, and books.
Emergent writing is the process of understanding that writing is a form
of communication. Children’s reading and writing skills develop
simultaneously, as they are interrelated. This means that reading skills
improve children’s ability to write and writing skills improve children’s
ability to read.

Below we have outlined expectations for emergent writing and how to

encourage your child to develop these skills.

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Interacting with books: Although it’s great to read to your child from a
very early age, this isn’t the only thing that is going to help them with
emergent writing and reading. It’s important not to expect too much too
soon. If you try and force your child into reading with you, they are
going to feel negative about it and will find it much more difficult to
develop their skills. Instead of just having structured reading times
when you read with your child, give them the opportunity to interact
with books freely. This means letting them handle and manipulate
books. Leave books lying around for them to pick up and play with. In
time they will begin to look at and recognise them. You will also find
that your child begins to interact with books verbally. It’s likely they’ll
start babbling when you read to them; this is how they imitate your
reading.
Communication : Something as simple as talking to your children
(even the youngest of babies) can also help to develop their brain
structures and improve their language and literacy skills later on. In
time, children will not only listen to the sound of your voice but also the
words you are saying. Getting them to repeat words when they’re a
little older is a great way to assist them in developing their
vocabularies. Emergent writing is a child's first efforts at creating and
using print in a meaningful way. A child who scribbles, draws, copies,
and prints letters and invents spelling is in an emergent writing stage.
The primary focus in these early years is to encourage your child to
become familiar with using crayons, pens, pencils and paper, and to
teach him that there is a purpose to writing. Allow your child to dictate
letters and stories to you. Encourage him to write notes to
grandparents (and encourage grandparents to send him letters and
cards in the mail).
Play with writing instruments: As we mentioned earlier, reading and
writing are linked, so it is important that you let your child play with
writing instruments such as pens, markers and crayons in order to
facilitate emergent writing. Give them plenty of scrap paper to play with
and leave them to scribble away. Don’t try and get them to write
certain words too early on. It’s more important that your child learns
how to use the instruments and begins to understand how they can
express themselves using them. It’s likely you’re going to end up with
plenty of scribbled-on pieces of paper stuck to your fridge for a good
while but in time, your child will begin to write words and draw pictures
that make more sense to you.

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Writing their name: One of the first words your child is likely to learn
how to write is their own name. This is due to the fact that at this stage,
their own name will be one of the most important things to your child
and something they have heard over and over again. Seeing your
child write their name for the first time will be a huge milestone and
something that should be celebrated. The more you praise and
encourage your child with their emergent writing, the more motivated
they will feel to learn how to write and read other words too.
The research and theoretical developments of the last decade have
dramatically altered how we view young children's movement into
literacy (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). The term literacy relates to both
reading and writing and suggests the simultaneous development and
mutually reinforcing effects of these two aspects of communication.
Literacy development is seen as emerging from children's oral
language development and their initial, often unconventional attempts
at reading (usually based on pictures) and writing (at first, scribbling) --
hence the term emergent literacy. Within an emergent literacy
framework, children's early unconventional attempts at reading and
writing are respected as legitimate beginnings of literacy.

Emergent writing “means that children begin to understand that writing

is a form of communication and their marks on paper convey a
message” (Mayer, 2007, p. 35). Emergent writing progresses along a
developmental continuum. Reading and writing develop simultaneously
and are interrelated. The relationship between reading and writing is
bidirectional (Mayer, 2007) such that reading facilitates writing abilities
and learning how to write in turn improves reading ability. Thus,
progress in one fuels development of the other. Research suggests
that letter-writing instruction and letter-writing activities may improve
emerging literacy skills (Puranik, Lonigan, & Kim, 2011).
a. History and Stages of Emergent Writing
Emergent writing stages can be defined as a theory of literacy
development. It refers to the dynamic and overlapping stages of
early writing ability that all children pass through, leading up to
conventional writing. The theory evolved from the concept of
"reading readiness" or the notion that before children can learn to
read, they must possess a certain mental maturity. Maturationists
such as G. Stanley Hall and Arnold Gesell influenced early theories
of literacy development and educational practices until the mid 20th
century.

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Attitudes toward literacy development began to shift when critics of
reading readiness such as famed teacher Pukulski began to point
out the theory's conception and functional flaws. Specifically,
educators began to realize that literacy is not a static ability that
develops at one distinct point in a child's education, but rather an
ongoing evolution of abilities and attitudes. This conceptualization
of literacy as an emergent, or developing, skill led parents and
teachers to rethink their approach to teaching children how to read
and write.
Drawing: Long before children learn to write, they use writing tools
like markers and crayons to draw pictures. Drawing is the earliest
stage in the emergent writing process. At this point in their
development, children create pictures which represent things, not
words. They can use writing utensils to create shapes on the page,
but in the child's mind the shapes are representations of the world
around them rather than symbols representing the names of those
things. In other words, they are just pictures.
Scribbling: As children continue to develop and become familiar
with the concepts of reading and writing, their intentions and
abilities when drawing will change. Drawing continues but begins to
contain scribbles of "mock handwriting" and can be horizontally
oriented, like the words in a book. Most importantly, the child
intends the scribbles as actual words and may even assign
meaning to their work, such as "This says 'good morning'!" for a
row of loopy squiggles.
Mock Letters: A crucial point in a child's literacy development is
the realization that words are groups of individual letters. At this
point scribbles begin to take shape and letter-like patterns begin
appearing in the child's drawings. Although they are still unable to
write the letters of the alphabet, children's scribbles have gone from
squiggles and loops to alphabetical representations that resemble
real letters.
Letters and Letter Strings: As the child continues to experience
the printed word in their daily life, their scribbles and mock letters
will morph into actual letters with which the child is familiar.
Children may not even be aware that they are drawing actual
letters. Often, letters appear within drawings in a row as "letter
strings." The first letters children write are often those in their own
name or the names of family members.

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 Invented Spelling: This is one of the most pivotal stages of
emergent writing. Children at this stage use letters to create words,
but know little about conventional spelling or phonetics. As a result,
they "invent" words by clustering letters together and assigning
meaning to them. Children in this stage may ask "What did I write?"
signalling that while they are comfortable writing letters in groups
they still cannot "write" conventional words.
Phonetic Spelling: At this stage, children have begun to form
mental associations between letters and sounds and are starting to
create words using that knowledge. These early phonetic words are
sometimes written in all capitals or mixed-case letters and often
include more consonants than vowels. Also, children at this stage
tend to focus on the beginning and ending sounds in words before
they grasp the middle sounds.
Conventional Spelling: Eventually, the child's approximated
spelling turns into conventionally spelled words. At this stage,
children are learning and remembering new words at rapid rates.
The first words to appear during this stage are often the child's
name, followed by words such as "mom", "dad", "cat" or "dog". As
the child's written vocabulary grows and they move through
emergent writing stages their knowledge and grasp of conventional
spelling improves.
b. Pre-requisites for writing skills

 Good observation.
 Good eye hand co-ordination.
 Development of gross and fine motor skills.

 Development of pattern perception.

 Good memory.

 Regular practice.
 Language development.
 Reading comprehension.
c. Development of Emergent Writing

Children go through a series of stages as they are learning to write.

From the first scribbles to writing names, there are anticipated stages.
While the characteristics within these stages may vary upon the child
and the lines between the stages a bit blurry, the series of stages are

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predictable and every child moves through the stages at some point for
some period of time.
Scribbling/Drawing: Scribbling looks random, but to a child scribbles
are very purposeful. While scribbles do not resemble letters or writing,
they do represent the ideas of a young writer. These beginning
attempts to writing can be proud accomplishments to a youngster and
should be encouraged. At his stage, thick crayons and markers on
unlined paper is the most appropriate.
Letter-Like Symbols: At this stage in development, children make the
connection that writers use symbols to convey meaning. Their
scribbles have taken on more shape, such as circles, straight lines, and
other figures of meaning to the child. However, there is little orientation
at this stage, meaning that these letter-like forms will appear all over a
page, not from top to bottom and left to right. Children are excited to
share with others their writing and can often tell a story about their
picture. Crayons, markers and blank paper are still appropriate writing
tools.
Letters: At this stage, children begin to use random, but often times
somewhat familiar letters, such as those in the child’s name. Writing
usually consists of strings of upper case letters with little or no concern
about spacing of letters or between words. During this stage, children
still do not recognize letter-sound relationships in their own writing, so
letter sounds may not correspond to what the child has believed to
have written. At this stage, children gain from expanding their use of
writing materials. Cards, envelopes, notepads, colored pencils and
some pens are motivating to children at this stage of writing.
Letters and Spaces: During this stage of writing development children
learn more about how spoken words correspond with written words on
a page. They often point to familiar words in text, albeit sometimes
wrong, such as the child that holds up a book and says, while pointing
to the title, “Construction,” when the actual title is “Roadwork”.This
demonstrates the child knows concepts of words in writing. However it
is not until kindergarten and first grade where children can master word
spacing in their own writing. Within this stage, children go through a
series of mini stages that include representing initial sounds with
corresponding letters. Children begin to use consonants to represent
words, and then may insert vowels. Although at this point the spelling
of words is more inventive than phonetic. Children gain from using a
range of writing materials, as well as writing for multiple purposes.

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 Conventional Writing and Spelling: The final stage of writing
development children have a fairly firm grasp on letter formation.
Most words are spelled correctly, and those that are not represent
a base in phonics. They have knowledge of upper and lower case
letters, placing on paper, and spacing between letters and words.
With this knowledge, children’s writing looks more traditional like
that of the English language. Regardless of the stage, it is
important to recognize and honor the efforts of your young writer.
Encourage your child to write and share their stories, and take
pride in displaying examples of their writing on the refrigerator or in
their bedroom. This recognition and encouragement is very
motivating to the child.

Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of
the Block.

1. What are the pre-requisites for writing skills?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
2. What are the Pre-writing expectations from a 3 year old child?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
3. What are the Stages of Emergent Writing?

_____________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________

UNIT 12 ASSESSMENT OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE AT

DIFFERENT LEVELS

12.1 Assessment of written language

Assessment is the gathering of information about student learning. It
can be used for formative purposes to adjust instruction or summative
purposes: to render a judgment about the quality of student work. It is a
key instructional activity, and teachers engage in it every day in a
variety of informal and formal ways. Assessment of student writing is a

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process. Assessment of student writing and performance in the class
should occur at many different stages throughout the course and could
come in many different forms. At various points in the assessment
process, teachers usually take on different roles such as motivator,
collaborator, critic, evaluator, etc., and give different types of response.
One of the major purposes of writing assessment is to provide
feedback to students. We know that feedback is crucial to writing
development.
Assessment, therefore, is an essential component of effective
instruction. Airasian (1996) identified three types of classroom
assessments. The first he called "sizing-up" assessments, usually done
during the first week of school to provide the teacher with quick
information about the students when beginning their instruction. The
second type, instructional assessments, are used for the daily tasks of
planning instruction, giving feedback, and monitoring student progress.
The third type he referred to as official assessments, which are the
periodic formal functions of assessment for grouping, grading, and
reporting. In other words, teachers use assessment for identifying
strengths and weaknesses, planning instruction to fit diagnosed needs,
evaluating instructional activities, giving feedback, monitoring
performance, and reporting progress. Simple curriculum-based
methods for assessing written expression can meet all these purposes.

Writing assessment refers not only to evaluating a student's final paper

and assigning it a grade, but also to measuring a student's knowledge
of the elements of writing we have taught him. Assessment is a crucial
part of the instructional process and of a student's growth as a writer,
but it also demands much of the teacher. We might revise an old
writer's saying to read that "we love everything about teaching writing
except the paper work." Yet it is not true that we must assess
everything students write; if we did so, our students would not write
nearly as much as they must if they are to improve. Such purposeful
writing requires a constructive response, feedback that helps students
revise a specific paper and improve their future performance. Students
themselves, however, must also reflect on their own writing and the
strategies they use throughout the writing process, for if students do
not internalize the writing strategies discussed throughout this book,
they will not achieve the independence required to apply this
knowledge in college or the workplace.
A teacher's first responsibility is to provide opportunities for writing and
encouragement for students who attempt to write. A teacher's second

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responsibility is to promote students' success in writing. The teacher
does this by carefully monitoring students' writing to assess strengths
and weaknesses, teaching specific skills and strategies in response to
student needs, and giving careful feedback that will reinforce newly
learned skills and correct recurring problems. These responsibilities
reveal, upon inspection, that assessment is clearly an integral part of
good instruction.

In their review of the existing research on effective instruction

Christenson, Ysseldyke, and Thurlow (1989) found that, in addition to
other factors, the following conditions were positively correlated to pupil
achievement:
 The degree to which there is an appropriate instructional match
between student characteristics and task characteristics (in
other words, teachers must assess the student's prior
knowledge and current level of skills in order to match them to a
task that is relevant and appropriate to their aptitudes);
 The degree to which the teacher actively monitors student’s
understanding and progress; and
 The degree to which student performance is evaluated
frequently and appropriately (congruent with what is taught).
Hughes (2003: 83) suggests that assessing writing involves three
issues:

1. Writing tasks should be set that are properly representative of the

range of tasks we would expect students to be able to perform.
2. The tasks should elicit writing that is truly representative of the
student’s writing ability.

3. The samples of writing can be appropriately scored.

Many different writing tasks can be used to elicit examples of students’
writing ability. The length of text that students produce should be
specified. For example:
 Writing a letter.

 Writing a description of something from a diagram or

picture.
 Writing a summary of text.

 Writing on a topic to a specified length in words or

paragraphs.

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  Completing a partially written text.
 Writing a paragraph using a given topic sentence.

 Completing a paragraph.
 Writing a criticism or a response to a piece of writing.

 Writing a story, based on an outline provided.

Hughes emphasizes that a valid writing test should test only writing
ability and not other skills, such as reading skills or creative ability. A
test that contains a variety of writing tasks gives a more representative
picture of a student’s writing ability than one that contains only one
writing task. The most difficult part of producing a writing test, however,
is developing the scoring procedures that will be used with the test.
Many tests make use of an analytic scoring procedure; that is, a score
is given for different aspects of a piece of writing, such as grammar,
content and organization. Other tests make use of a holistic scoring
method, where a single score is assigned to writing samples, based on
an overall impressionistic assessment of the student’s performance on
the test.

12.2 Suggestions for Assessing Student writing skills

Be sure to know what you want students to be able to do and why.

Good assessment practices start with a pedagogically sound
assignment description and learning goals for the writing task at hand.
The type of feedback given on any task should depend on the learning
goals you have for students and the purpose of the assignment. Think
early on about why you want students to complete a given writing
project (see guide to writing strong assignments page). What do you
want them to know? What do you want students to be able to do?
Why? How will you know when they have reached these goals? What
methods of assessment will allow you to see that students have
accomplished these goals (portfolio assessment assigning multiple
drafts, rubric, etc)? What will distinguish the strongest projects from the
weakest?
Begin designing writing assignments with your learning goals and
methods of assessment in mind. Plan and implement activities that
support students in meeting the learning goals. How will you support
students in meeting these goals? What writing activities will you allow
time for? How can you help students meet these learning goals?

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Begin giving feedback early in the writing process. Give multiple types
of feedback early in the writing process. For example, talking with
students about ideas, write written responses on drafts, have students
respond to their peers' drafts in process, etc. These are all ways for
students to receive feedback while they are still in the process of
revising.
Structure opportunities for feedback at various points in the writing
process. Students should also have opportunities to receive feedback
on their writing at various stages in the writing process. This does not
mean that teachers need to respond to every draft of a writing project.
Structuring time for peer response and group workshops can be a very
effective way for students to receive feedback from other writers in the
class and for them to begin to learn to revise and edit their own writing.

Be open with students about your expectations and the purposes of the
assignments. Students respond better to writing projects when they
understand why the project is important and what they can learn
through the process of completing it. Be explicit about your goals for
them as writers and why those goals are important to their learning.
Additionally, talk with students about methods of assessment. Some
teachers have students help collaboratively design rubrics for the
grading of writing. Whatever methods of assessment you choose, be
sure to let students in on how they will be evaluated.

Do not burden students with excessive feedback. Our instinct as

teachers, especially when we are really interested in students´ writing
is to offer as many comments and suggestions as we can. However,
providing too much feedback can leave students feeling daunted and
uncertain where to start in terms of revision. Try to choose one or two
things to focus on when responding to a draft. Offer students concrete
possibilities or strategies for revision.
Allow students to maintain control over their paper. Instead of acting as
an editor, suggest options or open-ended alternatives the student can
choose for their revision path. Help students learn to assess their own
writing and the advice they get about it.
Purposes of Responding We provide different kinds of response at
different moments. But we might also fall into a kind of "default" mode,
working to get through the papers without making a conscious choice
about how and why we want to respond to a given assignment. So it
might be helpful to identify the two major kinds of response we provide:

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  Formative Response: response that aims primarily to help
students develop their writing. Might focus on confidence-
building, on engaging the student in a conversation about her
ideas or writing choices so as to help student to see herself as
a successful and promising writer. Might focus on helping
student develop a particular writing project, from one draft to
next. Or, might suggest to student some general skills she
could focus on developing over the course of a semester.
 Evaluative Response: response that focuses on evaluation of
how well a student has done. Might be related to a grade. Might
be used primarily on a final product or portfolio. Tends to
emphasize whether or not student has met the criteria operative
for specific assignment and to explain that judgment.

12.3 Ways to Assess Kids’ Writing Progress

Is your students’ writing all over the map? You likely have some
students struggling with basic mechanics and others working on their
authorial flair. Here are five strategies for assessing a wide range of
writing skills fairly and easily. Equally important, this approach will also
save you hours of grading time.
X Marks the Spot: Too often we teachers grade papers as if we are
preparing a manuscript for publication. We proof read, line-edit and
rewrite. Stop now. Refrain from spending all of your time writing long
comments on your students’ papers. A piece of writing filled with
comments and proofreading marks can cause students to feel
overwhelmed and bewildered. The goal is for your students to slowly
gain writing skills and confidence, not to feel discouraged and negative
about writing. Instead, focus on the content of the paper. When you
see a grammar mistake or a spelling error, simply put a small x next to
it. Let your students problem-solve what needs to be corrected. They
figure out the mistakes marked with an x and enter their corrections in
the margin. This will cut back your time and help students grow as
writers and assess their own work. Save the proofreading marks for
your students to do on their own writing, as well as on their peers’
papers.
Write an End Comment Save your comments for the end of your
students’ writing. Your comment should include at least one strength.
Then, it can point out a problem that the student needs to improve.
Finally, it should end with suggestions for the student’s next step in the

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writing process. Students can take your recommendations to assess
their writing and set goals to continue their progress.
Address Common Errors Together If you notice that many of your
students are inserting semicolons willy-nilly or skimping on the textual
evidence, rather than writing this note over and over on each student’s
composition, do a mini-lesson (or three) with the class. By having a
class discussion, students will all receive the same comment you would
have written on many papers in one simple whole-group conference.
Use a Rubric Using a rubric to assess student’s writing is a great way
to see exactly what students are grasping and what they’re struggling
with. Teachers can find premade rubrics or create their own on iRubric.
What makes rubrics efficient is that teachers can circle and add notes
to each category. Then, they quickly calculate the score. Rubrics help
teachers pinpoint exactly what the student needs help with or where
the student needs more of a challenge.

12.4 Assessment of written language at different levels

Written language assessment will be decided by the teacher based on
the level in which the student is. There are various types of
assessment techniques used for various level like pre-primary, primary,
secondary and higher secondary levels. These written language
assessment procedure may vary from class to class or level to level.
There are no common such assessment techniques available for
written language assessment at different levels. So, the class teacher
or language teacher may decide the type of assessment tool or
technique to assess the written language based on the syllabus and
content.

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 Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of

the Block.
4. What are the three types of classroom assessments?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

5. What is an Evaluative Response?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

6. How will you use Rubric in the assessment of writing skills?

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

UNIT 13 COMPONENTS AND TYPES OF WRITING

13.1 Components of writing

There are various components in the writing, they have explained in

the following sections
1. Structures of Language – With modeling and explicit instruction,
students learn to construct simple, compound, complex and
compound-complex sentence structures using colorful sentence
component shapes. As a result students communicate more clearly in
speaking and writing and can tackle reading higher level texts.
2. Grammar – Every first day of the week days, teachers instruct a
new language, grammar or writer’s craft skill engaging multiple learning
channels. Throughout the week that skill is practiced in daily speaking,
writing, sentence styling and revision. Grammar skills follow a
prescribed scope and sequence at each grade level.
Grammatical skill means, it doesn’t mean the ability to remember
schoolbook grammar rules. It means the ability to construct meaningful
sentences. It is the ability to construct sentences, not the ability to
diagram them, which is necessary for writing, and develop and possess
a much higher level of grammatical skill than mere literacy requires. A

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certain elegance, fluidity, and grace in the construction of a sentence is
one of the hallmarks of a good writer in all fields.
3. Process – Instruction begins with the sentence, teaching it with
hands-on sentence shapes to help students understand the
components and importance of sentence structures in reading and
writing. Students build their writing to paragraphs, compositions, stories
and essays. Teachers and students follow Interactive Writing Process
weekly.

 Plan – Organize ideas in planners.

 Verbally Rehearse – Students rehearse their writing from their
planners.
 Show Writing Models and Set Goals – Set goals from the
rubrics or checklists.

 Draft – Break drafting into chunks; and share.

 Assess – Evaluate goals using the rubric.

 Revise – Teach revision lessons: students use revision strips
independently.
 Edit – Correct conventions using kinesthethic editing
techniques.

 Write Final – Students select one of three completed drafts to

take to a final copy.
4. Modes and Genres – Teachers model how to analyze fiction and
nonfiction genres. Students organize their thoughts in brain-stormers
and planners for narrative, informative, explanative, opinion, analytical
and argument writing. Since students learn to write from models,
Writing Alive provides weekly writing models, editorials and articles in
the genres in which they will write. Each week begins with a suggested
mentor text. Students learn to use their writing skills across the
curriculum.
5. Traits – Daily Sentence Styling gives students opportunities to
master revision strategies that improve organization, ideas, content,
word choice, voice, fluency, style and conventions. Explicit instruction
and models equip students to personalize and improve the traits in
their writing.
6. Assessment – Growth is intentional! Students view basic, proficient
and advanced writing models, set goals on diagnostic rubrics before
drafting and assess goals after drafting to guide their revision. Students
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celebrate success as they graph their scores and take ownership of
their writing progress!
7. Compositional skill - Compositional skill is the ability to organize
words to produce an effect. Storytelling is a compositional skill.
Compositional skill is not an extension of grammatical skill. It is a
separate skill.
8. Domain knowledge - Domain knowledge is important for other
reasons than knowledge of the subject matter, as important as that
may be. And there is still another component to domain knowledge.
Every domain has its communication conventions. This is in part its
language, its jargon, but it goes beyond this. Particular domains have
compositional conventions that guide how communications in the field
are structured.
Some of the other basic components the students need for writing
are :-
1) Firstly a good control over the language, you intend
to write the work on.
2) Grammar and punctuation.
3) Creativity and imagination.

4) Brainstorming ideas.

5) Paper and pen or anything else in which you can write in.
6) Patience.

7) Hardwork.

8) Observant.

13.2 Types of writing

Writing is a valuable skill in school and daily life. Writing can help your
child to better understand what she is reading and it is an important
element in building a grade point average. It can also be good for a
child's emotional and mental health, with some studies finding
expressive writing interventions promising for adolescents' well-being.

Writing is ongoing process. It is necessary to develop interest of the

child reading and writing from an early age. A sound base of language
and reading habits would help a child to express himself
independently.

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There are three types of writing such as
 Copying

 Guided writing
 Independent writing
Copying : Copying means observing, looking and doing the same. It
calls for imitation of the same pattern and do the same accordingly. At
the beginning, the children could be ask to imitate gestures or actions.
Teacher can play game of imitation like clapping hands, jumping,
putting hands up etc.. Later children can be ask to imitate the teacher’s
action songs, words or sentences. The children gradually learn to copy
various things. They would also learn to copy the patterns I the sand,
blackboard with their fingers. Various activities like placing beads,
blocks from left to right a line, would also be taken for copying.
Copying patterns with matchsticks is an enjoyable experience. Step by
step children should be encouraged to move fingers over the lines and
join the dotted lines.

Various exercises can be also be given to the children like:

 Copying the pictures and colours,
 Joining dots to complete the picture,

 Copying the alphabets, joining the dotted words,

 Tracing over the patterns,

 Copying the whole words,
 Copying short phrases and sentences altogether. E.g., I have
two balloons.
 Copying short passages, stories, conversations, picture, and
description.
Guided writing : After the children learn to copy patterns, pictures,
words, sentences from the black board, charts or books, they can be
slowly guided to start writing about their experience. In special school
the teacher guide the children to write words phrases and sentences
after a news or conversation, directed activity or a visit. The teacher
can also provide clues and guide the children to expand on a given
topic or and solve various writing exercises and answer the questions.
Different exercises can also be given to the children based on stories,
passages or picture talks. Later, the teacher can guide the children for
writing passages and essays on a given topic.

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Various exercise for developing guided writing are :
 Choosing and writing the words, sentences correctly looking at
the objects or pictures
 Writing various words related to a given word

 Rebus games
 Writing one word answers, short answers, long answers based
on passages prepared on conversations and visits

 Circling/underlining/filling the proper nouns, verbs, adverbs,

adjectives from the given choices
 Using prepositions

 Sequencing a conversation/story

 Writing sentences in various tenses

 Forming various questions for the underlined words/phrases
 Writing words/sentences in a plural form

 Writing sentences using comparative degrees

 Writing rhyming words,

 Connecting pointer words to the object

 Describing picture.
Independent writing : Once the children are guided to write slowly
and steadily, they need to be weaned from guided to independent
writing. Children have to think, reason out and write from their memory,
relating it to their experiences. The writing process consists of
composing, spellings and handwriting. Composing involves planning
and expressive language skills, which include the following:
 The ability to formulate and articulate ideas.

 The awareness of linguistic boundaries.

 Narrative skills such as sequencing, structuring.
 Knowledge and use of syntax, including grammatical usage,
use of complex syntax and linking words.

 Ability to categories and classify.

 Describing shapes, sizes, pictures etc.

 Writing word/sentences in plural form

 Writing sentences using comparative degrees
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  Writing rhyming words,
 Connecting pointer words to the object

The children may also be encouraged to write on their own :

 Words/ sentences

 Form new words from a given word

 Form sentences from a given word

 Writing rhyming words

 Write opposites, pronouns, meanings

 Write short passages, stories of their own

 Sequence stories

 Write few sentences after a visit, activity

 Write their own experiences, news

 Write short essays, stories

 Write a letter, note

 Write a description of something
 Expand on a passage/comprehension/idea

 Write titles and captions

Apart from the above mentioned types of writing, the children also
need to be master in the below described types too. They have
explained in the following sections. Generally use of adjectives and
adverbs for descriptive writing begins between ages 7 and 9. At that
time, they will also begin grouping sentences together into paragraphs.
Children learn how to use different types of writing skills between ages
9 and 11. This is the time when they will understand when to use
narrative, expository, and persuasive writing. By middle school, they
are writing reports and multi-paragraph essays. It's also important to
know how the instructor expects the writing to be framed, and what
techniques or styles are expected to be included in the work.
There are four basic types of writing students will learn as classes
become more writing-intensive.
Narrative : Narrative writing tells a story. Though it’s most commonly
used when in personal essays (along with the lines of "What I Did to
Celebrate the Holidays"), this type of writing can also be used for
fictional stories, plays, or even a plot summary of a story your child has

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read or intends to write. This is likely the most frequently used of the
four most common types of writing, and students will spend a
significant amount of time learning how to write narratives. Narrative
writing is frequently, but not always, in the first person, and is
organized sequentially, with a beginning, middle, and end.
Descriptive : Descriptive writing is used to create a vivid picture of an
idea, place, or person. It is much like painting with words. It focuses on
one subject and uses specific detail to describe that upon which your
child is focused. For example, if your child is asked to write about his
favorite ride at an amusement park, his writing will not only tell the
name of the ride and what it looks like but also describe the sensation
of being on it and what that experience reminds him. In upper grades,
a student's descriptive writing should be more subtle and nuanced,
using figurative and metaphorical language. Descriptive writing is used
in descriptions of fictional and non-fictional characters, poetry parts of
book reports, and in various kinds of observational writing.
Expository : Expository writing is to-the-point and factual. This
category of writing includes definitions, instructions, directions. and
other basic comparisons and clarifications. Expository writing is devoid
of descriptive detail and opinion. Expository writing is a crucial skill.
Students will need expository writing not only in school but also in
many potential careers that aren't primarily writing-oriented. Students
must be able to organize their thoughts, follow a plan, and in higher
grades, conduct research to support their theses. It requires thinking
on multiple levels.
Persuasive : Persuasive writing is a more sophisticated type of writing
your child will be introduced to around fourth grade. It can be thought
of as a debate in writing. The idea is to express an opinion or to take a
stance about something and then to support that opinion in a way that
convinces the reader to see it the same way. Persuasive
writing contains an explanation of the other point of view and uses
facts and/or statistics to disprove that view and support the writer's
position. Some examples of persuasive writing include essays, debate
position papers, editorial pieces such as letters to the editor and book
or concert reviews.

Check your progress

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Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the

Block.
7. What is a Compositional skill?
________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________
8. What is Guided writing?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________
9. What is Persuasive writing?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

UNIT 14 STEPS AND STRATEGIES IN DEVELOPING WRITING

14.1 Steps in developing writing

Writing is one of the things which compulsory for children. All parents
and teachers want children to learn to read and write. Between the
ages of 2 and 6, children observe written messages in the world all
around them. Print surrounds us! In homes children see newspapers,
magazines, books, or various labeled food containers. In the
neighborhood and around town children see traffic signs, billboards,
and signs that identify buildings. In school there are sign boards,
teacher’s writing, paper and writing tools, toys, and labeled shelves.
The list goes on. They are beginning to make sense of all this print in
their environment; connections are being made! Children also see the
people in their lives writing messages that have meaning; a grocery
store list or a note being written. With that, they begin to experiment
with making marks on paper. Through continued explorations, they
make important realizations about writing; that it conveys a meaning
and it has a purpose.

Attention to the mechanics of handwriting (the specific skills necessary

to hold a writing tool and form recognizable letters) should never
overshadow the primary focus of the child’s joy in writing messages to
be read and appreciated by others. It is children’s desire to write –
their names, a note, or their stories – that fuels their passage through

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the following five stages or steps in development of writing: Whether
students are writing by hand or on the computer, many assignments
and exams require students to write short answers or longer essays as
a way of assessing what they have learned. As students get older, they
will be expected to show more sophisticated writing skills, and to
complete more sophisticated tasks through their writing.
To develop this writing there are different steps to be followed are
explained in the following sections.
Step / Stage 1 – Random scribbling (ages 2-3) : Child makes
random contact with the paper and exhibits little muscular control.
Step / Stage 2 - Controlled scribbling (age 3) : Pretend writing is
produced as child scribbles across paper in a linear fashion. Patterns
may be repeated over and over. Shows increased muscular control.
Step / Stage 3 – Mock writing (ages 3-4) : Writing includes letter-like
forms, often arranged in groups or word-like strings. Mock letters may
include characteristics of familiar letters but may be misshapen,
combined, reversed, or inverted. Children often write for a purpose,
and a distinction is made between drawing and writing.
Step /Stage 4 – Writing letters (ages 4-5) : Children name and write
recognizable letters, although letters are frequently reversed. They
write their names and other words that have personal meaning. These
writers show an awareness that letters match sounds.
Step /Stage 5 – Writing words (ages 5-6) : Using inventive spelling,
children group letters to write many words. Mature writing grip has
developed. Children write letters, including lowercase letters more
smoothly and automatically. Dominant hand and use of other hand are
well-developed.
Step /Stage 5 – Writing phrases and sentences (ages 6-7) : Using
inventive spelling, children group letters to write many words and
phrases. Mature writing grip has developed. Children write letters,
including lowercase letters more smoothly and automatically. With the
help of words and phrases they make sentences.

14.2 Strategies in developing writing

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To develop writing skills among students and children different
strategies are adopted and followed by the teachers, they are
discussed in the following sections.
1. Read more (a lot): This might be surprising, but the first step toward
developing writing skills is not to write, but to read! Reading the works
of respected authors will open your eyes and your mind to examples of
good writing. Do you already know the type of writing that appeals to
you? Find out who the leading writers are in that genre and read
through their works. Whether it’s fantasy, academic, humor, poetry,
science fiction, satire, or general prose, reading a lot will help you
recognize what sounds good on paper and, in turn, will help you follow
a similar model in your own writing. And it goes without saying that
reading good writers will expose you to correct grammar and spelling,
as well as a larger vocabulary. There is only one thing that can
prepare for writing is reading. The more the students read, the more
they get. We talk not only about new ideas, creativity, vision of the
world, a perception of different writers; we also talk about vocabulary
and styles used in the books.
2. Devote time to writing: To improve or develop writing skills the
children need to devote themselves to writing at least 30 minutes every
day. Of course, 30 minutes is not enough, but the students need to
work more to be able to create a piece of writing that really works. 30
minutes is enough to write a sentence. But the children need to time to
improve it and to find some stronger words and to find a proper tone. It
is always better to write 30 minutes per day to improve writing skills of
the students. Make writing habit for the students for their development
in writing.
3. Get familiar with various writing styles: Speaking of different
writing styles, get to know the idiosyncrasies that exist between each.
How does academic writing differ from fiction? What makes a good
creative writing sample? What are the different types of poetry and how
do they differ from prose? Becoming familiar with the different styles
will lead to you become a more nuanced and sophisticated writer as
you hone your own voice.
4. Write and/or journal every day: The old adage stands
true: practice makes perfect. It applies to virtually any activity or
endeavor in life. When you want to get better at something, there’s just
no substitute for doing it, and doing it consistently. The same goes for
writing! Write every day. Keep a folder on your desktop with your daily
writing or keep a physical journal if you prefer writing by hand. You may
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not feel like you are developing writing skills from day to day, since
progress can be very gradual, but trust us, you’re getting better with
each day, week, and month of practice! One of the most rewarding
experiences as a student of writing is to look back on your writing
samples from months or years before and recognize just how much
progress you’ve made over time.
5. Read your writing out loud to yourself : This tip is another one
that might not seem intuitive, but it is important. Writing that is good on
paper should also sound good to the reader’s ear, as though they were
a listening audience. When you read you’re writing out loud, you may
notice if it’s choppy, incomplete, or repetitive – things you may not
always notice when you’re busy typing or writing away. Be sure to do
this regularly, not just at the end of your assignment or document.
Getting in the habit of pausing to read every few sentences or
paragraphs helps to keep your momentum flowing and your writing
fresh.
6. Work with a writing tutor: Finally, it can be extremely helpful to
share your work with others, especially those who can give you useful
feedback and individual attention. A writing coach or tutor is key to
developing writing skills, as he or she will have professional experience
and can offer constructive criticism. This final step is especially
valuable if you are planning on submitting a piece to a writing
competition or publication.
a. Ways to encourage writing skills
 Keep pens, felts, crayons, pencils and paper handy for your
child.
 Make letters of the alphabet out of objects e.g. stones, blocks,
buttons, shells, play dough.

 Display your child’s work. Share it with friends and family.

 Get outside and draw and write with chalk on concrete. Use a
stick to write in mud, sand, or snow. A paint brush with water on
the deck is a lot of fun too.

 Cover your refrigerator in magnetic letters.

 Put labels on important things like the door to their room and
their toy box. Or write labels in your first language.
 Go on a word hunt. Show your child how to form the first letter
of a word they are interested in, then go hunting in your house

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 for other words that start with that letter or sound, or see if they
can find them in a book.

 Say the letters in their name aloud as you point to them.

 Get them to ‘read’ their early writing to you.

 Write the story they tell you under their drawing.

 Write a letter together to someone you love.
 Let them see you writing – talk about what you are writing about
(a grocery list or writing a check).
 Look together for writing everywhere – street names, shop
names, writing on cars and trucks.
b. Activities to develop writing skills for young children
Practice writing their name with them, and point out the letters in their
name when see them in other places (on signs, in stores, etc.).
Use games - There are numerous games and puzzles that help
children with spelling while increasing their vocabulary. Some of these
may include crossword puzzles, word games, anagrams, and
cryptograms designed especially for children. Flash cards are fun to
use too, and they're easy to make at home.
Make sure your child sees you writing: She will learn about writing
by watching you write. Talk with her about your writing so that she
begins to understand why writing is important and the many ways it can
be used.
Encourage your child to write, even if she's scribbling: Give your
child opportunities to practice writing by helping her sign birthday
cards, write stories, and make lists.
As your child gets older, write together: Have your child help you
with the writing you do, including writing letters, shopping lists, and
messages.
Suggest note-taking: Encourage your child to take notes on trips or
outings, and to describe what she saw. This could include a description
of nature walks, a boat ride, a car trip, or other events that lend
themselves to note-taking.
Encourage copying: If your child likes a particular song, suggest that
she learn the words by writing them down. Also encourage copying
favorite poems or quotations from books and plays.

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Encourage your child to read her stories out loud: As your child
gets older, ask her to share her stories with you. Listen carefully
without interrupting, and give her positive feedback about her ideas
and her writing!
Praise your child's writing: Take a positive approach and find good
things to say about your child's writing by considering is it accurate,
Descriptive, Original, Creative, Thoughtful, or Interesting.
Practice, practice, practice: Writing well takes lots of practice, so
make sure your child doesn't get discouraged too easily. It's not easy!
Give her plenty of opportunities to practice so that she has the
opportunity to improve.
Encourage the child to draw and to discuss their drawings.
Show an interest in, and ask questions about, the things the child says,
draws, and may try to write.

Ask the child to tell you simple stories as you write them down.
Encourage your child to write her name.
c. Specific strategies for improving student writing skills
Following each strategy is a word that describes whether the strategy
targets motivation, instruction, practice, or feedback.

1. Emphasize to students that good writing skills are important, both

to their satisfactory completion of the unit and to their future
careers. Encourage students to improve their writing
skills. (Motivation)
2. Provide students with an anecdote about the implications of
substandard writing or the value of good writing. For example, you
may talk about a job candidate who missed selection due to his or
her poor writing. (Motivation)
3. Read aloud quality writing done by a former student, and
encourage students to listen to its flow. With the permission of the
writer, name and praise him or her. (Motivation, Instruction)
4. Encourage students to pay close attention to the grammar and
punctuation they see in textbooks and other books and articles, as
well as in any sample paper. (Instruction)
5. Explain to students that certain writing skills are fundamental to
almost all types of writing, but there are also purpose-specific
writing skills and styles. (Instruction)

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6. Tell students: With practice and feedback on performance, writing
becomes better. Learning most complex skills involves many
attempts; students need not feel discouraged if they are not
instantly accomplished writers in a specific genre. Once a certain
level of skill has been reached, the process of writing becomes
increasingly enjoyable. (Motivation)
7. Describe to students the process you use to write journal articles
and reports and how using the process benefits you. This process
might include starting with an outline, completing several drafts of
the document, checking the writing against the requirements, and
asking another individual to proofread the document. (Motivation,
Instruction)
8. Teach students one important rule relating to grammar or
punctuation in each lecture or in each unit. (Instruction)
9. Give students a course-related worksheet, have them write a
précis of its content, and then ask them to critique each other's
writing. (Practice, Feedback)
10. Toward the end of a lecture, ask students to spend five minutes
writing a summary of the content of the lecture. Next, have
students critique each other's writing. (Practice, Feedback)
11. Give a writing assignment and in the marking criteria set aside a
specific number of points for writing quality. Give students a copy
of the marking criteria before they begin writing. (Practice,
Motivation)
12. Explain to students before they complete a writing assignment the
most common writing errors made in the past as well as the rules
the errors violate. (Instruction)
13. Provide students with a list of poorly structured sentences from
assignments of prior years. Ask the students to improve the
sentences, and then discuss the improvements as a class.
(Practice, Feedback)

14. Provide students with a checklist of writing-process suggestions

(e.g., see item 9 above) they can apply to a written assignment.
Ask them to submit a completed checklist with the
assignment. (Instruction)
15. To the extent feasible, correct writing errors on student papers
and provide printed statements of important rules violated by the
errors. (Feedback, Instruction)
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16. Encourage students to learn the rules they violated in making the
errors. (Instruction)

17. Praise students freely for excellent or improved

writing. (Motivation)

Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of
the Block
10. What is Controlled scribbling?
______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________
11. How the children Getting familiar with various writing styles?
______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

12. List few Specific strategies for improving student writing skills.
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

UNIT 15 CHALLENGES AND REMEDIAL STRATEGIES

15.1 Challenges in writing

Students face my problems as challenges in writing. They have

explained in the following sections.
a. General challenges faced by the students in writing
Attention Problem : Children who struggle with attention may be
inattentive and impulsive. An attention problem may manifest itself as:

 legibility in writing

 uneven difficulty getting started on writing assignments

 easy distractibility during writing tasks

 mental fatigue or tiredness while writing

 inconsistent writing tempo

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  many careless errors
 poorly planned papers and reports
Spatial Ordering Problem: Children who struggle with spatial ordering
have decreased awareness regarding the spatial arrangement of
letters, words, or sentences on a page. A spatial ordering problem may
manifest itself in a child's writing as:
 poor use of lines on the paper

 organizational problems

 uneven spacing between letters

 many misspelled words
Sequential Ordering Problem: Children who struggle with sequential
ordering have difficulty putting or maintaining letters, processes, or
ideas in order. A sequential ordering problem may manifest itself in a
child's writing as:

 poor letter formation

 transposed letters and spelling omissions

 poor narrative sequencing

 lack of transitions
Memory Problem: Because so many writing processes need to be
automatic, active working memory is critical. Children may have
difficulty recalling spelling, grammar, and punctuation rules, accessing
prior knowledge while writing, or organizing ideas. A memory problem
may manifest itself in a child's writing as:

 poor vocabulary
 many misspelled words

 frequent capitalization, punctuation, and grammar errors

Language Problem: Good writing relies on a child's language abilities
improving steadily over time. A language problem may manifest itself in
a child's writing as:

 reading back what is written

 difficulty poor vocabulary

 awkward phrasing and unconventional grammar

 inappropriate use of colloquial language

 difficulty with sentence structure and word order
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  trouble with word sounds, spelling, and meanings
Higher-Order Cognition Problem: Children who have difficulty with
higher-order cognition are often unable to use writing to present a
sound argument or convey sophisticated or abstract ideas. A higher-
order cognition problem might manifest itself in a child's:
 with writing tasks that require creativity and/or critical thinking
trouble generating ideas or elaborating on them

 difficulty developing and organizing ideas

 lack of opinion or sense of audience

 difficulty
Grapho-motor Problem: Children with graphomotor problems struggle
to coordinate the small muscles of the fingers in order to maneuver a
pen or pencil, especially as assignment length increases. A child with a
graphomotor problem might:

 write only very short passages

 write exceptionally slowly and with great effort

 use an awkward pencil grip

 lack fluidity in cursive writing
 find it hard to form letters

Writing has now become a huge part of every student's life, starting
with the simplest content to the most complex writing pieces. At this
point, students are asked to craft different types of essays, research
papers and other kinds of creative writing tasks. The reason for this
increase in variety of papers lies in the importance writing carries in
students' lives during and after their education. Writing is a skill
students will need for the future, which is why it is crucial to develop it
to the proper level.
Unfortunately, the majority of students still fail to develop their writing
skills.

 Improper development of analytical and cognitive skills

 Lack of writing practice

 Insufficient word stock and writing mechanics

 No feedback on their writing

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 b. Some other challenges related to writing skills

 Have an awkward pencil grasp.

 Have difficulty controlling a pencil for colouring, drawing or
writing.

 Show a tendency to use their whole hand to manipulate objects

rather than just a few fingers.
 Have poor endurance for pencil based activities.

 Display messy and/or slow handwriting.

 Have difficulty staying within the lines when colouring.

 Apply inappropriate pressure to the paper for pencil based
activities (either too heavy and frequently breaks the pencil, or
too light and ‘spidery’).
 Have poor upper limb strength (weak shoulders).
 Have difficulty coordinating both hands together for two handed
tasks.
 Have poor hand-eye coordination.

 Be verbally skilled but has difficulty showing this on paper (i.e.

writing, drawing or colouring).
 Not meet the pre-writing expectations outlined below.
c. Challenges faced by the students based on the level

Common challenges found in Elementary school writing

 Proper Nouns Not Capitalized

 Sentence Fragments

 Run-on Sentences
 Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement

 Incorrect Noun Plurals

 Incorrect Plural and Possessive Nouns

 Wrong End Punctuation

 Not Forming Compound Sentences

 Lack of Commas in a Series

Common challenges found in middle school writing

 Sentence Fragments
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  Run-on Sentences
 Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement

 Incorrect Noun Plurals

 Incorrect Plural and Possessive Nouns

 Wrong End Punctuation

 Not Forming Compound Sentences

 Sentence Variety

 Paragraph Focus
Common errors found in high school writing

 Sentence Fragments

 Run-on Sentences

 Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement

 Incorrect Noun Plurals Incorrect Plural and Possessive Nouns

 Wrong End Punctuation Not Forming Compound Sentences

 Sentence Variety
 Paragraph Focus
d. Specific challenges faced by the different students in the
class room
Lack of Vocabulary: Vocabulary is not something a child can learn in
a day or by reading the dictionary. If you want to help your child enrich
his vocabulary, you can always try having a conversation where you
insert new words and phrases, giving your child books to read or
simply helping them form content by using vocabulary they learned the
same day at school.
Weak Argumentation: Argumentation is highly important in writing and
will be necessary if your child wants to succeed. When in high school,
students must learn how to argument their thoughts and ideas in order
to be able to write important pieces of content later on, such as an
admission letter or even their resume.
Failing to Structure Ideas Effectively: Writing structure is something
a student learns by learning writing mechanism. However, student's
time at school is limited and they often fail to learn the best way to
structure their ideas in content. This is why parents must work with
their children at home and help them communicate better. Put their

187
argumentation ability to test by raising an issue and see how they cope
with it, direct them when necessary till they feel how to be consistent.
Poor Grammar and Syntax Skills: You can easily notice the progress
your child makes in terms of grammar and syntax if you listen to them
and point out to the mistakes they make. Ask your child what he
learned that day and have conversations often. While speaking to your
child, pay attention to the sentences they form.

15.2 Remedial Strategies to improve writing skills

Many children face problems and challenges in writing, to overcome

different strategies followed by the teachers and they are discussed in
the following sections.
a. General Remedial Strategies to improve writing skills

Parents and teachers can use a variety of manipulative as well as

these tips to make the process easier.

 Show by example the correct way to hold a pencil. Using a “tripod

grip,” hold the pencil equally by the thumb, the side of the middle
finger and the tip of the index finger (Conroy, 2004)

 Make handwriting pleasant without unnecessary stress.

(Olsen,1998)

 Begin with a long sheet of paper slanted on a vertical plane. Tape

or tack this to a wall at the child’s eye-level. As the child masters
this technique, gradually slant the paper to a horizontal plane.

 Begin by tracing the letter in the air with the finger, then a large
stick, move to damp sand and end with finger paint.

 When the child is ready, provide an opportunity to scribble(not the

wall, not the furniture) on paper provided for this purpose.

 Realize children learn best through modelling. As you teach, use

drawings on a white board to illustrate characters or objects in the
story. Ask: how can you follow the story through drawing?

188
  Don’t rush into writing. Allow youngsters time to experiment with
shapes and alphabets by scribbling (Striker, 2001).

 “Publish” children’s writing by turning their early writing into pages

and using a cover that illustrates the book. Place in the reading
center for easy availability.

 Plan for fun opportunities. Watch them grow in creativity,

imagination and skill.

b. Specific Remedial Strategies to improve writing skills

View the improvement of students’ writing as the responsibility of
the teachers: Teaching writing is not only the job of the students and
writing is an essential tool for learning a discipline and helping students
improve their writing skills is a responsibility for all teachers.
Let students know that teacher value good writing: Stress the
importance of clear, thoughtful writing. Teacher who tell students that
good writing will be rewarded and poor writing will be penalized receive
better essays than instructors who don't make such demands. In the
syllabus, on the first day, and throughout the term, remind students
that they must make their best effort in expressing themselves on
paper. Back up your statements with comments on early assignments
that show you really mean it, and the students will respond.
Regularly assign brief writing exercises in the classes: Some
mixture of in-class writing, outside writing assignments, and exams with
open-ended questions will give students the practice they need to
improve their skills.
Give students opportunities to talk about their writing: Students
need to talk about papers in progress so that they can formulate their
thoughts, generate ideas, and focus their topics. Take five or ten
minutes of class time for students to read their writing to each other in
small groups or pairs. It's important for students to hear what their
peers have written.
Improper development of analytical and cognitive skills: Students
need to develop their cognitive and analytical skills in order to improve
their writing. This includes learning to understand and think better,
which is something rarely implemented in high-school education.

189
Lack of writing practice: In order to become better in writing, one has
to practice it. Without sufficient practice, students can never take their
writing skills to a higher level.
Insufficient word stock and writing mechanics: Even the most
talented students need to learn how to understand complex sentences,
differentiate between different nouns, use proper punctuation and
proofread their writing for errors.
No feedback on their writing: Many teachers assign writing tasks to
students, but fail to provide them with comprehensive feedback. Giving
a student a grade for their writing is simply not enough if one wants to
teach them how to write better.
Encourage students to revise their work
Provide guidance throughout the writing process.
Explain that writing is hard work.
Explain the importance of grammar and sentence structure, as
well as content.

c. Common Remedial Strategies to improve writing skills

Encourage Imitation: Teach students how to copy words from labels,
books, and other sources. Provide lists of words your students can
copy from to increase their engagement in academics and leisure
activities. For example, you can provide a list of words students can
copy into search engines to access educational content for school
(solar system, dinosaurs, etc.) and locate information on hobbies
(computer games, stamps, scrapbooking). Once you teach students
this skill, they can also use the print within their environment to develop
their spelling proficiency. A student who can’t remember how to spell
the word “milk,” for instance, can consult a milk carton for a model of
the word.
Teach Spelling Skills: Once students learn to copy other words, they
can progress to spelling words after hearing them spoken. Try these
strategies to boost emerging spelling skills:
 Backward chaining strategy. Present the spoken word and
then provide a written model for the student to trace. Fade the
written model by incrementally removing the letters in the word
from the last letter to the first.

190
  Computer-assisted instruction. Show the student a
word/picture combination, and then ask him to select letters
from a computer-based array to construct the word shown.
 Cover, copy, compare (CCC) technique. Give the student a
piece of paper divided into four columns. The first column
contains the targeted spelling word. The student copies the
word and writes it in the second column. Then the student folds
the first column on the left toward the center (covering the
second column) and writes the word from memory in the third
column. The student unfolds the paper and compares, and if
she’s made an error, she copies the word three times in the
final column.
 Video models. Record a video of yourself writing new words on
a chalkboard, and display the video on a computer while
students type or write the words. Insert a pause in the video to
allow the student time to copy the word. Then insert a blank
screen, during which the student writes the word from memory,
and show the original model once more. (Share the videos with
parents to help them support their child in practicing writing
skills outside the classroom.)
Encourage Sentence Construction: Begin instruction by teaching
students to write, type, or select words when presented with a picture
or object.
 Once students have acquired a small word-to-picture repertoire
of about 50 words, start using sentence starters (“I see a
_____,” “The boy is ______”) to expand the length of these
responses.
 Fade the sentence starters gradually so that students are
independently constructing sentences.
 Once students can write a single sentence about a picture,
encourage them to write multiple sentences about a picture.
Present pictures containing a variety of stimuli and highlight
features of the picture to help students identify content in which
to describe or label. These prompts can then be faded to
ensure students can choose to write about the stimuli that they
deem important.
 Fade the use of pictures so that students can eventually write
about things they have learned. Slowly increase the amount of
time between the observation of the picture and the writing
191
 response. This fading is important, since students will rarely be
asked to write about things immediately present in their
environment.
Teach Narrative Writing: Students who can engage in narrative
writing are able to articulate what they know and share their
perspective on the world around them. Carefully plan instructional
activities to help students acquire narrative writing skills:

 Begin by teaching students to write simple paragraphs. Show

them that a paragraph names a topic and then tells more about
that topic.

 Teach students to apply this rule when writing a paragraph

about a picture. Help the student to identify the content of a
topic sentence by highlighting a key element within the picture.

 Present a visual organizer and show the student how to use it

during planning and while writing his or her paragraphs.
 To give students a model for simple storytelling, show them a
series of pictured events or video recordings of real-life events
(e.g., child plays ball, child falls down, child cries). You might
also give students a series of pictures to sequence themselves
before they write a story.
 Once students can write or construct a paragraph about a
picture or other visual aid, fade the use of visual supports.
Provide Editing and Revision Instruction: You can help improve the
quality and clarity of student writing by prompting them to check their
own work. For example:

 After teaching a student to write simple sentences, instruct the

student to identify whether he or she has included both a
person or a thing and something more about the subject.

 Direct the student to look for ending punctuation.

 Ask students to identify missing elements in their stories. Have
them practice by presenting a variety of examples and having
the student record the presence or absence of the elements.
 Teach students to use checklists to increase the inclusion of
critical elements during writing activities.

 Show students how to graph their use of writing elements and

monitor their own progress, so they can become more
independent and effective writers.
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 d. Suggestions for addressing handwriting difficulties

 For students learning to print/write, teach letter formation in a

methodical method (ie. grouping letters which have similar
formations), emphasizing the correctness of pencil grip, motor
memory for the letter formations, practice for fluency.
 Have the student practice copying for short periods of time and
then increasing the time as fluency increases.

 Encourage the use of pencil grips and/or large mechanical

pencils.
Encourage use of alternative paper material (e.g. for younger
students, paper with raised lines provides a sensory guide for
the student to stay within the lines).
 Encourage training for keyboarding skills so that a computer
can be used for school assignments.
 Teach strategies for every step of writing and reading
summaries.

 Encourage cooperative writing activities.

 Explicitly teach the goals of writing.
 Encourage the use of assistive technology.
 Teach students to write complex sentences.
 Provide teachers with professional learning opportunities.

check you progress

Note : a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end
of the Block.
13. What is Spatial Ordering Problem?
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________
14. What are the Common challenges found in Elementary
school writing?
__________________________________________________
________________________________________________
15. Give few Suggestions for addressing handwriting difficulties.
__________________________________________________
__________________________________________________

193
LET US SUM UP

Lacking vital literacy skills holds a person back at every stage of their
life. As a child they won't be able to succeed at school, as a young
adult they will be locked out of the job market, and as a parent they
won't be able to support their own child's learning. This
intergenerational cycle makes social mobility and a fairer society more
difficult. Developing children's literacy skills is dependent on the
mastery of several areas in the language. In this Block we will discuss
about the pre-requisites for writing and emergent writing skills. Good
written expression draws upon a wide array of underlying component
abilities. Developing these abilities is a lengthy and challenging
process for many children, not only those with learning disabilities.
However, learning disabilities may impact writing in numerous ways
and may make tasks involving written expression particularly arduous.
such as vocabulary weaknesses, may affect written as well as oral
expression. Effective teaching of written expression requires accurate
assessment of underlying component abilities and a comprehensive
program of instruction that addresses all of the abilities needed for
good writing. In this Block we will discuss about the Components and
types of writing.
Academics can help students improve their writing skills by increasing
student motivation to have good writing skills, providing instruction in
writing processes and rules, providing writing practice, and providing
constructive feedback about the students' writing. With high motivation,
students will find ways to improve their writing and will persist in the
effort. To write well, students need to apply appropriate processes,
such as starting early, and to apply the rules of writing, such as
grammar rules. Writing practice helps most when students receive
clear, specific feedback about what to do the same and what to do
differently in the future. Sometimes students may find difficulties and
challenges in writing then the teachers will use various remedial
strategies to overcome the difficulties faced during writing. So, in this
Block we will discuss about the Challenges and Remedial Strategies in
writing skills.

194
GLOSSARY

 Bilateral integration - Bilateral coordination – also known as

bilateral integration – is the ability to use both sides of the body
at the same time.
 Compositional skills - Compositional refers to the way
composers and artists use their skills or techniques in their work
 Conventional writing - A conventional writer is one that has
mastered writing skills and conforms to the standard rules of
grammar, punctuation and language use.
 Emergent writing - Emergent writing is young children's first
attempts at the writing process. Children as young as 2 years
old begin to imitate the act of writing by creating drawings and
symbolic markings that represent their thoughts and ideas
 Graphemic - the study and analysis of a writing system in terms
of graphemes.
 Gross and fine motor skills - Gross motor skills pertain to skills
involving large muscle movements, such as independent sitting,
crawling, walking, or running. Fine motor skills involve use of
smaller muscles, such as grasping, object manipulation, or
drawing.
 Guided writing - Guided writing is a small group approach,
involving the teacher meeting with a group of students with
similar writing needs.
 Persuasive writing - Persuasive writing is a form of nonfiction
writing that encourages careful word choice, the development of
logical arguments, and a cohesive summary.
 Rubric assessment - A rubric is an assessment tool that clearly
indicates achievement criteria across all the components of any
kind of student work, from written to oral to visual. It can be
used for marking assignments, class participation, or overall
grades.
 Scribbling - the action of writing or drawing something
carelessly or hurriedly.
 Visual perception - Visual perception is the brain's ability to
receive, interpret, and act upon visual stimuli.

195
ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1.Pre-requisites for writing skills

 Pencil grasp

 Hand eye coordination

 Bilateral integration
 Upper body strength

 Object manipulation

 Visual perception
2. Pre-writing expectations from a 3 year old child.

 Age  Pre-writing expectation

 Randomly scribbles
 Spontaneously scribbles in vertical/horizontal
 1 -2 years
and/or circular direction

 Imitates a horizontal/vertical/circular direction

 Imitates a horizontal line

 2–3
 Imitates a vertical line
years
 Imitates a circle

3. The Stages of Emergent Writing

 Scribbling/Drawing

 Letter-Like Symbols
 Letters

 Letters and Spaces

 Conventional Writing and Spelling

4. The three types of classroom assessments

 sizing-up assessments

 instructional assessments
 official assessments

196
5. Evaluative Response: response that focuses on evaluation of how
well a student has done. Might be related to a grade. Might be used
primarily on a final product or portfolio. Tends to emphasize
whether or not student has met the criteria operative for specific
assignment and to explain that judgment.
6. Using a rubric to assess students’ writing is a great way to see
exactly what students are grasping and what they’re struggling
with. Teachers can find premade rubrics or create their own on
iRubric. This is my favorite site for creating and adapting rubrics,
and it’s free! What makes rubrics efficient is that teachers can circle
and add notes to each category. Then, they quickly calculate the
score. Rubrics help teachers pinpoint exactly what the student
needs help with or where the student needs more of a challenge.

7. Compositional skill is the ability to organize words to produce an

effect. Storytelling is a compositional skill. Compositional skill is not
an extension of grammatical skill. It is a separate skill.
8. Guided writing: After the children learn to copy patterns, pictures,
words, sentences from the black board, charts or books, they can
be slowly guided to start writing about their experience. In special
school the teacher guide the children to write words phrases and
sentences after news or conversation, directed activity or a visit.
The teacher can also provide clues and guide the children to
expand on a given topic or and solve various writing exercises and
answer the questions. Different exercises can also be given to the
children based on stories, passages or picture talks. Later, the
teacher can guide the children for writing passages and essays on
a given topic.
9. Persuasive writing is a more sophisticated type of writing your child
will be introduced to around fourth grade. It can be thought of as a
debate in writing. The idea is to express an opinion or to take a
stance about something and then to support that opinion in a way
that convinces the reader to see it the same way. Persuasive
writing contains an explanation of the other point of view and uses
facts and/or statistics to disprove that view and support the writer's
position. Some examples of persuasive writing include essays,
debate position papers, editorial pieces such as letters to the editor
and book or concert reviews.

10. Controlled scribbling (age 3) : Pretend writing is produced as child

scribbles across paper in a linear fashion. Patterns may be
repeated over and over. Shows increased muscular control.
197
11. Getting familiar with various writing styles : Speaking of different
writing styles, get to know the idiosyncrasies that exist between
each. How does academic writing differ from fiction? What makes
a good creative writing sample? What are the different types of
poetry and how do they differ from prose? Becoming familiar with
the different styles will lead to you become a more nuanced and
sophisticated writer as you hone your own voice.

12. Few Specific strategies for improving student writing skills in terms
of Motivation, Instruction, Practice and Feedback
 Read aloud quality writing done by a former student, and
encourage students to listen to its flow. With the permission of
the writer, name and praise him or her. (Motivation, Instruction)
 Give students a course-related worksheet, have them write a
précis of its content, and then ask them to critique each other's
writing. (Practice, Feedback)
 Explain to students before they complete a writing assignment
the most common writing errors made in the past as well as the
rules the errors violate. (Instruction)
13. Spatial Ordering Problem : Children who struggle with spatial
ordering have decreased awareness regarding the spatial
arrangement of letters, words, or sentences on a page. A spatial
ordering problem may manifest itself in a child's writing as:

 poor use of lines on the paper

 organizational problems
 uneven spacing between letters

 many misspelled words

14. Common challenges found in Elementary school writing

 Proper Nouns Not Capitalized

 Sentence Fragments

 Run-on Sentences
 Lack of Subject-Verb Agreement

 Incorrect Noun Plurals

15. Few Suggestions for addressing handwriting difficulties

 Have the student practice copying for short periods of time and
then increasing the time as fluency increases.
198
  Encourage the use of pencil grips and/or large mechanical
pencils.
Encourage use of alternative paper material (e.g. for younger
students, paper with raised lines provides a sensory guide for
the student to stay within the lines).
 Encourage training for keyboarding skills so that a computer
can be used for school assignments.

SUGGESTED READINGS

Calvert, D. and Silverman, S. (1983). Speech and deafness (2nd Ed.).

Washington, D.C.: Alexander Graham Bell Association for the Deaf.
Conroy, E.B. (2004). Writing Skill Builders, Book One: A Fun-filled
Book of Prewriting Skills for Beginning Writers. Celtic Cross
Publishing: Lastingham, England.
Davis, B. G. (2002). Helping students write better in all courses.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Graham, S., & Hebert, M. (2010). Writing to Read: Evidence for how
writing can improve reading. Alliance for Excellence in Education.
Washington, D.C.
Graham, S., McKeown, D., Kiuhare, S., & Harris, K. R. (2012). A meta-
analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades.
Journal of Educational Psychology, 104(4), 879-896
Harris, K. R., & Graham, S. (1996). Making the writing process work:
Strategies for composition and self-regulation (2nd edition).
Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.
Horvath, Brooke K. "The Components of Written Response: A Practical
Synthesis of Current Views." Rhetoric Review 2 (January 1985):
136−56. Rpt. in C Corbett, Edward P. J., Nancy Myers, and Gary Tate.
The Writing Teacher's Sourcebook . 4th ed. New York: Oxford Univ.
Press, 2000.

Hughes. A. 2003. Testing for Language teachers.2nd edition.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Murray, D. M. (1985). A writer teaches writing (2nd ed.). Boston:
Houghton Mifflin.
Olsen, J. (1998). Handwriting Without Tears. Quiet Stream Press:
Potomac, MD. Striker, S. (2001). Young at Art: Teaching Toddlers Self-

199
Expression, Problem-Solving Skills & Appreciation of Art. Henry Holt &
Co.: New York, NY.
Olsen, J. (1998). Handwriting Without Tears. Quiet Stream Press:
Potomac, MD. Striker, S. (2001). Young at Art: Teaching Toddlers Self-
Expression, Problem-Solving Skills & Appreciation of Art. Henry Holt &
Co.: New York, NY.
Tharyani, D. K., More, R., Gathoo, V et. Al (2006). Curricular strategies
and adaptations for children with hearing impairment. New Delhi :
Kanishka publishers.
Travagin G, Margola D, Revenson TA (2015). How Effective Are
Expressive Writing Interventions for Adolescents? A Meta-Analytic
Review. Clinical Psychology Review. 2015; 36:42-55.
doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2015.01.003.
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disabilities/writing-issues/6-skills-kids-need-for-written-expression

https://www.unl.edu/writing/assessing-student-writing

https://www.urbanpro.com/a/4-types-writing-skills

https://www.verywellfamily.com/four-types-of-writing-620805

https://www.weareteachers.com/5-quick-ways-to-assess-kids-writing-
progress/

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BLOCK 4 CURRICULAR ADAPTATION

Structure

Introduction
Objectives

Unit 16 Curricular Adaptation- Meaning and Principles

16.1 Curriculum adaptation for CwHI

Unit 17 Need Assessment and decision making for Adaptation

17.1 Determining special curriculum needs of CwHI

17.2 Decision
Unit 18 and Process
18.1 The adaptation process
18.2 Types of adaptation
18.3 Adaptation and making for adaption
Unit 19 Adapting Curriculum- Content, Teaching-learning
Material and Instruction
19.1 Adaption of Curriculum/Curriculum adaptation

19.2 Adapting curriculum-content, TLM, and Instruction

Unit 20 Types of Adaptation Accommodations in Student’s
Evaluation and Examinations

20.1 Adaptation and Accommodations

20.2 Adaptation in Accommodations in Student’s

evaluation and examinations
20.3 Assessment strategies for students with hearing
impairment
20.4 Classroom adaptations for students with Hearing

Impairment

Let us Sum Up
Glossary

Answers to Check your Progress

Suggested Readings
203
INTRODUCTION

Hearing impairment creates barrier in the language development

process. Children with hearing impairment may have deficit language
in both written and receptive when they are not early intervened,
therefore may develop problems in education. The objectives of
curriculum may hence have to be set accordingly. It is important that a
special teacher should realize that children with hearing impairment
have to be taught differently. They may need special attention,
specialized methods and techniques of teaching as well as adaptation
of curriculum to cater to their special needs. In this Block we will
discuss the concept and principles of curriculum adaption for children
with hearing impairment. This Block explains the curricular adaptations,
need assessment and decision making for adaptation, adaptating
curriculum, types of adaption process, adaptation and
accommodations in students evaluation.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Block, you will be able to:

 Understand the meaning and principles of curricular adaptation.
 Describe the Curricular Adaptation and Decision-making Process.
 Describe the process of content adaptation, adaptation of TLM.
 Narrate be the process instruction adaption and measures.
 Understand the meaning of nature of adaptation process.
 Explain the process of types of adaptation and its process
 Describe the Adaptation and Accommodations in Student’s
Evaluation and Examinations.

UNIT 16 CURRICULAR ADAPTATION- MEANING AND

PRINCIPLES

The process of cognitive development of hearing impaired children is

similar to that of ordinary children, only their development tends to be
delayed by various factors, particularly that of language deficit.
Therefore, hearing impaired children should be offered learning
experiences similar to those of ordinary children. The curriculum for
them should basically follow the mainstream curriculum but with
appropriate adaptations to the curriculum materials and teaching
approaches to meet their specific learning needs. As language deficit is

204
the root cause of their learning difficulties, special emphasis should be
placed on the development of language and communication skills in
these children with the help of appropriate teaching resources and
equipment. Due to various reasons children with hearing impairment
are followed the same mainstream curriculum, which will be difficult to
follow by them. So, the curriculum needs to be adapted based on the
needs of children with hearing impairment.

Adaptation refers to adjusting assessments, material, curriculum, or

classroom environment to accommodate a student’s needs so he/she
can participate in, and achieve the teaching-learning goals. Adaptation
is appropriate for students whose needs and learning goals are in line
with the content of the regular curriculum but require a moderate
modification of the depth of conceptual difficulty of that content

Curricular Adaptations are changes permissible in educational

environments which allow the student equal opportunity to obtain
access, results, benefits, and levels of achievement. These
adaptations consist of both accommodations and modifications. Some
curricular adaptations do not fundamentally alter or lower standards or
expectations in either the instructional or assessment phases of a
course of study and can be designated as “accommodations.” These
accommodations provide access to participate in the Least Restricted
Environment (LRE) and an opportunity to demonstrate mastery of
performance standards.
Curriculum adaptation is an ongoing dynamic process that modifies
and adapts the prescribed program of studies to meet the learning
requirements of a student with special needs. It enables the teaching
team to welcome learners of all abilities and ensures that every student
is challenged to learn. Some adaptations do alter or lower standards
or expectations and can be termed “modifications.” These
modifications, although providing access, will necessitate careful
selection of assessment components to achieve accountability for
performance.
A student may be participating in activities in the classroom through the
use of highly modified curriculum. The goal of this participation may be
to access the environment in order to work on alternate functional
curriculum, with goals to achieve maximum independence and quality
of life. Highly modified curriculum may be the means of achieving
inclusion in the activities to achieve other outcomes. A student may be
learning the same curriculum as others, but require substantially
altered materials or instruction much lower in the developmental
205
sequence of general curriculum in order to progress towards academic
mastery.
Curriculum Adaptation is an ongoing process that changes the regular
prescribed curriculum by modifying or adapting it in terms of the
content or delivery of instruction to meet the learning requirements of
students with learning difficulties including children with disabilities. The
content, the teaching process, assessment and evaluation, and the
physical environment may be modified or adapted and activities should
be flexible in order that the students benefit and achieve success in the
classroom. Teachers ought to adapt the curriculum to provide equity
and meet the needs of diverse learners in order that all learners benefit
and can fully participate in the classroom activities. Curriculum
Adaptations are not intended to lower the educational standards.
Curriculum is adapted to make education first and foremost accessible
and secondly to see that no learner is unfairly prejudiced and excluded.
Adjustments or modifications can be made in:
 Teaching and learning environment

 Teaching and learning strategies

 Teaching and learning support materials that enhances a
learners performance and allows at least partial participation in
a learning activity
 Level of support

 Assessment

206
Source: Janney, R, and Snell, M. (2000) Modifying Schoolwork;
Baltimore, Paul H. Brooks Pub. Company
FIGURE 1: Adaptations and its stages
Curriculum Adaptations include, but are not confined to:

a) audio tapes, electronic texts, or a peer helper to assist

with assigned readings
b) access to a computer for written assignments (e.g. use of
word prediction software, spell-checker, idea generator)
c) alternatives to written assignments to demonstrate
knowledge and understanding

d) advance organizers/graphic organizers to assist with

following classroom presentations
e) extended time to complete assignments or tests
f) support to develop and practice study skills; for
example, in a learning assistance block
g) use of computer software which provides text to
speech/speech to text capabilities
h) pre-teaching key vocabulary or concepts; multiple
exposure to materials

i) working on provincial learning outcomes from a lower

grade level

16.1 General Principles in Structuring the Curriculum for children

with hearing impairment (Curriculum adaptation for CwHI)
(Though we discussed in Unit -1, again mentioned below to warm
up once)

Breadth and Depth

Considering the total development of the children and time constraint,
attention needs to be given to maintaining a good balance in the
curriculum in terms of breadth and depth when making adaptations or
when designing learning materials for the children. Neither of these
elements in the curriculum should be emphasized to the exclusion of
the other.

207
Continuity

Change in levels, particularly from the primary to the secondary,

change of schools and change of teachers may possibly leave gaps in
the children's knowledge, which are often an obstacle to progress in
learning. To ensure continuity, the teacher needs to identify these
possible gaps in individual children through assessment and take
remedial action to bridge these gaps without, however, neglecting the
general progress of the whole class.
Previous Knowledge

Learning is often easier and more effective when built upon previous
knowledge. It is therefore important that the teacher should identify the
previous knowledge of individual children in specific subjects and
establish their baselines. Plans as to what learning materials and
teaching approaches to use can then be formulated. This will not only
bridge possible gaps in the children's knowledge but also avoid
unnecessary overlapping of learning materials.
Individual Differences
Though basically schools and classes for hearing impaired children are
encouraged to follow the mainstream curriculum with adaptations,
consideration needs to be given to individual differences in the children
in terms of ability and interest so that individual learning materials can
be designed.
Communication Competence

As the ability to communicate is a prerequisite skill both in studies and

in everyday life, every effort needs to be made to develop
communication competence in the children.
Residual Hearing
There is a general misunderstanding that hearing impaired children
cannot perceive sounds whereas in fact most of these children have
residual hearing. With sufficient training given to the children and with
the help of effective amplification equipment, their use of residual
hearing will help to improve their abilities to perceive sounds in the
environment, which in turn will be helpful to language development.
Therefore, the teacher needs to encourage the children to maximize
their use of residual hearing for language development.

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Language Across the Curriculum

The learning of language should not be confined to language lessons

only. Instead, it should be extended across the curriculum.
Spontaneous language situations can be built casually into the lessons
of other subjects to motivate the children to practice using the
language for communication purposes. However, this should not be
overdone, or these lessons will be turned into language lessons

Check You Progress

Note : a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the
Block.

1. What is adaptation?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

2. How the residual hearing will be a principle of curriculum

adaptation?
________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

UNIT 17 NEED ASSESSMENT AND DECISION MAKING FOR

ADAPTATION

There are several factors that you will need to consider in adapting the
curriculum. Adaptive instructional programs are characterized by
combined teaching strategies, flexible scheduling, individualized
instruction, mastery learning, large and small group instruction,
individualized tutorials and cooperative learning. Further, while we will
need to adapt the form of instruction to meet the individual needs of
children with special needs we will also need to adapt the delivery and
response factors that will face the child in school. Where a student
with special needs is expected to achieve or surpass the learning
outcomes set out in the science curriculum, regular grading practices
and reporting procedures are followed. For students not expected to
achieve the learning outcomes, adaptations and modifications must be
noted in the Individual Education Plan. In this way, instructional and

209
assessment methods may be adapted to meet the needs of all
students.
When deciding on whether to adapt the curriculum or to what degree it
should be adapted for the learner, the following factors should be
considered:
 Can the learner participate?
 Just like his peers?

 Within the environment?

 With the same methodology?

 With the current teaching and learning support materials?

 With same goals?

If the answer to these questions is NO, the educator must understand
that there is a need to adapt the curriculum

17.1 Determining special curriculum needs of Children with

Hearing Impairment

Curriculum is the planned learning experience with intended

educational outcomes. The curriculum of the children should be such
that they focus on the subsequent environment i.e the subsequent
environment the students will encounter after they complete the
school.(high school, college, community). The curricular needs of vast
majority of students at the elementary level , both those with and
without special needs are quite consistent. With appropriate
modification in instruction and with collaborative arrangement, most
students’ needs can be met to a significant extent in the general
education classroom. Along with this there are other needs, which are
• Difference in language ability.
• Provide students with disabilities with a free and appropriate
public education.
• Schools need not provide the best education for students , but
an appropriate education .
• The Disability of the child
• Language level of the child
• Cultural Difference.
• Good instruction in reading , writing and mathematics.
• Curriculum which improves social skills and social competence.
• Curriculum which deals with Career education and life skills
education
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 • Concepts and topics related to life skills can be integrated into
existing subject areas.
• The curriculum should meet the current and long-term needs
• Facilitate their interactions with non-disabled peers,
• Facilitate their transition into middle school.
The basic need assessment for adaptation
• Language based curriculum
• Have to follow the same curriculum as that of hearing children
• Have to follow the textbooks of hearing children
a. Problems related to children with hearing impairment
A big gap between the language level of children with hearing
impairment and the language level of the text and they do not acquire
language but they learn it.Hearing impairment has impact on
communication development which affects social and academic skill
acquisition. They have significant problems in the areas of reading and
writing. Apart from problems in scholastic abilities (academic abilities).
academic support skills) children with hearing impairment have
problem with personal development and other aspects of development
). The content or the subject matter of the text also poses a problem
for children with hearing impairment.
b. Problems related to textbooks
• Textbook language differ from everyday language
• Text book language is attuned to the language of the hearing
children
• Too many concepts are presented together
c. Parameters which affect most are
• Vocabulary load
• Sentence structure (complexity, length)

• Concrete and abstract words

• Figures of speech
• Idiomatic language

• Use of substitutes

• Too many characters to remember

• Length of text

• Improper sequence of information

• Mostly pictures are used as reference for nouns

How do children with HI use the text?

211
 • Try to pronounce without understanding the meaning
• Rarely refer the text books

• Use superficial visual matching while answering the questions

So, teachers/ special educators will modify the content, which leads to
adaption. Then teachers will modify the textbook matter, modify their
instruction strategies and mark the answers in the textbook. It leads to
oversimplification of matter, omission of difficult words, paragraphs,
abstract ideas, concepts etc and learning of answers without
understanding.
Adaptation is required in terms of Language Knowledge, Illustrations
and Presentations in the content/text, teaching learning materials and
in instruction.

17.2 Decision making for Adaptation

This decision-making flowchart can be used to conceptualize the
process of selecting and implementing curricular adaptations. It should
be used as a tool for a team in determining an individual student’s
needs.

Figure 1 : Decision-making flowchart

212
Decision making model for designing curricular adaptations

Source : Udvari-Solner, A. (1994). Curriculum Adaptations Project.

Figure 2 : Decision Making model

A Curricular Adaptation and Decision-making Model examine

various issues, which have discussed in the following paragraphs
Examine the Structure of the Instruction

1. Can the student actively participate in the lesson without

modification? Will the same essential outcome he achieved?
2. Can the student’s participation he increased by changing the
instructional arrangement?
From traditional arrangements to:
• Cooperative groups
• Small groups
• Peer partners
• Peer or cross-age tutors

213
3. Can the student’s participation be increased by changing the lesson
format?
• Interdisciplinary/thematic units
• Activity-based lessons, games, simulations, role-plays
• Group investigation or discovery learning
• Experiential lessons
• Community-referenced lessons

4. Can the Student’s participation and understanding be increased by

changing the delivery of instruction or teaching style?
Examine the Demands and Evaluation Criteria of the Task

5. Will the student need adapted curricular goals?

• Adjust performance standards
• Adjust pacing
• Same content but less complex
• Similar content with functional/direct applications
• Adjust the evaluation criteria or system (grading)
• Adjust management techniques

Examine the Learning Environment

6. Can the changes he made in the classroom environment or lesson
location that will facilitate participation?

• Environmental/physical arrangements
• Social rules
• Lesson location

Examine the Materials for Learning

7. Will different materials be needed to ensure participation?

 Same content but variation in size, number, format

 Additional or different materials/devices
 Materials that allow a different mode of input
 Materials that allow a different mode of output
 Materials that reduce the level of abstraction of information
Examine the Support Structure

8. Will personal assistance be needed to ensure participation?

 From peers or the general education instructor?
 From the support facilitator’?
214
  From therapists’?
 From paraprofessionals?
 From others?

Arrange Alternative Activities that Foster Participation and

Interaction
9. Will a different activity need to be designed and offered for the
student and a small group of peers?
 In the classroom
 In other general education environments
 In community-based environments

check you progress

Note : a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the

Block.
3. List any three steps in decision making flowchart.

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________
4. What has to be examine in the decision making model for curriculum
adaptation?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

UNIT 18 ADAPTING CURRICULUM - CONTENT, TEACHING-

LEARNING MATERIAL, AND NISTRUCTION

18.1 Adaptation of Curriculum / Curriculum adaptation

Adaptation refers to adjusting assessments, material, curriculum, or
classroom environment to accommodate a student’s needs so he/she
can participate in, and achieve the teaching-learning goals. Adaptation
is appropriate for students whose needs and learning goals are in line
with the content of the regular curriculum but require a moderate
modification of the depth of conceptual difficulty of that content.
Curricular Adaptations are changes permissible in educational

215
environments which allow the student equal opportunity to obtain
access, results, benefits, and levels of achievement. These
adaptations consist of both accommodations and modifications. Some
curricular adaptations do not fundamentally alter or lower standards or
expectations in either the instructional or assessment phases of a
course of study and can be designated as “accommodations.” These
accommodations provide access to participate in the Least Restricted
Environment (LRE) and an opportunity to demonstrate mastery of
performance standards.
Curriculum adaptation is an ongoing dynamic process that modifies
and adapts the prescribed program of studies to meet the learning
requirements of a student with special needs. It enables the teaching
team to welcome learners of all abilities and ensures that every student
is challenged to learn. Some adaptations do alter or lower standards
or expectations and can be termed “modifications.” These
modifications, although providing access, will necessitate careful
selection of assessment components to achieve accountability for
performance. A student may be participating in activities in the
classroom through the use of highly modified curriculum. The goal of
this participation may be to access the environment in order to work on
alternate functional curriculum, with goals to achieve maximum
independence and quality of life. Highly modified curriculum may be
the means of achieving inclusion in the activities to achieve other
outcomes. A student may be learning the same curriculum as others,
but require substantially altered materials or instruction much lower in
the developmental sequence of general curriculum in order to progress
towards academic mastery.
Curriculum Adaptation is an ongoing process that changes the regular
prescribed curriculum by modifying or adapting it in terms of the
content or delivery of instruction to meet the learning requirements of
students with learning difficulties including children with disabilities. The
content, the teaching process, assessment and evaluation, and the
physical environment may be modified or adapted and activities should
be flexible in order that the students benefit and achieve success in the
classroom. Teachers ought to adapt the curriculum to provide equity
and meet the needs of diverse learners in order that all learners benefit
and can fully participate in the classroom activities. Curriculum
Adaptations are not intended to lower the educational standards.
Curriculum is adapted to make education first and foremost accessible
and secondly to see that no learner is unfairly prejudiced and excluded.

216
Adjustments or modifications can be made in:
 Teaching and learning environment

 Teaching and learning strategies

 Teaching and learning support materials that enhances a
learners performance and allows at least partial participation in
a learning activity
 Level of support

 Assessment

Source: Janney, R, and Snell, M. (2000) Modifying Schoolwork;

Baltimore, Paul H. Brooks Pub. Company
FIGURE 1: Adaptations and its stages
Curriculum Adaptation for children with Disability

Curriculum adaptation is a specific modification that relates in

instruction or content of a curriculum. These adaptation could be done
by making adjustment for carrying out modification in which a student
learns. Teaching and learning techniques are required to be changed.
217
Provide support through teaching and learning material. Opportunity to
child, involve activity in problem solving and in developing language
and communication skills. As teachers you will have to understand the
specific needs of children with visual impairment, mental retardation,
hearing impairment, learning disability and orthopedic handicap.
Appropriate curriculum will have to be designed by you to develop skills
in reading, writing and arithmetic for specific disabling conditions.
Create and develop curriculum for attention, perception, motor abilities
and language skills.
Curriculum Adaptation for Children with Hearing Impairment

Hearing impairment is a great barrier to the normal development of

language. Language being a very powerful tool of learning its
importance in academic achievement cannot be undermined. The
problems of the hearing impaired people related to social and
intellectual development. To help Hearing Impaired individual develop
optimally in all aspects of learning i.e., social, emotional and cognitive.
It is imperative that early intervention begins with the identification of
the Hearing Impaired child. Preschool programme are important for
CWHI especially for those who have severe and profound hearing loss.
Parents need to know how to help their child acquire language and
communication skills, as well as positive self concept. School
programme is important for HI child. These educational programme are
often most effective when an audiologist, an special educator, educator
and often a person who is deaf are included in the development of a
training programmed.

18.2 Adapting Curriculum- Content, Teaching-learning Material,

and Instruction

Curriculum has a wide range of experiences in and out of the

classroom. It is the totality of all teaching- learning experiences
provided to a child in and outside the classroom for bringing about the
desired results under the guidance of teacher. When curriculum refers
to children with hearing impairment, PWD Act (1995) stresses the need
for curricular adaptation.

Curriculum need to be developed to ensure that the diverse needs of

the learners are addressed especially children with hearing impairment.
The curriculum adaptation process happens in two levels such as

1. Macro level

218
 2. Meso level
Further it is explained as

Source : Lazarus, Daniels & Engelbrecht (1999)

Figure 1 : Levels of curriculum adaptation

Curriculum Adaptation includes many aspects, they have explained in

the following sections

Figure 2 : Main areas of curriculum adaptation

Adapting the Curricular Content

This category of adaptation involves varying what is taught- that is, the
complexity and nature of the content presented during the course of a
unit of the study.

219
Figure 3 : Main areas of curriculum adaptation

Adaptation of the language as a part of the content (text)

Textbook language differ from everyday language. Text book

language is attuned to the language of the hearing children. Too many
concepts are presented together.
Parameters which affect most in the text are

 Vocabulary load

 Sentence structure (complexity, length)

 Concrete and abstract words

 Figures of speech

 Idiomatic language
 Use of substitutes
 Too many characters to remember
 Length of text
So, the responsible of the teacher is to
 Break up long sentences

- Rewrite as two or more short sentences

e.g. – Since municipalities carry out many functions on a large scale ,
they have to spend a lot of money which they get from the taxes that
the people pay.
220
Adapted – Municipalities carry out many functions on a large scale.
Therefore they have to spend a lot of money. They get this money from
the taxes that the people pay.
 Reduce difficult vocabulary load and use simple words

e.g. – Ramu decided to fool Shamu by a clever ruse.

Adapted – Ramu decided to fool Shamu by a clever trick. (Substitution)
Ramu decided to fool Shamu by a clever ruse (trick) (Addition)

e.g. – The Earth goes round the Sun

Adapted – The Earth revolves round the sun (Substitution)

The Earth goes (revolves) round the sun (Addition)

 Use simple conjunctions in a compound sentence

e.g. – There were mass prayers and processions. .Although these
activities were peaceful, the Government resorted to lathi charges and
arrested some people.
Adapted – There were mass prayers and processions. All these
activities were peaceful but the government resorted to lathi charge
and arrested some people.
 Colloquial and idiomatic expressions should be made clear
through meanings.

e.g. – He found himself between the devil and deep sea.

Adapted - He found himself in trouble.

e.g. – I got late, as it was raining cats and dogs.
Adapted - I got late as it was raining heavily.
 Include guiding questions (about facts, application of prior
experience etc.)

e.g. – Chapter ‘Dissolving’

Why does a candy become smaller and smaller in your mouth?
 Breakdown concepts into various units

 Visual supports with illustrative explanations.

Adaptation of knowledge
 Knowledge should be presented step by step

E.g - Chapter: Our Government

221
 Indian Union
Union Government

Parliament
Lok Sabha

Rajya Sabha
 Direct information should be given first, indirect next, trivial later
on and general information last

E.g - Our country is a union of 29 states and 7 union territories (Direct)

E.g - The President of India appoints its Chief justice and other
judges.(General information)

 Do not cut down the content

Adaptation of illustration
Include illustrations such as pictures, sketches, graphs etc, Illustrations
should be placed near the text and Pictures should be expressive.

E.g - Include illustrations such as picture, sketches, graphs etc.

 Illustration should be simple and clear

 Illustrations should be placed near the text

222
Ape like creature appeared: This creature was the early man of
thousands of years ago.

How did the early man look?

The early man looked like an ape

He had no tail.
His head was bigger than that of an ape.
His nose was flat.

His jaw was broad.

He had lots of hair on his body

His eyebrows were thick.

He walked on two legs, but could not stand or walk erect.

His arms were long, reaching up to his knees.

 Pictures should be expressive

E.g - speech balloons can be used wherever necessary

Adaptation of presentation

 Include flowcharts, tables etc

 Present matter in bullet form instead of paragraphs

 Put boxes or use different print for important words, definitions
etc

 Include footnotes.
Adaptation of evaluation

223
  Add simple questions within the text
 Include attractive, innovative assessments like cross word,
puzzles etc

 Make sure to include both language and knowledge

assessment

e.g. On the table were three bowls of porridge. There was a huge bowl
for papa bear. There was a medium bowl for mama bear. There was a
tiny bowl for baby bear.
-What was there on the table ?

-Underline the adjectives in the passage.

Assessment Practices

The final category of curricular adaptation refers to alteration in the way

in which teacher gets information from learners in their class, so
alternative learner responses might include:

 Oral recitation
 Written expression
 Collage

 Graphic displays
 Presentations
 Use a communication book

 Allow students to show knowledge with hands on material

Adapting the Teaching Learning Material / Instructional Material

224
Adapting teaching materials involves making changes to the equipment
and/ or supplies to which a learner(s) has access during the course of
instruction. The process of adapting materials provides additionally, or
simply different, materials, in a variety of modalities (multisensory
approach) that the learners might use during the course of instruction.
Most materials adaptation falls into different groups, they are
1. Adjusting the readability level of written materials

2. Enhancing critical features of the content within the materials

themselves
3. Designing materials with features that appeal to sensory
modalities other than visual/ auditory
4. Selecting alternate instructional materials for their durability or
safety features

Apart from the routine and regular teaching learning materials,

amplification devices for children with hearing impairment are also
treated as instructional material. Induction loop system, Frequency
Modulated hearing aids are more suitable at pre-school level as they
do not obstruct the mobility of the children to provide flexibility to both
the teachers and pre-school children with hearing impairment. Hard
wired system and infrared systems are used in secondary and higher
secondary level, which have mobility restrictions. Apart from the
groups amplification devices, speech trainer and other related
equipment also required to be placed for the CwHI.
 Adapting materials using the following tips will improve the
student’s attention span, accuracy and ability to complete the
assigned task.
 Subtle material adaptations have a greater chance of winning
the student’s approval. From a distance, raised line paper and a
pencil grip are indistinguishable from what classmates are
using.
 Design adapted materials to reflect the same theme and
resemble what classmates are working on. Disguise changes to
content only (e.g., the spelling book has the same cover as
peers, but inside is a cut-and-paste or word-matching activity).

 Learning materials for subject tubs can be created by

volunteers under the direction of the teaching team. Examples
of tub materials are felt figures, cardboard dice and bingo
games.
225
Adapting the Instruction / Instructional Strategies
Adapting curriculum instruction is also one of the strategies in the
curriculum adaptation. Adapting the Curriculum in terms of instructions
refers to the modification of instructional strategy. It affects the nature
of classroom, interest of the child, assessment procedures and
teaching learning practices. Adapting the Instruction / Instructional
Strategies refers to a change in the way a teacher teaches- that is, in
the methodologies she uses to provide information to learners in her
class. There are various types of instructional adaptations are
described in different sources, but one among the best practices are
discussed in the following paragraphs.
5 Types of Instructional Adaptations

The five approaches for adapting instruction in your inclusive

classroom, so students with and without disabilities can participate and
learn academic content. These strategies can be used in any
combination to best meet the needs of your individual learners.
1. Alter the instructional arrangement

Groups of the same size don’t always work for all students. Keep an
eye on what types of arrangements different learners respond to best.
Here are some options for adapting the arrangement of students during
class time:
Let your student work in a group of three when most of her classmates
work in groups of four or five.

Have your student team up with a peer partner when most of his
classmates are working individually.
Add variety to small-group work: when most classmates are working in
student-directed small groups, have the student and a few selected
classmates work in a small group that you sit with and help support.
2. Alter the physical or social environment

A student’s surroundings can have a huge impact on how he or she

learns. Be mindful of and responsive to students with sensory and
attention issues, and make changes to the learning environment to
meet their needs. Some examples:
Give your student the choice to sit at a table instead of a desk (or vice
versa).
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Get your student a larger (or smaller) desk, depending on her
preference.
Let students with sound sensitivities work in a particular part of the
classroom, such as a “quiet space” or study carrel.

Give easily distracted students the option of sitting at a desk closer to

the board. You could even arrange for the student to complete certain
tasks in another part of the school campus, such as the media center
or outdoors.
3. Alter your methods and materials

Multiple means of engagement and representation are two pillars of the

UDL framework. When you teach a new lesson, offer your learners
many different ways to engage with and absorb the content. For
example:

Incorporate more visuals to present content in different ways, such as

maps, pictures, drawings, objects, or videos.
Use graphic organizers to arrange key points in a way students can
easily grasp.
Provide additional models or demonstrations for students who need
extra support during the lesson.

Select concrete materials instead of symbolic representations, or

illustrate symbolic representations with concrete examples.
Make the most of whatever technology is available to you—enhance
your lesson with whiteboards, streaming videos, or remote clickers.
Check for understanding more frequently, using methods that require
active responses from your students. For example, try asking questions
about the lesson material and have your class vote on the answers.
Provide students with differentiated reading material based on their
reading level and/or interests.

Make content easier to learn by giving your student enhanced texts in

which key parts are highlighted, pictures or symbols are added, and/or
text is enlarged.
4. Alter the process or task

For some learners, you may want to modify or reduce the requirements
of assignments. And be sure to give all your learners multiple means of
action and expression (the third pillar of the UDL framework). Let them

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show what they know in a variety of innovative ways, depending on
how they best express themselves. Some examples:
Have your student follow written, pictorial, or audio-recorded task steps
instead of giving them oral instructions.

Modify essay assignments—instead of writing an essay, your student

could demonstrate understanding of the content by completing a chart,
developing a text-to-speech presentation, or creating an outline.

Reduce the number of items students are expected to complete. For

example, your student can receive the same math worksheet as the
rest of the class, but you can ask him to complete only the odd-
numbered items.
Give your student the option of using the same materials as the rest of
the class, but in a different way. On a math worksheet, she could locate
and mark certain numerals instead of completing problems.
Suggest note-taking helpmates such as guided notes or a slot-note
note format, so students can more easily record and recall key
information.
Allow for more creative ways for students to show what they know.
Artistic students might build a model, create a poster, or draw a map a
in place of a written assignment.
5. Alter the level of personal assistance
For learners who need extra support with some tasks, enlist helpers
such as peers, a special educator, or a paraprofessional. They can
provide assistance in a variety of ways, depending on the learner’s
needs:

Have the helper model the steps of a task before the student performs
them on her own.
Encourage helpers to provide additional prompts (verbal, gestural, or
partial physical) when students need them.
Assign the helper to complete some of the task steps with or for the
student.

Ask the helper to give the student immediate feedback and additional
encouragement to reinforce successes.
Curriculum Adaptations include, but are not confined to:

a) audio tapes, electronic texts, or a peer helper to assist with

assigned readings

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 b) access to a computer for written assignments (e.g. use of word
prediction software, spell-checker, idea generator)
c) alternatives to written assignments to demonstrate knowledge
and understanding

d) advance organizers/graphic organizers to assist with following

classroom presentations
e) extended time to complete assignments or tests

f) support to develop and practice study skills; for example, in a

learning assistance block
g) use of computer software which provides text to speech/speech
to text capabilities
h) pre-teaching key vocabulary or concepts; multiple exposure to
materials

i) working on provincial learning outcomes from a lower grade

level
Deppler (1998) provides a good overview of research supported
inclusive instructional strategies which are as follows:
1. Use modeling and demonstrations or role play
2. Use cooperative and partnered learning strategies

3. Use a variety of positive feedback (points, certificates, and

other rewards)
4. Use of variety of modes for learning activities- do not rely on
passive listening – use hands on activities

5. Provide hints or clues to facilitate student responses

6. Give additional time to complete set work

7. Change the pace of instruction

8. Peer tutoring to support students with special needs
9. Strategic instruction aimed at matching the instructional method
to the students individual learning styles

10. Use of computers for one- on- one instruction

Points to remember about curriculum adaptation

Adapting the curriculum meet the needs of diverse learners involved

differentiating instruction to provide all learners with a variety of ways to
process information and demonstration what they have learned, in
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order to “match” the way in which each individual learns most
effectively and efficiently

 Use of Multi sensory channel.

 Speak clearly and loudly.

 Make the student’s hearing aids are switched on during the

class.
 Talk in full sentences.

 Use visual cues / aids for teaching.

 Take time to listen to what the student is saying.

 Meaningful situation & content should be used.

 Reduce the no. of questions.

 Highlight the keywords.

 Provide a list of “Nouns”, “Pronouns” and “Verbs”.
 Appropriate physical or pictorial models should be used to build
mental imaginary for language as well other subjects.
 Instead of telling them, show them.

 Choose models that let them see.

 Use various examples to make the concept clear.
 Involves the students in activities so that the students can
develop the language by active participation.
 Arrange field trips / visits for spontaneous development of the
language.
Please Remember ADAPTATION

 Does not mean cutting down the content or points dropping the
difficult to teach content.

 Makes the text longer than the original text.

 Does not mean summary of the content.

 Does not mean that omit difficult words

 Does not mean over simplify the language

 Does not mean restrict the use of text books

 Does not mean use of excessive illustrations
In fact ADAPTAION involves
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 In-depth instructions.
 Careful explanations.

 Illustration support.
 Links with real life experiences.

 More no of examples.

 Rephrasing.
 Frequent drills for practice (LSRW).

Check You Progress

Note : a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the

Block.
5. What are the levels of curriculum adaptation process?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

6. What is Adaptation of presentation?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

7. What are the important points to remember about curriculum

adaptation?
________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

UNIT 19 TYPES OF ADAPTATION AND PROCESS

19.1 The Adaptation process

Adaptation refers to adjusting assessments, material, curriculum, or

classroom environment to accommodate a student’s needs so he/she
can participate in, and achieve the teaching-learning goals. Adaptation
is appropriate for students whose needs and learning goals are in line
with the content of the regular curriculum but require a moderate
modification of the depth of conceptual difficulty of that content.
Curricular Adaptations are changes permissible in educational

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environments which allow the student equal opportunity to obtain
access, results, benefits, and levels of achievement. These
adaptations consist of both accommodations and modifications. Some
curricular adaptations do not fundamentally alter or lower standards or
expectations in either the instructional or assessment phases of a
course of study and can be designated as “accommodations.” These
accommodations provide access to participate in the Least Restricted
Environment (LRE) and an opportunity to demonstrate mastery of
performance standards.

Curriculum Adaptation for Children with Hearing Impairment

Hearing impairment is a great barrier to the normal development of

language. Language being a very powerful tool of learning its
importance in academic achievement cannot be undermined. The
problems of the hearing impaired people related to social and
intellectual development. To help Hearing Impaired individual develop
optimally in all aspects of learning i. se, social, emotional and cognitive.
It is imperative that early intervention begins with the identification of
the Hearing Impaired child. Preschool programme are important for

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CWHI especially for those who have severe and profound hearing loss.
Parents need to know how to help their child acquire language and
communication skills, as well as positive self concept. School
programme is important for HI child. These educational programme are
often most effective when an audiologist, an special educator, educator
and often a person who is deaf are included in the development of a
training programmed.

19.2 Types of Adaptation

Nine Types of Adaptations

Input Output Time

Adapt the way Adapt how the learner Adapt the time allotted
instruction is can respond to and allowed for
delivered to the instruction learning, task
learner. completion or testing.
For example:
For example:
For example: Individualize a timeline
Allow a verbal vs. written
for completing a task;
Use different visual response; use a
pace learning differently
aids; plan more communication book for
(increase or decrease)
concrete examples; students; allow students
for some learners.
provide hands-on to show knowledge with
activities; place hands-on materials.
students in cooperative
groups.

Difficulty Level of Support Size

Adapt the skill level, Increase the amount of Adapt the number of
problem type, or the personal assistance items that the learner is
rules on how the with specific learner. expected to learn or
learner may approach compete.
the work.

For example:
For example:
For example:
Reduce the number of
Assign peer buddies,
Allow a calculator for social studies terms a
teaching assistants, peer
math problems; simplify learner must learn at any
tutors or cross-age
task directions; change one time.
tutors.
rules to accommodate
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 learner needs.

Degree of Participation Alternate Goal Substitute Curriculum

Adapt the extent to Adapt the goals or Provide the different
which a learner is outcome instruction and
actively involved in expectations while materials to meet a
the task. using the same learner’s individual
materials. goals.
For example: For example:
For example:
In social studies, expect Individualize a timeline
In geography, have a
one student to be able to for completing a task;
student hold the globe,
locate just the states pace learning differently
while others point out
while others learn to (increase or decrease)
the locations.
locate capitals as well. for some learners.

Source : Ebeling, D.G. , Deschenes, C., & Sprague, J., (1994). Adapting
Curriculum & Instruction in Inclusive Classrooms.
Figure : Types of adaptations
The types of Adaptation process

A five-step curriculum adaptation process to meet learning and

behavior needs is presented, involving
 determine need for curricular adaptations,
 identify elements requiring adaptation,

 select teaching and behavior management techniques,

 implement curricular adaptations, and

 monitor progress of adaptations.

Check You Progress

Note : a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of
the Block.

8. What are the types of curriculum adaptations?

________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

9. What is Substitute Curriculum?

________________________________________________________
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________________________________________________________

UNIT 20 ADAPTATION AND ACCOMMODATIONS IN

STUDENT’S EVALUATION AND EXAMINATIONS

20.1 Adaptation and Accommodations

Adaptation refers to adjusting assessments, material, curriculum, or

classroom environment to accommodate a student’s needs so he/she
can participate in, and achieve the teaching-learning goals. Adaptation
is appropriate for students whose needs and learning goals are in line
with the content of the regular curriculum, but require a moderate
modification of the depth of conceptual difficulty of that content.
Curricular Adaptations are changes permissible in educational
environments which allow the student equal opportunity to obtain
access, results, benefits, and levels of achievement. These
adaptations consist of both accommodations and modifications. Some
curricular adaptations do not fundamentally alter or lower standards or
expectations in either the instructional or assessment phases of a
course of study and can be designated as “accommodations.” These
accommodations provide access to participate in the Least Restricted
Environment (LRE) and an opportunity to demonstrate mastery of
performance standards.

Adaptation is a modification to the delivery of instructional methods and

intended goals of student performance that does not change the
content but does slightly change the conceptual difficulty of the
curriculum. Adaptations usually require more teacher effort and time
than simply changing instructional methods or access as in an
accommodation. An adaptation is a goal-driven process: in order to
decide on an adaptation to curriculum, teachers first need to specify
intended goals for individual students. Again, examples of adaptation
abound, and include providing differentiated activities, homework, and
evaluations, and using adapted or different instructional materials and
activities for individual students.
Adaptations in integrated general classrooms often occur when
teachers differentiate instruction. For instance, teachers can create
writing lessons that meet individual students’ unique needs by having
students work on adapted assignments. While some students are
engaging in a writing assignment individually, students with learning

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disabilities may work on their assignment in a small group with teacher
support. The teachers may also modify the content of the writing
activity depending on students’ needs. While the teacher requires
some students to compose using the five new vocabulary words from
the lesson, the students with a learning disability may select three of
the five new words from the lesson and make appropriate use of them
in the context of their work.

Accommodations can help kids learn the same material and meet the
same expectations as their classmates. If a student has reading issues,
for example, she might listen to an audio recording of a text. There are
different types of classroom accommodations, including presentation
(like listening to an audio recording of a text) and setting (like where a
student sits).

Accommodations are changes in course content, teaching strategies,

standards, test presentation, location, timing, scheduling, expectations,
student responses, environmental structuring, and/or other attributes
which provide access for a student with a disability to participate in a
course/standard/test, which DO NOT fundamentally alter or lower the
standard or expectations of the course/standard/test.

Accommodations accomplish this objective without modifying the

curriculum. “Some curricular adaptations do not fundamentally alter or
lower standards or expectations in either the instructional or
assessment phases of a course of study and can be designated as
‘accommodations’.” In other words, students receiving
accommodations read the same material and take the same tests as
their peers without disabilities. Accommodations to Consider to
Address the Access and Learning Needs of Students with Hearing
Loss.

Testing accommodations can be different from those used for

instruction. For example, using a spell-checker might help a student
with writing difficulties take notes during class but wouldn’t be
appropriate during a weekly spelling test. However, this student might
benefit from having extra time to complete the spelling test or using
typing technology if the physical act of writing is difficult.

20.2 Adaptation and Accommodations in Student’s Evaluation

and Examinations

Accommodations to Consider to Address the Access and Learning

Needs of Students with Hearing Loss.
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Amplification Options

___Personal hearing device (hearing aid, cochlear implant, tactile

device)
___Personal FM system (hearing aid + FM)

___FM system/auditory trainer (without personal hearing aid)

___Walkman-style FM system

___Sound-field FM system
Assistive Devices
___TDD
___TV captioned
Communication Accommodations
___Specialized seating arrangements
___Obtain student’s attention prior to speaking
___Reduce auditory distractions (background noise)

___Reduce visual distractions

___Enhance speech reading conditions (avoid hands in front of face,
mustaches well-trimmed, no gum chewing)
___Present information in simple structured, sequential manner
___Clearly enunciate speech

___Allow extra time for processing information

___Repeat or rephrase information when necessary
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___Frequently check for understanding
Physical Environment Accommodations

___Noise reduction (carpet & other sound absorption materials)

___Specialized lighting

___Room design modifications

___Flashing fire alarm

Instructional Accommodations

___Noise reduction (carpet & other sound absorption materials)

__Use of visual supplements (projected materials, whiteboard, charts,

vocabulary lists, lecture outlines)
__Captioning or scripts for announcements, television, videos, or
movies
__Speech-to-text translation captioning (i.e., computer on desk)
__Educational interpreter (ASL, signed English, cued speech, oral)

__Buddy system for notes, extra explanations/directions

__Check for understanding of information
__Down time / break from listening

__Extra time to complete assignments

__Step-by-step directions
__Note taker

Curricular Modifications

__Modify reading assignments (shorten length, adapt or eliminate

phonics assignments)

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__Modify written assignments (shorten length, adjust evaluation
criteria)

__Pre-tutor vocabulary
__Provide supplemental materials to reinforce concepts

__Provide extra practice

__Alternative curriculum

Evaluation Modifications

__Reduce quantity of tests or test items

__Use alternative tests
__Provide reading assistance with tests
__Allow extra time

Other Considerations
__Supplemental instruction (speech, language, pragmatic skills,
auditory, speech reading skills)

__Counseling

__Sign language instruction

__Transition / Vocational services
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__Family support
__Deaf/Hard of Hearing role models

__Recreational/Social opportunities
__Financial assistance

__Monitor progress periodically by a specialist in Deaf/Hard of Hearing

20.3 Assessment Strategies for Students with Hearing Impairment

Adjustment of assessment tasks will depend on the individual and the

course requirements. It is possible that students may have experienced
considerable disadvantage in education and allowances may be
necessary with regard to spelling, grammar and written expression.
Assignments
 Students may require more time to complete assignments.
 Options may include giving a verbal presentation in sign
language with an interpreter, or a computer-assisted
presentation.
Tutorials
 Allow more time for presentation, particularly when an interpreter
is being used.

 Student may prepare written paper for interpreter or other

student to read, with questions asked and answered via the
interpreter.
 Tutor ensures that time taken to interpret does not disadvantage
the student's assessment with regard to participation in
discussion and debate in the group.

 One-on-one discussion with the tutor may be preferable for

assessment purposes, because of a student's difficulty in
following spontaneous group discussion.
In-Class / Online Examinations

 Any exam question errors will need to be notified in writing by

the exam supervisor.

 May require extra time to complete exam papers.

 Written instructions replace information usually read aloud by the
examiner.

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  Interpreter may need to be present to translate oral instructions
and information.
 Oral examinations or a one-on-one presentation may be
preferable.

 A separate exam room may be necessary if the student is using

assistive technology, or requires extra time.
 Students may request a video recorded 'signed' examination,
answering the exam questions using sign language which is
video recorded for transcription to text.
 Some students may need to use a personal computer with
spelling and grammar checkers, dictionary and thesaurus.

20.4 Classroom Adaptations for Students with Hearing

Impairments

Students with hearing impairments can benefit from instruction in

general education classes if specific adaptations are made. Specific
accommodations vary depending upon the degree of hearing
impairment and whether students have interpreters to accompany them
throughout the school day. If you have a student with hearing
impairments in your class, establish classroom emergency procedures
for use during fire and tornado drills. Many fire alarms can be equipped
with a light that flashes while the bell rings, alerting students with
hearing impairments. Consider assigning a peer assistant who can
pass along information that comes from the announcement system and
who can be a buddy during any emergency situations. In addition to
these guidelines, consider the following strategies
Adapt the physical environment so students are seated close enough
to the front of the class to maximize their hearing and enable them to
read speech. They should also be able to turn to face other students
while they are speaking. Because hearing aids are extra sound-
sensitive, loud or irritating noises should be avoided. Consider
choosing a room with carpeting and located away from noisy school
areas, such as the cafeteria and gym.
 Use technology, including hearing aids, television captioning,
adapted telephone equipment (TTY), computer-assisted
instruction, and the Internet. When appropriate, use FM sound
systems, which include cordless microphones for teachers, and
receivers that attach to hearing aids for students. Pass your
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 microphone to classmates who are speaking in a class
discussion so they can also be heard.
 Use visuals such as illustrations, diagrams, pictures, and three-
dimensional models to introduce vocabulary and concepts and
enhance comprehension.
 Use language cards that contain vocabulary and illustrations of
concepts and definitions that can accompany verbal
presentations. Encourage students to maintain personal
dictionaries of their language cards.
 Create authentic experiences by connecting new language and
knowledge to real-world experiences in a context relevant to the
student’s linguistic and experiential background.
 Reiterate major points, write out assignments, or write down
questions on overhead transparencies or the chalkboard. Give
students outlines or closing summaries as handouts. Repeat
questions or answers that other students contribute, to enable
hearing impaired students to fully participate in class. Sequence
steps or procedures on written cards and place them in clear
view.

 Use hand signals or devise a signaling system to denote

transitions or allow students with hearing impairments or
interpreters to review questions, answers, and concepts.

 Alert students as to when to look or listen and position yourself

so students with hearing impairments can clearly see your face,
without shadowing from backlighting or the reflection of glaring
light.
 Use a “listen, then look, then listen” sequence of instruction, so
students can focus on your face as you speak, then focus on
the other aspects of the lesson separately, then focus on your
face again. Say, for example, “Now, I’m going to pour the oil in
with this water” (listen); then pour the oil (look), then say, “I
poured the oil into the water. Who can tell me what happened?”
(listen).
 Repeat information from the school public address system to
ensure students have understood the announcements.
 Plan for interpreters. Interpreters often assist students who are
deaf, by translating lecture information, tutoring, and assisting
special and regular education teachers. Extra space, including
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 chairs or desks, may be required for interpreters to be near
students with hearing impairments. Since interpreters are
typically adults and taller than your students, check to see that
all children have a clear view of important classroom
information. Prepare your students for the interpreter and
clearly explain the roles and functions the interpreter will have
while in your classroom. Schedule time alone with the
interpreter to discuss your typical classroom procedures,
materials, and routines. Remember that an interpreter cannot
proceed at the same pace as your verbal presentation, and you
need to slow your rate of presentation accordingly.
 Work with family members. Parents and other family members
have an important influence on students with hearing
impairments, with respect to such activities as going out and
interacting with people, joining sports and other recreational
activities, and monitoring and assisting homework. Work with
family members to help them prioritize and encourage important
activities.
Adapt Evaluation

Testing and evaluation modifications for students with hearing

impairments might include providing individual testing times in separate
rooms, and extending the time limit as necessary. Remember to allow
sufficient time for interpreters during oral testing situations. Allow
students to draw illustrations of concepts. Use performance-based
testing measures and identification formats whenever possible.
Sample Statement Justifying Extra Time for Test Taking

Many students with hearing loss will need extra time to complete
examinations. Hearing loss affects an individual’s ability to process
information, including written information, at the same speed as peers
without hearing loss. This is unrelated to the individual’s cognitive
ability. Slower processing of information will occur even if the student is
‘trying his best’ and impacts the effort required, and fatigue resulting
from, test-taking. It will often take a student with hearing loss longer to
read the text and take longer for them to pull the information from
memory. Extra time typically varies from 25-50% more time allowed.
More time may be needed if there is sufficient evidence of necessity.
The amount of extra time requested for test-taking should not be based
on guesswork or supposition. It needs to be based on evidence of the
individual’s known optimal performance based on data from mock

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examinations. For example, a student may be able to access test
information more efficiently (similar to hearing students) when the test
items are read to them, rather than when they are required to read the
items. This may also be true for students who are fluent in sign
language or other forms of visual communication. There may be some
examinations which have, as a goal, the determination of how well a
student is able to perform within a set time period. While this is
valuable for comparison of the student’s ability to work within time
constraints as compared to typically hearing peers, it is not a
representation of their actual ability to complete items when
appropriately accommodated for test-taking limitations secondary to
hearing loss.
Exam Accommodations

Typical suggestions for assessment accommodations:

a. Writing tests/exams in a quiet room.

b. Provision of more time for the writing of exams.

c. Requesting a live voice (reader) instead of a digitally or computer

generated voice or CD-rom /MP3 format.
Live Voice Reader

It is critical that students with hearing loss NOT be assessed using

recorded speech (CD, MP3, etc). The rationale behind this
accommodation is that students with hearing loss:

a. Use speech reading to support what they hear.

b. Use intonation/inflections of speech to enhance speech
understanding.

c. Require a slower rate of speech which cannot be adjusted on CD.

d. may require repetition to ensure equal access.

Listening Effort and Recorded Speech

The listening effort required of students who are hard of hearing

is substantially greater than their peers often resulting in reduced
retention, fatigue and attention challenges. When hard of hearing
students have to listen to recorded speech they are at an even greater
disadvantage because they lose visual cues, vocal intonation/inflection
as well as opportunities for repetition. Additionally, the way speech is
recorded is not optimal for students listening with hearing loss. All of
these factors create gaps that need to be “filled in” by the hard of
hearing student which in turn increases the required listening effort
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relative to their peers. In addition, they need to achieve this through a
damaged cochlea. Sound exhausting? It is and your hard of hearing
student has to do this while still engaging in the retrieval of information,
the processing of complex questioning as well as the stress of test-
taking. Listening with a hearing loss while simultaneously listening to
recorded speech would present significant challenges to young
learners.

Check You Progress

Note : a) Write your answers in the space given below.

b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of
the Block.

10. What is accommodation?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

11. What is adaptation?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

12. What is In-Class / Online Examinations adaption?

________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

LET US SUM UP

There is no recipe for adapting general education curriculum to meet

each student’s needs. Each teacher, each student, each classroom is
unique and adaptations are specific to each situation. Keep in mind
that curriculum does not always need to be modified. By providing
multi-level instruction you will find that adapting a lesson may not
always be necessary. Differentiating instruction and providing multiple
ways assess allows more flexibility for students to meet the standards
and requirements of the class. At other times, the curriculum can be
made more accessible through accommodations. In addition, supports
for one student may not necessarily be the same in all situations, e.g.,
a student who needs full time support from a paraprofessional for math
may only need natural supports from peers for English, and no support
for art. And, supports should not be determined by the disability label,
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instead supports should be used when the instructional or social
activity warrants the need for assistance. In this we will discuss about
the need assessment and decision making for adaptation.
Hearing impairment creates barrier in the language development
process. Children with hearing impairment may have deficit language
in both written and receptive when they are not early intervened,
therefore may develop problems in education. The objectives of
curriculum may hence have to be set accordingly. It is important that a
special teacher should realize that children with hearing impairment
have to be taught differently. They may need special attention,
specialized methods and techniques of teaching as well as adaptation
of curriculum to cater to their special needs. Adaptations are
accommodations and/or modifications that allow access to the general
education curriculum for all students including children with hearing
impairment. Where a student with special needs (CwHI) is expected to
achieve or surpass the learning outcomes set out in the curriculum,
regular grading practices and reporting procedures are followed. For
students not expected to achieve the learning outcomes, adaptations
and modifications must be noted in the Individual Education Plan. In
this way, instructional and assessment methods may be adapted to
meet the needs of all students. The different types of adaptation
process involves various important aspects which have impact on the
education of CwHI.

GLOSSARY

 Adaptation and accommodations - Adaptations are any

adjustment in the environment, instruction, or materials for
learning that enhances the student's performance and allows
for at least partial participation.
 Alterative activities - a choice limited to one of two or more
possibilities, as of things, propositions, or courses of action, the
selection of which precludes any other possibility.
 Amplification - the process of increasing the volume of sound,
especially using an amplifier.
 Assessment practices - Asse.ssment is a process which follows
a set of four components. These four stages or components
are Plan, Do, Check and act. It is a process to evaluate the
student's performance. Besides, it is an orderly process. This
uses a test to check the student's performance.

246
  Curricular adaptation - A process of adjusting the existing
curriculum to meet the diverse needs of learners of all abilities.
 Curricular content - Curriculum content simply means
the totality of what is to be taught in a school system.
 Instructional material - Instructional materials, also known
as teaching/learning materials (TLM) are any collection of
materials including animate and inanimate objects and human
and non-human resources that a teacher may use in teaching
and learning situations to help achieve desired learning
objectives.
 Instructional strategies - Instructional strategies are techniques
teachers use to help students become independent, strategic
learners. These strategies become learning strategies when
students independently select the appropriate ones and use
them effectively to accomplish tasks or meet goals.
 Physical environment - The physical environment is where
individuals live, learn, work, and play.
 Least Restricted environment - Least Restrictive Environment
(LRE) is the requirement that students with disabilities receive
their education, to the maximum extent appropriate, with
nondisabled peers.
 Substitute curriculum - Provide the different instruction and
materials to meet a learner's individual goals.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Adaptation refers to adjusting assessments, material, curriculum,

or classroom environment to accommodate a student’s needs so
he/she can participate in, and achieve the teaching-learning
goals.
2. Residual Hearing : There is a general misunderstanding that
hearing impaired children cannot perceive sounds whereas in
fact most of these children have residual hearing. With sufficient
training given to the children and with the help of effective
amplification equipment, their use of residual hearing will help to
improve their abilities to perceive sounds in the environment,
which in turn will be helpful to language development. Therefore,
the teacher needs to encourage the children to maximize their
use of residual hearing for language development.

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3. The three steps in decision making flowchart are Identify the
student's individual educational goals, Determine what to teach
and Determine how to teach.
4. Examine the Structure of the Instruction, Examine the Demands
and Evaluation Criteria of the Task, Examine the Learning
Environment, Examine the Materials for Learning, Examine the
Support Structure.
5. The curriculum adaptation process happens in two levels such as

1. Macro level
2. Meso level

6. Adaptation of presentation

 Include flowcharts, tables etc

 Present matter in bullet form instead of paragraphs
 Put boxes or use different print for important words,
definitions etc
 Include footnotes.
7. Points to remember about curriculum adaptation

 Use of Multi sensory channel.

 Speak clearly and loudly.

 Make the student’s hearing aids are switched on during the

class.
 Talk in full sentences.
 Use visual cues / aids for teaching.
8. The types of curriculum adaptations are Input, Output, Time,
Difficulty, Level of Support, Size, Degree of Participation,
Alternate Goal and Substitute Curriculum
9. Substitute Curriculum is to Provide the different instruction and
materials to meet a learner’s individual goals.

10. Accommodations are changes in course content, teaching

strategies, standards, test presentation, location, timing,
scheduling, expectations, student responses, environmental
structuring, and/or other attributes which provide access for a
student with a disability to participate in a course/standard/test,
which DO NOT fundamentally alter or lower the standard or
expectations of the course/standard/test.
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11. Adaptation refers to adjusting assessments, material, curriculum,
or classroom environment to accommodate a student’s needs so
he/she can participate in, and achieve the teaching-learning
goals. Adaptation is appropriate for students whose needs and
learning goals are in line with the content of the regular
curriculum but require a moderate modification of the depth of
conceptual difficulty of that content. Curricular Adaptations are
changes permissible in educational environments which allow
the student equal opportunity to obtain access, results, benefits,
and levels of achievement. These adaptations consist of both
accommodations and modifications. Some curricular
adaptations do not fundamentally alter or lower standards or
expectations in either the instructional or assessment phases of
a course of study and can be designated as “accommodations.”
These accommodations provide access to participate in the
Least Restricted Environment (LRE) and an opportunity to
demonstrate mastery of performance standards.

12. In-Class / Online Examinations

 Any exam question errors will need to be notified in writing by
the exam supervisor.
 May require extra time to complete exam papers.
 Written instructions replace information usually read aloud by the
examiner.
Interpreter may need to be present to translate oral instructions
and information

SUGGESTED READINGS

Calvert, D. and Silverman, S. (1983). Speech and deafness (2nd Ed.).

Washington, D.C.: Alexander Graham Bell Association for the
Deaf.
Ebeling, D.G., Deschenes, C., & Sprague, J. (1994). Adapting
curriculum and instruction. The Center for School and
Community Integration, Institute for the Study of Developmental
Disabilities.
Hegarty, S. and M. Alur (eds) (2002). Education and Children with
Special Needs. New Delhi: Sage
Janney, R. and Snell, M. (2000) Modifying Schoolwork; Baltimore, MD;
Paul H. Brooks Publishing Company

249
Mohite, P. (1994). Working with Disabled Children: Curriculum and
Assessment. Independent Study. Baroda: The Maharaja Sayaji
Rao University of Baroda.
Ryndak, D.L. S.K. Alper (1996). Curriculum Content for Students with
Moderate and Severe Disabilities in Inclusive Settings. Boston:
Allyn and Bacon, pp. 5–6
Sharma, P. L. (1997). “Education of Children with Hearing Impairment”,
The Primary Teacher 12 (1): 26–29
Tharyani, D. K., More, R., Gathoo, V et. Al (2006). Curricular
strategies and adaptations for children with hearing
impairment. New Delhi : Kanishka publishers.

Websources:
http://blog.brookespublishing.com/5-types-of-instructional-adaptations-
for-your-inclusive-classroom/\
http://www.acessibilidade.net/at/kit2004/Programas%20CD/ATs/cnotinf
or/Relatorio_Inclusiva/pdf/Adaptacao_curricular_en.pdf

http://www.pent.ca.gov/acc/commondefinitions_accom-mod.pdf
http://www.rehabcouncil.nic.in/writereaddata/Block3accie.pdf
https://cd.edb.gov.hk/la_03/chi/curr_guides/Hearing/eh-3.htm

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED358637.pdf

https://osepideasthatwork.org/node/112
https://www.education.com/reference/article/hearing-impairments/
https://www.kcdsg.org/files/content/Curriculum-Adaptations-for-
Exceptional-Students.pdf

250
BLOCK 5 CURRICULAR EVALUATION

Structure

Introduction

Objectives
Unit 21 Concept, Need for Curricular Evaluation

21.1 Concept and definitions

21.2 Objectives of curricular evaluation

21.3 Types of curriculum evaluation

21.4 Purposes and Roles of evaluation

21.5 The role of Technology in Evaluation
Unit 22 Factors associated with Curricular Evaluation (Learner,
Content, Instructor and Resources)

22.1 Curricular Content

22.2 Students with Hearing Impairment (Learner)
22.3 Role of the Instructor (Teacher)

22.4 Resource
Unit 23 Areas of Curricular Evaluation: Context, Input, Process and
Product
23.1 Areas of Curricular Evaluation
23.2 Key Questions

Unit 24 Methods and Tools for Curricular Evaluation

24.1 Curricular Evaluation Methods
24.2 Tools for Curricular Evaluation

Unit 25 Challenges in Curricular Evaluation

Let us Sum Up
Glossary

Answers to Check your Progress

Suggested Readings

251
INTRODUCTION

The process of evaluation is undertaken in order to determine the

strengths and weaknesses of an existing or an under-construction
curriculum so that improvements can be made in curriculum
design. Evaluation results are primarily a function of judging the
effectiveness of the curriculum. Here, evaluation means both
assessments of students to find how much of the intended curriculum
has been transacted and also what actually happens in a classroom as
experienced by the students when they are involved in learning
activities. These experiences of the students need not be confined to
the four walls of a classroom and within the stipulated time frame of a
rigid school schedule. These could also include activities which form
part of hidden curriculum like wearing a school uniform, standing up
when the teacher enters the class and helping each other in organizing
an exhibition in the school. This Block deals with the curricular
evaluation, factors associated with curricular evaluation, areas of
curricular evaluation, methods and tools for curricular evaluation,
challenges in curricular evaluation.

OBJECTIVES

After going through this Block, you will be able to:

 Understand the concept, need for curricular evaluation

 Explain the factors associated with curricular evaluation.

 Describe the areas of curricular evaluation

 Narrate the methods and tools for curricular evaluation

 Understand and discuss on the challenges in curricular evaluation.

UNIT 21 CONCEPT, NEED FOR CURRICULAR

EVALUATION

Curricular Evaluation broadly encompasses methods of teaching that

shift the focus of instruction from the teacher to the student. In original
usage, student-centered learning aims to develop learner autonomy
and independence by putting responsibility for the learning path in the
hands of students. Student-centered instruction focuses on skills and
practices that enable lifelong learning and independent problem-
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solving. Student-centered learning theory and practice are based on
the constructivist learning theory that emphasizes the learner's critical
role in constructing meaning from new information and prior
experience.

Figure 1 :Curriculum Evaluation Process

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21.1 Meaning and Definitions of Curriculum Evaluation

Evaluation essentially is the provision of information for the sake of

facilitating decision making at various stages of curriculum
development. This information may pertain to the program as a
complete entity or only to some of its components. Evaluation also
implies the selection of criteria, collection and analysis of data. It
includes obtaining information for use in judging the worth of a
programme and procedure. It is a comprehensive term and transcends
standardized tests covering all means of ascertaining the results of
construction.
Evaluation of curriculum is an integral and essential part of the whole
process of curriculum development. It is a continuous activity and not a
"tail-end-process". Evaluation and planning are complementary
processes which occur almost simultaneously and continuously.
Planning is made on the basis of evaluation and vice versa. However,
as a separate state evaluation has its own entity.
Definitions of Curricular Evaluation
Persons Definition Ornstein, A. & Hunkins , F. (1998) Curriculum
evaluation is a process done in order to gather data that enables one
to decide whether to accept, change, eliminate the whole curriculum of
a textbook.

McNeil, J. (1997) Evaluation answers two questions . 1. Do planned

learning opportunities , programs, courses and activities as developed
and organized actually produced desired results? 2. How can a
curriculum best be improved?
According to Gatawa (1990), the term curriculum evaluation has three
major meanings:

 The process of describing and judging an educational programme

or subject.
 The process of comparing a student’s performance with
behaviorally stated objectives.
 The process of defining, obtaining and using relevant information
for decision-making purposes.
Other definitions related the curricular evaluation

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Test. As used in this case, test is a set of questions with an accepted
set of presumably correct answer to gather information about some
individual characteristics like achievement.
Scale, is an instrument whose questions do not typically have correct
and incorrect answer that designed to measure such characteristics as
attitudes, interests, values, beliefs, and behaviors.
Standardized. A test or scale is “standardized” to the extent that it has
been administered and scored under standard, or uniform, condition
and procedures.
Norm-referenced. “Norm-referencing a test means comparing scores
of individuals on a test with those of some external reference group.
Scores on a norm-referenced test tell us little about what individuals
can do or what they know.
Criterion-referenced. Test is designed to describe specifically what
objectives individuals have mastered.
Clinical interview, is an evaluation method in which an interviewer uses
questions and props to explore the concept and attitudes of the
students.
The importance of curriculum evaluation is to determine the value of
the curriculum itself is the curriculum appropriate for the particular
group of students with whom it is being used? Are the instructional
methods selected, the best choices in the light of the objectives
sought? Is the content the best that could be selected? Are the
materials recommended for instructional purpose appropriate and the
best available for the purpose envisaged?

21.2 Objectives of Curriculum Evaluation

1. To determine the outcomes of a programme.

2. To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a programme.

3. To ascertain the need for the revision of the course content.

4. To help in future development of the curriculum material for
continuous improvement.

5. To improve methods of teaching and instructional techniques.

21.3 Types of Curriculum Evaluation

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According to Scriven, following are the 3 main types
1. Formative Evaluation. It occurs during the course of curriculum
development. Its purpose is to contribute to the improvement of
the educational programme. The merits of a programme are
evaluated during the process of its development. The
evaluation results provide information to the programme
developers and enable them to correct flaws detected in the
programme.
2. Summative Evaluation. In summative evaluation, the final
effects of a curriculum are evaluated on the basis of its stated
objectives. It takes place after the curriculum has been fully
developed and put into operations.
3. Diagnostic Evaluation. Diagnostic evaluation is directed towards
two purposes either for placement of students properly at the
outset of an instructional level (such as secondary school),or to
discover the underlying cause of deviancies in student learning
in any field of study.

Figure 2 :Conceptual frame work of Curriculum cycle

21.4 Purposes and Roles of Evaluation

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The purpose of an evaluation is to determine the value of something.
Most evaluation experts contend that the main reason of evaluating a
curriculum is to provide information for making decisions about either
individuals or the curriculum.
a. Decision about individuals

It is necessary for six purposes:

1. Diagnostic

Those who must make diagnostic decisions require information about

strengths and weaknesses and determination of areas that need
special instructional attention.
Method : 1) Observations of the student performance, attitude,
interest, behavior; 2) standardized achievement and aptitude test with
sub scores.
2. Instructional feedback

Decision concern adjusments students might need to make in their

approach to studying a subject based on their knowledge of the
progress they are making.
Method : Teacher make test and quizzes.
3. Placement

Information about the level of proficiency of the students in particular

skills in order to place them in group that are relatively homogeneous.
4. Promotion

Decision about promotion is based on information about the proficiency

and maturity of students in order to decide wether or not to promote to
the next grade level.
5. Credentialing

It has to do with certification, licensure and otherwise attesting to the

competence of a program graduate. This decision requires attaining a
predetermined passing level on a test designed by the credentialing
body, typically the state or professional organization.
6. Selection

Made by college admission offices, typically use existing data about

student achievement (grades), but may also depend on standardized
test.
b. Curriculum decision
257
Curricular evaluation decisions are of two types:
1. Formative (how to improve the curriculum)

Evaluation plays as a formative role when it occurs during the ongoing

curriculum development process.
2. Summative (decision as to continue to use the curriculum)

Evaluation plays as summative role when it enables administrators to

decide whether or not a curriculum is good enough to warrant
institutional support. Decision on whether a school system should
formally adopt a curriculum, or whether an external funding agency
should continue to support a curriculum.

The important difference of formative and summative role is the

location of the decision maker and the evaluation.
• Formative: the decision maker is part of the curriculum development
effort and the evaluation is an internal process.
• Summative: the decision maker is external to this effort and the
evaluation is an external process too.

21.5 The Role of Technology in Evaluation

Technology has changed the way tests are administered and scored
and the ways in which those scores are processed and publicized.
1. Test administration
Technology has changed the handling of test administration. Now
students can complete test via network computers. Technology for
managing online test is already available.
2. Test preparation for students

There is now a wider array of material marketed to prepare test takers

than ever before. Test publishers, both governmental or for profit, offer
test preparation software.
3. Calculator use Usually, students using calculator while taking test.

4. Instantaneous scoring
When standardized test refer to test made by curriculum publisher,
then technology can provide instantaneous feedback for teachers and
students in well-equipped schools. Students can complete practice
tests or homework assignments at the computer, which are then
automatically graded by the computer, thus aiding in formative
258
evaluation. The feedback is not only how a particular student faired,
but also include statistical analysis of entire tests or assignments or
specific items within a test.
5. Test generation software

It is allow teachers to pick and choose questions from databases of

tests questions allowing customization from asset of publisher-
generated questions. It is often included in curriculum packages or may
be purchased separately, allowing teachers to use items from previous
standardized state exams in place of test provided by the textbook
publisher.
6. Publication of test results

School and district results for standardized tests are now available to
anyone with an internet connected computer.

Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of

the Block.

1. What is meant by Curricular Evaluation?

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________
2. What is the purpose of curriculum evaluation?
______________________________________________________
______________________________________________________

UNIT 22 FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH CURRICULAR

EVALUATION

22.1 Curricular Content

The goals of education reflect perceived needs and expectations of

society. Curriculum decisions are made within the context of these
goals. It is important that goals determine content. Allowances must be
made for variations in curriculum content to reflect the unique needs of
communities in general and of students in particular. Thus a close
association among those who set goals, create content and implement
curriculum is essential.
259
Goals for education include possession of respect for self and others, a
sense of social responsibility, feelings of self-worth and integrity, and
the knowledge, skills (including ethical and living skills) and attitudes
required in a democratic society.

The basics in education are those learning experiences that assist

students in acquiring knowledge, skills and attitudes that contribute to
continued learning, social awareness, and cognizance of a changing
society, responsible citizenship and personal well-being.

22.2 Students with Hearing Impairments (Learner)

Students may have a range of difficulties with hearing, from being deaf
to being hard of hearing. Language proficiency for hearing impaired
students will increase with exposure to materials that make required
links to the curriculum and discussions at or slightly above the
appropriate age/grade level. Comprehension is essential, and can be
facilitated by using strategies appropriate for the individual’s assessed
needs and scaffolding vocabulary/language proficiency.
Students with Hearing Impairments Language and Text Organization
• Use tables of contents, indices, glossaries, summaries.

• Provide chapter titles that match main idea.

• Use identification of subtopics.

• Use overviews or advance organizers

• Use clear pronoun referents or antecedents.

• Avoid, or use minimally, passive voice verbs, expressions of
negation, multiple modifying phrases in one sentence, colloquial
or idiomatic expressions.
• Use controlled vocabulary
• Provide clear sentence structure.

• Use logical and clear development of main ideas supported by

relevant details.
• Provide paragraph development.

• Use of signal words (ordinals) for sequence, emphasis, and

comparison.
• Provide contextual clues. Visuals

260
 • Provide clarity of video images such that room lighting will allow
for sign language interpretation of dialogue

• Provide useful graphics (not just pictures).

• Use graphics that support, enhance, and re-explain main ideas.

• Use graphics located near relevant text

• Provide various graphics and illustrations to support concepts and
thought processes

• Use captioned dialogue.

• Provide context that increases rather than decreases clarity.

22.3 Role of the Instructor (Teacher)

The Code of Professional Conduct and the Declaration of Rights and
Responsibilities for Teachers identify members of the teaching
profession as major advocates for the educational welfare of students.
Because it is teachers who must translate curriculum into specific
learning experiences, teachers must be central figures in curriculum
decision making. Decisions concerning objectives, content, interaction
and student evaluation must be made by sources as close to the
students as possible. Classroom teachers are also in the best position
to develop evaluation strategies that align with the curriculum and
address the individual learning needs of students.
It is a teacher’s role to facilitate learning experiences of students.
Efficient expedition of this role requires the provision by school
jurisdictions of adequate time and resources to translate the aims and
objectives of curriculum into learning activities that will meet the needs,
motivation and capabilities of students. Professional education and
teaching experience prepare teachers well for having a major voice at
all levels of curriculum decision making.

22.4 Resource
Responsibility for Selection of Learning Resources

Learning resources involves many partners, such as Department and

school board/district personnel, administrators, teacher-librarians,
teachers, students, and members of the community, the responsibility
for co-coordinating the selection and acquisition of school learning
resources rests with Department and school board/district personnel,

261
and at the school level, with the principal and the teacher-librarian. It is
understood that teachers will be selecting and acquiring learning
resources for their individual classrooms. Teachers should consider the
criteria outlined in this document when making their selections. If
clarification is required regarding the appropriateness of a resource,
teachers should consult with their principal or teacher-librarian.
General Learning Resources: Considerations

Department, school board/district personnel and teachers who are

selecting learning resources must consider content, format,
methodology, evaluation, assessment, and treatment of social issues.
Equally important considerations are the wide range of audiences,
(e.g., age, first language, special needs), as well as the purpose,
characteristics, and use of the various media selections. Every effort
should be made to ensure that resources are selected for their
strengths rather than rejected for their weaknesses.
Learning Resources should

 support and be consistent with provincial and local pilot/program

curriculum outcomes
 be developed by competent authors and producers and meet high
standards of quality in factual content and presentation
 be appropriate for the subject area and for the age, emotional
development, ability level, learning styles, and social development
of the students for whom the materials are selected

 have aesthetic, literary, and/or social value

 have a physical format and appearance suitable for their intended
use

 be one of a variety of media presentation modes.

Curriculum Support

Even with good curriculum content and processes in place, attention

needs to be given to mechanisms that will support curriculum. Without
adequate funding and resources, the best curriculum becomes difficult
to implement. Implementation of a new curriculum requires that draft
program and resources are evaluated through a pilot project, approved
programs and resources are available at least eight months prior to
implementation and sufficient funding is available for teacher in service
and purchase of approved resources. An important support mechanism
to the delivery of curriculum is the provision of library services via

262
libraries and qualified teacher librarians; these services can bolster all
levels of instruction.
In meeting needs of students, considerable attention must be given to
those students with special needs. While this may be done via special
programs and courses to meet a wide range of talent and ability, there
is an obligation for society to provide the education system with the
resources to identify those with special needs and, where required,
provide professional assistance to design and offer special programs.
Assessment/ Evaluation

Learning resources should

 be supportive of continuous learning by the individual

 provide for both formative and summative assessment/evaluation
as appropriate

 be relevant to the needs of the student

Social Considerations

 reflect sensitivity to gender and sexual orientation, the perspective

of aboriginal people, and cultural and ethnic heritage.
 promote equality by enhancing students’ understanding of a
multicultural and diverse society.

 be chosen to help students understand the many important

contributions made to our civilization by minority groups and
people/groups with a variety of ethnic backgrounds.
 be designed to motivate students and staff to examine their
attitudes and behaviors, and to comprehend their duties,
responsibilities, rights, and privileges as participating citizens in
our society • support/promote students’ self-esteem and respect
for the self-esteem of others.
 recognize the integration of students with special needs (as part of
the class).
 reflect good safety practices in texts and visuals (e.g., use of
helmets, seatbelts).

 portray positive role models.

 use language appropriate to the intended audience, and exclude
slang, vernaculars, or expletives that detract from meaning.

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Student Assessment and Evaluation

Information about student learning is gathered for a number of different

purposes, using a variety of assessment strategies depending on the
purpose. The primary purposes of student assessment are to facilitate
the teaching/learning process (formative assessment), diagnose areas
of a student’s learning strengths and weaknesses, and make decisions
about a student’s progress (summative assessment). Student
evaluation occurs when a teacher uses the results of assessment and
other relevant information to make a decision about the quality, value
or worth of a student’s response during the learning process or a
student’s overall performance for placement and reporting purposes.
Large scale assessment of groups of students is conducted to
determine curriculum or program effectiveness, research new ideas
and demonstrate educational accountability. Judgments made on the
basis of the information gathered and reported in these areas are
evaluations too, but the evaluations are in reference to the
performance of the group, not individual students.
In most instances, the evaluation of a student or a group of students
should be on the basis of the objectives of the curriculum and the
student or students’ opportunity to learn. The teacher is the
professional who understands the factors in the measurement of
learning and has a thorough mastery of subject matter to be tested, of
written communication and of assessment techniques. The teacher
translates the learning goals into course objectives and selects
assessment procedures to reflect the curriculum content designed to
achieve those goals and objectives. The teacher uses a variety of
procedures to recognize differences in teaching methods, and
students’ abilities, needs and learning styles. The evaluation of
students is the responsibility of the teacher providing instruction. The
role of the provincial government should be to facilitate teachers in
carrying out their professional responsibility

264
Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of

the Block.
3. Mention about the curriculum support.

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

4. Mention the importance of teacher in curriculum evaluation.

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

UNIT 23 AREAS OF CURRICULAR EVALUATION:

CONTEXT, INPUT, PROCESS AND PRODUCT

23.1 Areas of Curricular Evaluation:

1. In the contextual evaluations, the needs, problems, and gains and
opportunities, and related contextual conditions and dynamics in
addition to these. Decision-makers use this stage for establishing
targets and priorities and monitor how the program targets correspond
to the determined needs and problems The targets, issues, the
harmony of interests-needs-expectations, the education environment,
the education periods, and the time schedule may be seen as
examination spheres that may evaluate the contextual dimensions of
an instructional design.
Context evaluation deals with whether a curriculum includes focus,
goals and curriculum objectives, meaning the organizational
parameters. It also assesses the environment where evaluation takes
place. The aggregate data and information gathered serve as a basis
for curriculum decisions and the subsequent development of
objectives. Therefore, context evaluation includes: policy,
surroundings, needs assessment, at the least.
2. In evaluation of input, the evaluation of all resources allocated for
the meeting of the targeted needs and achieving the targets. Program-
based alternative approaches, procedural plans, staffing terms and
conditions, budget and cost effectiveness may be considered in this
scope And in evaluation of instructional designs, educational materials,

265
content-themes, and the participant views focused on facilitation by the
instructor may be considered as the key examination areas.
Input evaluation involves an examination of the intended content of
teaching (i.e. the skills or strategies the students learn), and it relates to
deciding the resources and strategies used to achieve curriculum goals
and objectives. Besides, the purpose of input evaluation should
support the choosing of resources. Therefore, input evaluation must
include work plan, equipment, funds, and personnel resources, at the
least. This item is used to revise the curriculum plan.
3. In process evaluations, the evaluators monitor, document, study
and report on the application of program plans. These evaluators make
feedbacks in the implementation process of a program, and upon
completion of the program, report on the continuation of the program
as targeted and required .And in the process evaluation dimension of
an instructional design, the process management by the instructor; the
activities; and the used instructional methods and techniques may be
examined.
Process evaluation relates to the implementation of teaching. Based
upon results of the pilot test or evaluation, it is necessary for process
evaluation to describe the student’s need in order to reconstruct the
program.
Its goals are as follows:

to forecast the mistake of designs;

to provide information for decisions; and

to assure the procedure of plans.

By using process evaluation, it can provide regular feedback to the

programme director. The researchers can understand the original plan,
find the process, trace the change of plan, and provide the material to
guarantee its efficiency and achievement. Finally, the ways to gather
the data of process evaluation are multiple. These include the use of
teacher behaviour measure, teacher rating measures, standardized
achievement measures, expert referenced measures, and teacher-
constructed knowledge and performance instructions.
4. The product evaluation, is the assessment of teaching outcomes.
The purpose is to carry out an instructional product evaluation, where
the instructor tries to find out whether the instructional ideas actually
made a difference. The product evaluation could determine whether
the curriculum should be modified, fine-tuned, or terminated and it also
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could evaluate the output of curriculum activities. Based upon the
information related to background, input, process, and so on, it refers
to comparing the difference between the outcomes and a
predetermined standard or absolute standard. It can provide the
reasonable explanation and consultation for decision-making. The goal
is to evaluate the plan of curriculum in the endgame or particular
gradations. Matthews and Hudson used North Carolina as an example
where teachers’ evaluation in engineering education should include the
time-management of instruction, the management of student’s
behaviour, teaching performance, student’s learning performance, the
feedback of instruction, the influence of instructional surroundings, the
performance of un-instruction and so on. All the above items include
systematic evaluation, formative evaluation and summative evaluation.

At the end of the program serves as determination and review of all the
program achievements.

23.2 The key questions are as follows:

Product evaluation
Has the program achieved its targets? Have it handled the targeted
needs and problems successfully?
What are the side effects of the program?
Were there also positive results in parallel to the negative results?

Are the achievements of the program worth the expenses?

And in the product evaluation aspect of the instructional design,
questions evaluating all of the evaluation activities and self-evaluation
questions may be used, and the investment decision may be
reconsidered by these data.
Context Evaluation

Should the curriculum be offered?

What student population will the curriculum serve?

What business or industrial population will the curriculum serve?

What content will be included in the curriculum?

What goals should the curriculum have?

What objectives will be used in the curriculum?

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Input Evaluation

What curriculum materials might be most useful in a particular

educational setting?
Which materials are most acceptable to teachers and students?

How might individualized instruction be best implemented?

What are the relative effects of different materials on student
achievement?
Process Evaluation

How well are learners performing?

What is the quality of instructional and support personnel?

What are the costs associated with operating the curriculum?

To what extent are students satisfied with their instruction?

Which (if any) of the curriculum components are deficient?
Product Evaluation

What is the mobility of former students? How satisfied are former

students with their position?

How do employers view the performance of former students?

How adequately is the curriculum preparing individuals for job entry?

Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of

the Block.

5. What is Process Evaluation?

____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________
6. What is Product Evaluation?
____________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

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UNIT 24 METHODS AND TOOLS FOR CURRICULAR
EVALUATION

Curricular evaluation is a systematic method for collecting, analyzing,

and using information to answer questions about projects, policies and
programs, particularly about their effectiveness and efficiency. In both
the public and private sectors, stakeholders often want to know
whether the programs they are funding, implementing, voting for,
receiving or objecting to are producing the intended effect. While
program evaluation first focuses around this definition, important
considerations often include how much the program costs per
participant, how the program could be improved, whether the program
is worthwhile, whether there are better alternatives, if there are
unintended outcomes, and whether the program goals are appropriate
and useful. Evaluators help to answer these questions, but the best
way to answer the questions is for the evaluation to be a joint project
between evaluators and stakeholders.

24.1 Curricular Evaluation Methods

Despite of variety o methods in curriculum evaluation, the approaches
are usually classified in to two broad areas : Traditional evaluation is
concerned with determining the extent to which students achieve the
outcomes of curriculum.(relies heavily on the testing of students) New-
wave evaluation –testing should not play the only role in evaluation but
that a great variety of factors should be considered. Following are
several models consistent with the traditional and new wave
approaches.

"Evaluation methods" are the various tools that can be used to collect
information for evaluation purposes. The first "featured resource"
provides a quick-reference guide for commonly used tools, including
their advantages and disadvantages.
 Method : Questionnaire
Description

Series of written Questions administered to individuals

Purposes

- Gain insight into learner attitudes, outcomes about the program.

- Elicit stakeholders’ perceptions of outcomes.
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- Judge program performance.
- Assess changes in program practices.
Advantages
- Can be completed anonymously.

- Non-threatening

- Inexpensive and easy to administer.

- Easy to compare and analyze data.

- Can be administered to large groups.

Challenges

- Not suitable for collecting in-depth info.

- Does not get whole story.

- Might not generate careful feedback.

- Wording can bias respondents.

- Requires careful writing and sampling.

- Impersonal.
- Response rates.
 Method : Interview

Description
Interactions with individuals to gather extended responses.
Purposes

- Gain insight into attitudes and perceptions.

- Capture and describe complex processes like learning or teaching.

- Elicit stakeholders’ expectations and needs.

- Understand learner experiences.
Advantages

- Elicit full range and depth of info.

- Develop relationship with interviewee.

- Can be flexible, tailored to interviewee.
Challenges

Training interviewers, conducting interviews, and transcribing can be

expensive and time-consuming.
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- Data analysis is complex
- Results may not generalize

- Interviewer can bias interviewee responses.

 Method : Focus Group

Description

Group interaction directed and moderated by a facilitator

Purposes

- Gain insight into group perception of learning

- Identify and understand needs and expectations of group.

- Elicit group attitudes towards program.

- Focus evaluation questions.

Advantages
- Can be efficient way of getting breadth and depth of information.

- Can be used with wide range of topics, individuals, and settings.

- Can convey key information on program.
Challenges

- Training moderators, conducting sessions, and transcribing can be

expensive and time consuming.
- Data analysis is complex.

- Results may not generalize across individuals.

 Method : Observation

Description

Systematic observation using protocols, checklists, ratings, and field

notes
Purposes

Understand context, activities, people, and interactions.

- Identify needs and areas of improvement.

- Understand complex processes like teaching and learning.

- “see” what people “say” and “do”.

Advantages
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- View operations as they are occurring.
- Adapt to events as they unfold.
Challenges
- Can be difficult to interpret seen behaviors.

- Can be complex to categorize observations.

- Observer can influence behaviors of observed.

- Can be expensive and time-consuming.
 Method : Document analysis
Description

Examination of program-related documents (e.g., syllabi, learning

outcomes, webpage)
Purposes
Examine trends, patterns, and consistency in program.

- Identify gaps in curriculum.

- Gain insight into program and its history.
- Preliminary study for other methods (surveys, interviews, etc).
Advantages

- Provides comprehensive and historical information.

- Does not interrupt routine of a program.

- Information already in existence.

- Few biases about the information.

Challenges

- Documents or materials may be incomplete or missing.

- Data is restricted to what already exists.
- Does not evaluate current staff or client opinion, needs, or
satisfaction.

- Can be time consuming.

 Method : Case Studies

Description

Intense investigation of a program, class, individual using multiple

methods

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Purposes

- Document what actually happened.

- Track perceptions, attitudes, behavior.

- Understand individuals’ needs &expectations

- Identify obstacles to program implementation

Advantages

- Fully depicts an individual’s experience in a program, a class, etc.

- Powerful means to portray program to outsiders.

- Can generate thorough understandings.

Challenges

Time-consuming to collect, organize, describe, and analyze.

- Represents depth of information rather than breadth.

- Multiple methods require training.
 Method : Assessment
Description
Systematic gathering of information about student learning (e.g.,
portfolios, OPI, in-class tests)
Purposes
- Examine student achievement of outcomes.

- Ascertain extent to which programs meet goals.

- Understand student progress within program.

- Judge program effectiveness.

- Feedback to teachers, students, admin.

Advantages
- Can compare students’ performance to each other (NRT).

- Can assess the degree of student achievement on a priori set goals

(CRT).
- Can direct teaching and encourage learning.
Challenges

- Developing reliable, valid, and practical language tests is difficult.

-Time consuming to create meaningful assessment rubrics and criteria.
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- Scoring can be labor, training intensive.
- Good understanding of various assessment tools are needed to
match them to purposes.
 Standardized Testing as a Means of Making Decisions

The widespread use of standardized test to determine whether an

individual is promoted from one grade to the next, placed in one track
or another, awarded a degree, or admitted to a university can be
problematic. There are definite advantages to using standardized test.
Some of what students learn can be counted; progress in some
disciplines can be measured. Standardized test also enable policy
makers to initiate reforms and to control, to a great extent, the
curriculam in school.
Several studies have shown a close correlation between classroom
teaching and the standardized test they know students will take.
Teachers are under a great deal of pressure to teach to the test
because often the stakes for their students are high. Promotion to the
next grade, graduation from high school, or admission to college can
be tied to scores on standardized test.
 Problem of fairness

Standardized test are an efficient means of grading because generally

they are timed and comprised of multiple-choice questions. Multiple-
choice questions reward students for choosing the correct answer and
doing it quickly.
Unfortunately, they thereby limit the type of knowledge being tested,
because there is typically little room for creativity, ambiguity,
developing idea, or reflection. In addition, for students to do so well on
state-mandated test, teachers much devote considerable time to
preparing students for those test, thereby eliminating many other
curriculam possibilities.
The consequences of standardized test performance extend far
beyond any particular grade, even beyond school years.
 Responses to the problems

Recognizing the biases and inadequacies of standardized test, many

educators are exploring the range of alternative ways to assess what
students know. In the elementary school, they are developing plans to
use a combination of type of assessment.

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For example: students take local reading and writing test a compile
portfolios of their work in class. At the high school and university levels
there are also alternative assessment. The plan focuses on a more
comprehensive look at students performance than a single
standardized test can give. (class rank, the number and type of
courses taken, essays, work experience ,etc). Students’ portfolios can
also take into account differing students backgrounds and abilities.

24.2 Tools for Curricular Evaluation

Evaluation tools

An instrument to transfer and implement educational objectives into a

practice which engage participants in the learning process. An
educational tool should self sustain. (This means that it should shape,
a might be short, but complete learning process).
a. Paper and Pencil Test (PPT)
It is also called the traditional test. It is an instrument for assessing
individual differences along one or more given dimensions of
behaviour. In PPT, students provide written responses to written items.
Use of paper and pencil test (PPT)

When a large number of people are together in one location and are
being tested at the same time, such as an annual exam. Computer
access is limited or where a controlled testing environment is required.
The most widely used procedure for collecting information in
educational research.
Purpose of Paper and Pencil Test (PPT)

In quantitative educational research projects to measure factors, e.g.

school achievement, aptitude, self-concept, attitudes, personality.
Usually norm-referenced (with a score to show how the individual's
performance compares with other individuals.
Developing Paper and Pencil Test
4 basic steps in Developing PPT

Step #1 Listing topic areas/task.

Step #2 Specifying the response format, number of questions, the time
limit and difficulty level The three most common response formats
are: multiple-choice, short answer, essay.
Step #3 Writing the questions and developing scoring guide.
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Step #4 Reviewing the questions and scoring guide.
Comparison of Paper and Pencil test (PPT) vs. Computer Based
Test (CBT) Based of Research
Reading speed Reading was some 20 to 30% slower (in terms of
proof- reading performance) from a computer screen than from paper.
Reading accuracy when considering reading accuracy, findings
generally favored paper. Comprehension Paper is superior to
computer, because of the display screen qualities whereby the eyes
tire more quickly.
b. Oral Test or Exam

Its demonstrate the knowledge, presentation/speaking skills, as well as

ability to communicate.
Its form of assessment where a set of stimulus questions are
developed that address critical areas of knowledge.
A student's response to the assessment task is verbal, in the sense of
being expressed or conveyed by speech instead of writing.
Advantages of Oral Test Five suggested key advantage are-

1) The development of oral communication skills.

2) More authentic than most types of assessment.

3) May be more inclusive.

4) Powerful ways to gauge understanding and encourage critical
thinking.
5) Resistant to plagiarism.
How can make better your Oral Test
Preparation- reviewing concepts you’ll be tested on. Identify main
details within lecture notes, textbooks, and other sources.
 Listen Carefully to the Questions
 Stay Focused on a Topic

 Think in Threes-Provide three supporting points to support your

position,(supported with effective arguments).
 Pay Attention to Your Appearance

 Use Appropriate Language

 What to Do If You Don’t Know the Answer- Be honest

 Make a Good Exit
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Effectiveness of oral exams

Enables instructors to test the students on all five cognitive domains of

Bloom's taxonomy
Also the psychomotor skill of oral expression.
Use

Not as a substitute, but as a complement to written exams.

They are a way to ask what is not feasible through the written format.

Enables interactive dialogue between candidate and assessor.

Potential to measure the student's achievement in course outcomes
not restricted to knowledge, but related to individual's professionalism,
ethics, interpersonal competence and qualities.

A useful feedback mechanism for the examiners.

c. Performance Test

Students to perform a task rather than select an answer from a ready-

made list. Permit an individualized approach to assessing abilities and
performance. Put responsibility for monitoring what children are
learning and what teacher are teaching It differs with Standardized test
and Is evaluates thinking skills such as analysis, synthesis, evaluation,
and interpretation of facts and ideas — skills which standardized tests
generally avoid. It Helps the Teacher to plan a comprehensive,
developmentally oriented curriculum based on their knowledge of each
child. And Also they provide valuable, in-depth information for parents,
administrators, and other policy makers.
Components of Performance test

The three basic component of performance test-

Developmental checklists

Covering domains such as language and literacy, mathematical

thinking, and physical development. Teacher use its throughout the
year to create profiles of children’s individualized progress in
developing skills, acquiring knowledge, and mastering important
behaviours. Without Checklist. Teachers could not keep track of
children’s progress toward widely accepted curriculum goals.
Portfolios

These purposeful collection of children’s work illustrate their efforts,

progress, and achievement over time. Without portfolio, Differences in

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the quality of one child’s work over time might be hidden, and
children’s ability to take an active role in evaluating their own work
ignored.
Summary Report

It consists of a brief narrative summary of each child’s classroom

performance. It's based on teacher observation and record that are
kept as part of the system. Teacher should carefully review the
checklist and portfolio and then make overall judgments in order to-
parents, administrators, and others about each child’s activities and
progress. Without summary report, Easily understandable information
for parents, teachers, and school administrators would be unavailable.
Together, the three components constitute a dynamic, authentic
performance system.
Use of Performance test
 Recognize that children can express what they know and can
do in many different ways. Evaluate progress as well as
performance.
 Evaluate the “whole child.”
 Involve children in the process of assessing their own growth.

 Establish a framework for observing children that is consistent

with the principles of child development.
 Contribute to meaningful curriculum planning and the design of
developmentally appropriate educational intentions.
 Give parents specific, direct, and understandable information
about their child.

 Collaborate with other teachers, thus enhancing your own

professional skills.

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 Check your progress

Note: a) Write your answer in the space given below.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of

the Block.
7. List out the evaluation methods.

______________________________________________________

8. List out the evaluation tools.

______________________________________________________

______________________________________________________

UNIT 25 CHALLENGES IN CURRICULAR EVALUATION

In education, there has long been dissatisfaction with evaluation which

has been methodologically inflexible and uncertain or misguided as to
its role. That is why; stressing the idea of ongoing evaluation of
learning goals by both learners and teachers is now necessary and
becomes integral to a process syllabus. Further, continuous evaluation
is the mechanism through which learning can become consciously
experiential. It is formative and addresses all the components of
learning tasks, language input, topic content, the affective climate,
methodology and the syllabus itself. Involving learners in the
evaluation process has developed impressively. For the past two
decades, instructors in language classrooms have started to use
various assessments in classrooms, such as assessment by learners
and also by their peers.
For many teachers, decisions related to the assessment of the
students’ learning are equally an important task of their work. Such
decisions relate to a wide spectrum of issues, including assigning
grades to students, evaluating the suitability of textbooks, assigning
students to an appropriate class in a language program and deciding
on the design and content of classroom tests. Hence, in order to carry
out these tasks,, teachers need more than access to different
assessment techniques and instruments; they need the understanding
of the nature and purposes of evaluation, procedures for collecting
data and interpreting different kinds of information about the students

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and their learning. Additionally, instructors need to be able to make
appropriate decisions about instruction and instructional plans that can
have a significant impact on the students.
Curricular Evaluation is a process of assessment, mandated by the
Right to Education Act, of India. This approach to assessment has
been introduced by state governments in India, as well as by the
Central Board of Secondary Education in India, for students of sixth to
tenth grades and twelfth in some schools. The Karnataka government
has introduced CCE for grades 1 through 9. The main aim of CCE is to
evaluate every aspect of the child during their presence at the school.
This is believed to help reduce the pressure on the child during/before
examinations as the student will have to sit for multiple tests throughout
the year, of which no test or the syllabus covered will be repeated at
the end of the year, whatsoever. The CCE method is claimed to bring
enormous changes from the traditional chalk and talk method of
teaching provided it is implemented accurately.
As a part of this new system, student's marks will be replaced by
grades which will be evaluated through a series of curricular and extra-
curricular evaluations along with academics. The aim is to decrease
the workload on the student by means of continuous evaluation by
taking number of small tests throughout the year in place of single test
at the end of the academic program. Only Grades are awarded to
students based on work experience skills, dexterity, innovation,
steadiness, teamwork, public speaking, behavior, etc. to evaluate and
present an overall measure of the student's ability. This helps the
students who are not good in academics to show their talent in other
fields such as arts, humanities, sports, music, athletics, and also helps
to motivate the students who have a thirst of knowledge.

Unlike CBSE's old pattern of only one test at the end of the academic
year, the CCE conducts several. There are two different types of tests.
Namely, the formative and the summative. Formative tests will
comprise the student's work at class and home, the student's
performance in oral tests and quizzes and the quality of the projects or
assignments submitted by the child. Formative tests will be conducted
four times in an academic session, and they will carry a 40% weightage
for the aggregate. In some schools, an additional written test is
conducted instead of multiple oral tests. However, at least one oral test
is conducted.
The summative assessment is a three-hour long written test conducted
twice a year. The first summative or Summative Assessment 1 (SA-1)
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will be conducted after the first two formatives are completed. The
second (SA-2) will be conducted after the next two formatives. Each
summative will carry a 30% weightage and both together will carry a
60% weightage for the aggregate. The summative assessment will be
conducted by the schools itself. However, the question papers will be
partially prepared by the CBSE and evaluation of the answer sheets is
also strictly monitored by the CBSE. Once completed, the syllabus of
one summative will not be repeated in the next. A student will have to
concentrate on totally new topics for the next summative.
At the end of the year, the CBSE processes the result by adding the
formative score to the summative score, i.e. 40% + 60% = 100%.
Depending upon the percentage obtained, the board will deduce the
CGPA (Cumulative Grade Point Average) and thereby deduce the
grade obtained. In addition to the summative assessment, the board
will offer an optional online aptitude test that may also be used as a
tool along with the grades obtained in the CCE to help students to
decide the choice of subjects in further studies. The board has also
instructed the schools to prepare the report card and it will be duly
signed by the principal, the student.

Deductive Method - What does the student know and how can he use
it to explain a situation.
Co-relation with a real-life situation - Whether the situation given
matches any real-life situation, like tsunamis, floods, tropical cyclones,
etc.
Usage of Information Technology - Can the problem be solved with the
use of IT? If yes, how?
In addition to that, various assignments can be given such as projects,
models and charts, group work, worksheet, survey, seminar, etc. The
teacher will also play a major role. For example, they give remedial
help, maintain a term-wise record and checklists, etc.
The outcome of the CCE system at the initial level varies. Though most
of the schools implemented it quickly, teachers and students who were
accustomed to the older system of evaluation and examination faced
difficulties coping with the changes. The main aim of CCE is to reduce
pressure on students who are unable to effectively participate in the
educational system and leave it dejected and with low self-confidence.
However the system has also been criticized for focusing more on
projects and activities than actual learning. Critics also state that
students' workload has not actually gone down because even though

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exams have been reduced, stressed students wrestle with projects and
oral tests all the year round. Students are required to participate in
activities even if the syllabus is not covered. Despite these criticisms,
the outcomes of this system were projected to be better that the rote
learning of the previous system, which placed an undue emphasis on
memory and facts instead of understanding and creating a learning
environment.

An increase in the wealth of knowledge that abound, has a posed

challenge to the curriculum development as newly developed
curriculum become obsolete quickly giving rise to numerous problems
and the dare need to ensure that the existing curriculum meets the day
to day challenge of the society. Hence, the need to look at some of
these problems facing curriculum development in our primary schools
and proffer possible solutions.
There are several types of continuous assessment including daily class
work, course related projects and papers, and practical work.
Continuous Assessment is the educational policy in which students are
examined continuously over most of the duration of their education, the
results of which are taken into account after leaving school. It is often
proposed or used as an alternative to a final examination system.
Continuous assessment is used for the calculate the marks is every
type of work in College as for the test marks, home work, term paper
marks in this term the calculate the every marks and the final fine the
total is beast of two that is the Continuous assessment. The
Continuous assessment is used to mainly calculate the TGPA and the
CGP. Continuous Assessment is assessments (evaluations) that take
place over a period of time. In other words, you will be assessed right
through your learning process and not only after the learning process.
By doing continuous assessment you can track the improvement (if
any) of the learner, you will be able to give more support and guidance,
and the learner will have more opportunities to improve.

Characteristics

 It is comprehensive
 It is cumulative

 It is diagnostic

 Continuous assessment is formative

 It is guidance-oriented
 It is systematic in nature Advantage.
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Continuous assessment can provide early indicators of the likely
performance of students, something that can be of great help to the
students themselves - as for they have some mistake in your Marks
then you would be transfer the marks. And the other hand its use to
both students and the faculty. It can also provide to the exactly what
has been learned by a particular stage of the course.
Advantages & disadvantages of formative assessment

Formative assessment covers the range of informal diagnostic tests a

teacher can use to assist the process of learning by his students.
Prescriptive but ungraded feedback enables students to reflect on what
they are learning and why. The goal is to improve performance and
achieve successful outcomes. Robert Stake, Director of the Center for
Instructional Research and Curriculum Evaluation, likens formative
assessment to a cook tasting a soup before serving it to a guest. But
despite its advantages, formative assessment can be time-consuming,
and incentives in the school system tend to favor more objective
assessments.
Continuous Improvement: One great advantage of formative
assessment for learning is that it is ongoing. This allows for incremental
feedback to identify problems at their earliest stages. For example, a
student can correct conceptual errors before undertaking work on a
term paper. As that student works on the term paper, input from the
teacher can inform, guide and validate each step of the writing
process.
Honesty: Cheating and plagiarism remain significant problems in
academic settings. A study on academic dishonesty published in the
Electronic Journal of Sociology in 2003 found that 83 percent of the
students surveyed admitted to cheating more than once. Compared to
graded summative assessments like final exams, ungraded formative
assessments reduce the temptation to cheat. This allows students to
focus on learning instead of grades.

Labor Intensive: Although offering many benefits, effective formative

assessment can be difficult to achieve at scale. It may be logistically
impossible to provide detailed descriptive feedback for each student in
a large class. Even with a smaller number of students to deal with,
formative assessment is time-consuming as it requires significant,
ongoing dedication and effort from the teacher to sustain. This is
especially true when combined with the summative assessments
teachers are required to complete. Accountability o The layered
accountability chain in education—student to teacher, teacher to
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school, school to district, etc. -- creates systemic pressure for student
performance to be objectively and comparatively measurable at each
level. Formative assessment, by definition, doesn't easily provide that
kind of accountability. This explains why, although the advantages of
formative assessment have been repeatedly articulated since the
distinction between it and summative assessment was first made in
1967, empirical studies continue to show that very few teachers
consistently make use of it in actual practice.
Continuous assessment can help students learn an increased sense of
inclusiveness. Continuous assessment provides students with a
constant stream of opportunities to prove their mastery of material and
sends the message that everyone can succeed if given enough time
and practice. This reduces the anxiety and finality around testing and
heightens the emphasis on the learning itself. When mastery instead of
competition with other students becomes the point of assessment, the
focus shifts from superficial competition to true understanding and
personal learning goals.
Higher learning standards for all: In a system of continuous
assessment, advanced students can progress through material at their
own pace and remain engaged by pursuing more challenging work as
they pass out of the basics. In this sense, the standards for such
students stretch to help each student maximize potential. Because
success is defined on an absolute and individualized basis, students
cannot be satisfied with their achievements relative to others; they are
encouraged to seek their own course and take responsibility for their
learning.
Clarified purpose of assessment: The problem with administering
assessments only once in a while is that the primary aim is to compare
students while at the same time allowing them to “pass” to the next
level. This produces a situation in which the purpose of assessment is
muddled: the tendency is to let students level up (because, regardless
of standards, everyone is generally expected to pass) although they
may not truly grasp the material.
Capacity to remediate weaknesses through strengths: When we, as
Christensen suggests, begin measuring the length of time it takes to
master a concept or skill and contrast the efficacy of different
approaches, we are able to gather data about the learning process and
put this knowledge to work for students: “Because learning will no
longer be as variable, we can compare students not by what
percentage of the material they have mastered, but by comparing how
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far they have moved through a body of material.” This sort of data
solves another problem: the self-perpetuating cycle through which the
curriculum and methods of instruction for various subjects are tailored
for those who are gifted in them. Math classes, for instance, are taught
by those who are gifted at math and through texts written by those who
are gifted in the subject as well; and class itself is shaped by the
questions and comments of gifted math students. (This leaves those
who are not gifted at math feeling excluded and turns them off from the
subject.) Imagine an alternative: the confidence students develop in the
areas in which they excel helps them learn subjects for which they
have less proclivity. And better yet, strategies that have been proven
effective for students with specific weaknesses can be used to help
other students with those weaknesses. Envision a system that places a
student on a proven effective learning path once he displays a learning
style and proficiency level that is similar to another student in a
network.
Increased self-awareness for students who, through continuous
assessment, come to understand their proficiencies and knowledge
gaps. Time and again, we encounter evidence that self-awareness —
understanding of how one feels, thinks, and learns — is one of the
most significant factors in professional and personal success. The
famous psychologist, Gardner argues that self-knowledge —
“intrapersonal skill” — is one of the eight defining types of intelligence
(the others being “linguistic,” “logical- mathematical,” “naturalist,”
“bodily-kinesthetic,” “spatial,” “musical,” and “interpersonal”). The more
continuously we assess students, the more knowledge they can gain
about themselves — what it takes for them to master something, how
they can approach problems differently, what their blind spots are, and
how to eliminate them.
Capacity to uncover interdisciplinary relationships between subject
domains and concepts. Continuous assessment allows us to refine our
understanding of the content that we are teaching students. We might
discover that effective remediation in a subject requires attention to
another subject or that the root of common misunderstandings within a
subject is something altogether unexpected.

LET US SUM UP

Curricular evaluation is a systematic method for collecting, analyzing,

and using information to answer questions about projects, policies and

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programs, particularly about their effectiveness and efficiency.
Evaluation of curriculum is an integral and essential part of the whole
process of curriculum development. It is a continuous activity and not a
"tail-end-process". Evaluation and planning are complementary
processes which occur almost simultaneously and continuously.
Planning is made on the basis of evaluation and vice versa. Evaluation
essentially is the provision of information for the sake of facilitating
decision making at various stages of curriculum development.
The curriculum evaluation is of 3 types, Formative evalution,
Summative evaluation, and Diagnostic evaluation. Technology has
changed the way tests are administered and scored and the ways in
which those scores are processed and publicized. Curricular evaluation
consider the areas of context, input, process and product. Even with
good curriculum content and processes in place, attention needs to be
given to mechanisms that will support curriculum. Without adequate
funding and resources, the best curriculum becomes difficult to
implement.
Questionnaire, Interview, Focus Group, Observation, Document
analysis, Case Studies, Assessment are the curricular evaluation
methods and Paper Pencil Test, Oral Test or Exam, and performance
Test are the tools for curricular evaluation.
In education, there has long been dissatisfaction with evaluation which
has been methodologically inflexible and uncertain or misguided as to
its role. That is why; stressing the idea of ongoing evaluation of
learning goals by both learners and teachers is now necessary and
becomes integral to a process syllabus.

GLOSSARY

 Continuous assessment - the evaluation of a pupil's progress

throughout a course of study, as distinct from by examination,
continuous assessment is used to decide whether or not
children have attained their reading targets
 Cumulative grade point average - Cumulative Grade Point
Average (CGPA) is an assessment tool used to evaluate your
academic performance. ... Your CGPA is calculated by dividing
the sum of the grade points earned by the total credit value of
courses you have attempted.
 Diagnostic evaluation - means to diagnose or discover the
students' difficulties while learning and assess the problem
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 accurately. A diagnostic test is performed to disclose
weaknesses and strengths to themselves.
 Evaluation - the making of a judgement about the amount,
number, or value of something; assessment.
 Information technology - the study or use of systems (especially
computers and telecommunications) for storing, retrieving, and
sending information.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Curricular evaluation is a systematic method for collecting,

analyzing, and using information to answer questions about
projects, policies and programs, particularly about their
effectiveness and efficiency.
2. The purpose of an evaluation is to determine the value of
something. Most evaluation experts contend that the main reason
of evaluating a curriculum is to provide information for making
decisions about either individuals or the curriculum.
3. Even with good curriculum content and processes in place,
attention needs to be given to mechanisms that will support
curriculum. Without adequate funding and resources, the best
curriculum becomes difficult to implement. An important support
mechanism to the delivery of curriculum is the provision of library
services.
4. The teacher is the professional who understands the factors in
the measurement of learning and has a thorough mastery of
subject matter to be tested, of written communication and of
assessment techniques. The teacher translates the learning
goals into course objectives and selects assessment procedures
to reflect the curriculum content designed to achieve those goals
and objectives. The teacher uses a variety of procedures to
recognize differences in teaching methods, and students’
abilities, needs and learning styles. The evaluation of students is
the responsibility of the teacher providing instruction. The role of
the provincial government should be to facilitate teachers in
carrying out their professional responsibility
5. Process evaluation relates to the implementation of teaching.
Based upon results of the pilot test or evaluation, it is necessary
for process evaluation to describe the student’s need in order to
reconstruct the program.
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6. The product evaluation is the assessment of teaching outcomes.
The purpose is to carry out an instructional product evaluation,
where the instructor tries to find out whether the instructional
ideas actually made a difference. The product evaluation could
determine whether the curriculum should be modified, fine-tuned,
or terminated and it also could evaluate the output of curriculum
activities.
7. Questionnaire, Interview, Focus Group, Observation, Document
analysis, Case Studies, Assessment are the curricular evaluation
method.
8. Paper Pencil Test, Oral Test or Exam, and performance Test are
the tools for curricular evaluation.

SUGGESTED READINGS
J. S. Rajput; National Council of Educational Research and Training
(India) (2004). Encyclopaedia of Indian Education: A-K. NCERT. pp.
365–. ISBN 978-81- 7450-303-9.
Jenkis, D. (1976). Curriculum Evaluation, Miltono Keynes : The open
Univeristy Press.
Malhotra, M. M. (1985). Curriculum Evaluation and Renewal, Manila:
CPSC Publication.
Robet, M. & Mary, J. (1983). Curriculum Evaluation in Pinchas, Tamir
(ed) (1985), The Role of Evaluators in curriculum Development ,
London: Croom Helm.
Stephen, W. & Dougals, P. (1972). Curriculum Evaluation, Bristol :
NFER Puiblishing Co. Ltd
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