MODULE - I

INTRODUCTION
Computer data often travels from one computer to another, leaving the safety of its
protected physical surroundings. Once the data is out of hand, people with bad intention could
modify or forge your data, either for amusement or for their own benefit.
Cryptography can reformat and transform our data, making it safer on its trip between
computers. The technology is based on the essentials of secret codes, augmented by modern
mathematics that protects our data in powerful ways.

• Computer Security - generic name for the collection of tools designed to protect data and to
thwart hackers
• Network Security - measures to protect data during their transmission

• Internet Security - measures to protect data during their transmission over a collection of
interconnected networks

Security Attacks, Services and Mechanisms

To assess the security needs of an organization effectively, the manager responsible for
security needs some systematic way of defining the requirements for security and characterization
of approaches to satisfy those requirements. One approach is to consider three aspects of
information security:
Security attack – Any action that compromises the security of information owned by an
organization.
Security mechanism – A mechanism that is designed to detect, prevent or recover from a
security attack.
Security service – A service that enhances the security of the data processing systems and the
information transfers of an organization. The services are intended to counter security attacks and
they make use of one or more security mechanisms to provide the service.
Basic Concepts
Cryptography The art or science encompassing the principles and methods of transforming an
intelligible message into one that is unintelligible, and then retransforming that message back to its
original form

Plaintext The original intelligible message

Cipher text The transformed message

Cipher An algorithm for transforming an intelligible message into one that is unintelligible by
transposition and/or substitution methods

Key Some critical information used by the cipher, known only to the sender& receiver

Encipher (encode) The process of converting plaintext to cipher text using a cipher and a key

Decipher (decode) the process of converting cipher text back into plaintext using a cipher and a
key

Cryptanalysis The study of principles and methods of transforming an unintelligible message

back into an intelligible message without knowledge of the key. Also called code breaking

Cryptology Both cryptography and cryptanalysis

Code An algorithm for transforming an intelligible message into an unintelligible one using a
code-book

Cryptography
Cryptographic systems are generally classified along 3 independent dimensions:
Type of operations used for transforming plain text to cipher text
All the encryption algorithms are based on two general principles: substitution, in which each
element in the plaintext is mapped into another element, and transposition, in which
elements in the plaintext are rearranged.
The number of keys used
If the sender and receiver uses same key then it is said to be symmetric key (or)
single key (or) conventional encryption.
If the sender and receiver use different keys then it is said to be public key encryption.
The way in which the plain text is processed
A block cipher processes the input and block of elements at a time, producing output block for
each input block.
A stream cipher processes the input elements continuously, producing output element one at a
time, as it goes along.

Cryptanalysis
The process of attempting to discover X or K or both is known as cryptanalysis. The
strategy used by the cryptanalysis depends on the nature of the encryption scheme and the
information available to the cryptanalyst.
There are various types of cryptanalytic attacks based on the amount of
information known to the cryptanalyst.
Cipher text only – A copy of cipher text alone is known to the cryptanalyst.
Known plaintext – The cryptanalyst has a copy of the cipher text and the corresponding
plaintext.
Chosen plaintext – The cryptanalysts gains temporary access to the encryption machine. They
cannot open it to find the key, however; they can encrypt a large number of suitably chosen
plaintexts and try to use the resulting cipher texts to deduce the key.

Chosen cipher text – The cryptanalyst obtains temporary access to the decryption
machine, uses it to decrypt several string of symbols, and tries to use the results to deduce the
key.

STEGANOGRAPHY
A plaintext message may be hidden in any one of the two ways. The methods of
steganography conceal the existence of the message, whereas the methods of
cryptography render the message unintelligible to outsiders by various transformations of the text.
A simple form of steganography, but one that is time consuming to construct is one in
which an arrangement of words or letters within an apparently innocuous text spells out the
real message.
e.g., (i) the sequence of first letters of each word of the overall message spells out the real
(Hidden) message.
(ii) Subset of the words of the overall message is used to convey the hidden
message.
Various other techniques have been used historically, some of them are
Character marking – selected letters of printed or typewritten text are overwritten in pencil. The
marks are ordinarily not visible unless the paper is held to an angle to bright light.
Invisible ink – a number of substances can be used for writing but leave no visible trace until heat
or some chemical is applied to the paper.
Pin punctures – small pin punctures on selected letters are ordinarily not visible unless the
paper is held in front of the light. Typewritten correction ribbon – used between the lines typed
with a black ribbon, the results of typing with the correction tape are visible only under a strong
light.
Drawbacks of steganography
Requires a lot of overhead to hide a relatively few bits of information.
Once the system is discovered, it becomes virtually worthless.

SECURITY SERVICES
The classification of security services are as follows:
Confidentiality: Ensures that the information in a computer system a n d transmitted
information are accessible only for reading by authorized parties.
E.g. Printing, displaying and other forms of disclosure.
Authentication: Ensures that the origin of a message or electronic document is correctly
identified, with an assurance that the identity is not false.
Integrity: Ensures that only authorized parties are able to modify computer system assets and
transmitted information. Modification includes writing, changing status, deleting, creating
and delaying or replaying of transmitted messages.
Non repudiation: Requires that neither the sender nor the receiver of a message be able to deny
the transmission.
Access control: Requires that access to information resources may be controlled by or the target
system.
Availability: Requires that computer system assets be available to authorized parties when
needed.

SECURITY MECHANISMS
One of the most specific security mechanisms in use is cryptographic techniques.
Encryption or encryption-like transformations of information are the most common means of
providing security. Some of the mechanisms are
1 Encipherment
2 Digital Signature

3 Access Control

SECURITY ATTACKS
There are four general categories of attack which are listed below.

Interruption
An asset of the system is destroyed or becomes unavailable or unusable. This is an attack on
availability e.g., destruction of piece of hardware, cutting of a communication line or

Disabling of file management system.

Interception

An unauthorized party gains access to an asset. This is an attack on confidentiality.

Unauthorized party could be a person, a program or a
computer.e.g., wire tapping to capture data in the network, illicit copying of files

Sender Receiver

Eavesdropper or forger

Modification
An unauthorized party not only gains access to but tampers with an asset. This is an attack on
integrity. e.g., changing values in data file, altering a program, modifying the contents of

messages being transmitted in a network.

Sender Receiver
 Eavesdropper or forger

Fabrication
An unauthorized party inserts counterfeit objects into the system. This is an attack on authenticity.
e.g., insertion of spurious message in a network or addition of records to a file.

Sender Receiver

Eavesdropper or forger

Cryptographic Attacks

Passive Attacks
Passive attacks are in the nature of eavesdropping on, or monitoring of, transmissions. The goal
of the opponent is to obtain information that is being transmitted. Passive
attacks are of two types:
Release of message contents: A telephone conversation, an e-mail message and a transferred file
may contain sensitive or confidential information. We would like to prevent the opponent from
learning the contents of these transmissions.
Traffic analysis: If we had encryption protection in place, an opponent might still be able to
observe the pattern of the message. The opponent could determine the location and identity of
communication hosts and could observe the frequency and length of messages being
exchanged. This information might be useful in guessing the nature of communication that was
taking place.
Passive attacks are very difficult to detect because they do not involve any alteration of data.
However, it is feasible to prevent the success of these attacks.
Active attacks

These attacks involve some modification of the data stream or the creation of a false stream. These
attacks can be classified in to four categories:

Masquerade – One entity pretends to be a different entity.

Replay – involves passive capture of a data unit and its subsequent transmission to produce an
unauthorized effect.
Modification of messages – Some portion of message is altered or the messages are delayed or
recorded, to produce an unauthorized effect.
Denial of service – Prevents or inhibits the normal use or management of communication
facilities. Another form of service denial is the disruption of an entire network, either by disabling
the network or overloading it with messages so as to degrade performance.
It is quite difficult to prevent active attacks absolutely, because to do so would require physical
protection of all communication facilities and paths at all times. Instead, the goal is to detect them
and to recover from any disruption or delays caused by them.

Symmetric and public key algorithms

Encryption/Decryption methods fall into two categories.
Symmetric key
Public key
In symmetric key algorithms, the encryption and decryption keys are known both to sender
and receiver. The encryption key is shared and the decryption key is easily calculated from it.
In many cases, the encryption and decryption keys are the same.
In public key cryptography, encryption key is made public, but it is
computationally infeasible to find the decryption key without the information known to the
receiver.
A MODEL FOR NETWORK SECURITY
A message is to be transferred from one party to another across some sort of internet. The two
parties, who are the principals in this transaction, must cooperate for the exchange to take place.
A logical information channel is established by defining a route through the internet from source
to destination and by the cooperative use of communication protocols (e.g., TCP/IP) by the
two principals.
Using this model requires us to:
– design a suitable algorithm for the security transformation
– generate the secret information (keys) used by the algorithm
– develop methods to distribute and share the secret information
– specify a protocol enabling the principals to use the transformation and secret information
for a security service

MODEL FOR NETWORK ACCESS SECURITY

Using this model requires us to:

 – select appropriate gatekeeper functions to identify users
– implement security controls to ensure only authorized users access designated
information or resources
• Trusted computer systems can be used to implement this model

CONVENTIONAL ENCRYPTION
• Referred conventional / private-key / single-key
• Sender and recipient share a common key

All classical encryption algorithms are private-key was only type prior to invention of public-
key in 1970‟plaintext - the original message
Some basic terminologies used:
• cipher text - the coded message
• Cipher - algorithm for transforming plaintext to cipher text
• Key - info used in cipher known only to sender/receiver
• encipher (encrypt) - converting plaintext to cipher text
• decipher (decrypt) - recovering cipher text from plaintext
• Cryptography - study of encryption principles/methods

• Cryptanalysis (code breaking) - the study of principles/ methods of deciphering cipher text
without knowing key
• Cryptology - the field of both cryptography and cryptanalysis
 Here the original message, referred to as plaintext, is converted into apparently random
nonsense, referred to as cipher text. The encryption process consists of an algorithm and a key.
The key is a value independent of the plaintext. Changing the key changes the output of the
algorithm. Once the cipher text is produced, it may be transmitted. Upon reception, the
cipher text can be transformed back to the original plaintext by using a decryption algorithm
and the same key that was used for encryption. The security depends on several factors. First, the
encryption algorithm must be powerful enough that it is impractical to decrypt a message on
the basis of cipher text alone. Beyond that, the security depends on the secrecy of the key,
not the secrecy of the algorithm.
• Two requirements for secure use of symmetric encryption:
– A strong encryption algorithm
– A secret key known only to sender / receiver
Y = EK(X)
X = DK(Y)

• assume encryption algorithm is known

• implies a secure channel to distribute key
A source produces a message in plaintext, X = [X1, X2… XM] where M are the number of
letters in the message. A key of the form K = [K1, K2… KJ] is generated. If the key is
generated at the source, then it must be provided to the destination by means of some secure
channel.

With the message X and the encryption key K as input, the encryption algorithm forms the
cipher text Y = [Y1, Y2, YN]. This can be expressed as
Y = EK(X)
The intended receiver, in possession of the k e y , is able to invert the
transformation:
X = DK(Y)
An opponent, observing Y but not having access to K or X, may attempt to recover
X or K or both. It is assumed that the opponent knows the encryption and decryption algorithms.
If the opponent is interested in only this particular message, then the focus of effort is to recover
X by generating a plaintext estimate. Often if the opponent is interested in being able to read
future messages as well, in which case an attempt is made to recover K by generating an estimate.

CLASSICAL ENCRYPTION TECHNIQUES

There are two basic building blocks of all encryption techniques: substitution and
transposition.

SUBSTITUTION TECHNIQUES
A substitution technique is one in which the letters of plaintext are replaced by other letters or by
numbers or symbols. If the plaintext is viewed as a sequence of bits, then substitution involves
replacing plaintext bit patterns with cipher text bit patterns.

Caesar cipher (or) shift cipher

The earliest known use of a substitution cipher and the simplest was by Julius Caesar. The
Caesar cipher involves replacing each letter of the alphabet with the letter standing 3 places
further down the alphabet.
e.g., plain text : pay more money
Cipher text: SDB PRUH PRQHB
Note that the alphabet is wrapped around, so that letter following „z‟ is „a‟.
For each plaintext letter p, substitute the cipher text letter c such that
C = E(p) = (p+3) mod 26
A shift may be any amount, so that general Caesar algorithm is
C = E (p) = (p+k) mod 26
Where k takes on a value in the range 1 to 25. The decryption algorithm is simply

P = D(C) = (C-k) mod 26

Playfair cipher

The best known multiple letter encryption cipher is the playfair, which treats digrams
in the plaintext as single units and translates these units into cipher text digrams. The playfair
algorithm is based on the use of 5x5 matrix of letters constructed using a keyword. Let the
keyword be „monarchy‟. The matrix is constructed by filling in the letters of the keyword
(minus duplicates) from left to right and from top to bottom, and then filling in the remainder of
the matrix with the remaining letters in alphabetical order.
The letter „i‟ and „j‟ count as one letter. Plaintext is encrypted two letters at a time
According to the following rules:
Repeating plaintext letters that would fall in the same pair are separated with a
Filler letter such as „x‟.
Plaintext letters that fall in the same row of the matrix are each replaced by the letter to the
right, with the first element of the row following the last.
Plaintext letters that fall in the same column are replaced by the letter beneath, with the top
element of the column following the last.
Otherwise, each plaintext letter is replaced by the letter that lies in its own row
And the column occupied by the other plaintext letter.

M O N A R

C H Y B D

E F G I/J K

L P Q S T

U V W X Z

Plaintext = meet me at the school house

Splitting two letters as a unit => me et me at th es ch o x ol ho us ex
Corresponding cipher text => CL KL CL RS PD IL HY AV MP HF XL IU

Strength of playfair cipher

Playfair cipher is a great advance over simple mono alphabetic ciphers.
Since there are 26 letters, 26x26 = 676 diagrams are possible, so identification of individual
diagram is more difficult.

1.15.1.3 Polyalphabetic ciphers

 Another way to improve on the simple monoalphabetic technique is to use different
monoalphabetic substitutions as one proceeds through the plaintext message. The general name
for this approach is polyalphabetic cipher. All the techniques have the following features in
common.
A set of related monoalphabetic substitution rules are used
A key determines which particular rule is chosen for a given transformation.

Vigenere cipher
In this scheme, the set of related monoalphabetic substitution rules consisting of
26 caesar ciphers with shifts of 0 through 25. Each cipher is denoted by a key letter. e.g., Caesar
cipher with a shift of 3 is denoted by the key value 'd‟ (since a=0, b=1, c=2 and so on). To
aid in understanding the scheme, a matrix known as vigenere tableau is
Constructed

Each of the 26 ciphers is laid out horizontally, with the key letter for each cipher to its
left. A normal alphabet for the plaintext runs across the top. The process of

PLAIN TEXT
K a b c d e f g h i j k … x y z
E a A B C D E F G H I J K … X Y Z
Y b B C D E F G H I J K L … Y Z A
c C D E F G H I J K L M … Z A B
L d D E F G H I J K L M N … A B C
E e E F G H I J K L M N O … B C D
T f F G H I J K L M N O P … C D E
T g G H I J K L M N O P Q … D E F
E : : : : : : : : : : : : … : : :
R : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
S x X Y Z A B C D E F G H … W
y Y Z A B C D E F G H I … X
z Z A B C D E F G H I J … Y
Encryption is simple: Given a key letter X and a plaintext letter y, the cipher text is at the
intersection of the row labeled x and the column labeled y; in this case, the ciphertext is
V.
To encrypt a message, a key is needed that is as long as the message. Usually, the key is a
repeating keyword.
e.g., key = d e c e p t i v e d e c e p t i v e d e c e p t i v e PT = w e a r e d i s c o v e r e d s a
v e y o u r s e l f CT = ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ
Decryption is equally simple. The key letter again identifies the row. The position of the
cipher text letter in that row determines the column, and the plaintext letter is at the top of that
column.

Strength of Vigenere cipher

o There are multiple cipher text letters for each plaintext letter.
o Letter frequency information is obscured.

One Time Pad Cipher

It is an unbreakable cryptosystem. It represents the message as a sequence of 0s and 1s.
this can be accomplished by writing all numbers in binary, for example, or by using ASCII. The
key is a random sequence of 0‟s and 1‟s of same length as the message. Once a key is used, it is
discarded and never used again. The system can be expressed as
Follows:

Ci = Pi Ki Ci - ith binary digit of cipher text Pi - ith binary digit of

plaintext Ki - ith binary digit of key

Exclusive OR operation
Thus the cipher text is generated by performing the bitwise XOR of the plaintext and the key.
Decryption uses the same key. Because of the properties of XOR, decryption simply involves the
same bitwise operation:
Pi = Ci Ki

e.g., plaintext = 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1
Key =10101100
 ------------------- ciphertext = 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1

Advantage:
Encryption method is completely unbreakable for a ciphertext only attack.
Disadvantages
It requires a very long key which is expensive to produce and expensive to transmit.
Once a key is used, it is dangerous to reuse it for a second message; any knowledge
on the first message would give knowledge of the second.

TRANSPOSITION TECHNIQUES
All the techniques examined so far involve the substitution of a cipher text symbol
for a plaintext symbol. A very different kind of mapping is achieved by performing some sort of
permutation on the plaintext letters. This technique is referred to as a transposition cipher.

Rail fence
is simplest of such cipher, in which the plaintext is written down as a sequence of diagonals and
then read off as a sequence of rows.
Plaintext = meet at the school house
To encipher this message with a rail fence of depth 2, we write the message as follows:
m e a t e c o l o s
e t t h s h o h u e
The encrypted message is
MEATECOLOSETTHSHOHUE

Row Transposition Ciphers-

A more complex scheme is to write the message in a rectangle, row by row, and read the
message off, column by column, but permute the order of the columns. The order of columns then
becomes the key of the algorithm.
e.g., plaintext = meet at the school house

Key = 4 3 1 2 5 6 7
PT = m e e t a t t
 h e s c h o o
l h o u s e
CT = ESOTCUEEHMHLAHSTOETO
A pure transposition cipher is easily recognized because it has the same letter frequencies
as the original plaintext. The transposition cipher can be made significantly more secure by
performing more than one stage of transposition. The result is more complex permutation that is
not easily reconstructed.

Feistel cipher structure

The input to the encryption algorithm are a plaintext block of length 2w bits and a key K.
the plaintext block is divided into two halves L0 and R0. The two halves of the data pass
through „n‟ rounds of processing and then combine to produce the ciphertext block. Each round „i‟
has inputs Li-1 and Ri-1, derived from the previous round, as well as the subkey Ki, derived from
the overall key K. in general, the subkeys K i are different from K and from each other.
All rounds have the same structure. A substitution is performed on the left half of the data (as
similar to S-DES). This is done by applying a round function F to the right half of the data and
then taking the XOR of the output of that function and the left half of the data. The round function
has the same general structure for each round but is parameterized by the round sub key ki.
Following this substitution, a permutation is performed that consists of the interchange of the
two halves of the data. This structure is a particular form of the substitution-permutation network.
The exact realization of a Feistel network depends on the choice of the following parameters and
design features:
Block size - Increasing size improves security, but slows cipher
Key size - Increasing size improves security, makes exhaustive key searching harder, but may
slow cipher
Number of rounds - Increasing number improves security, but slows cipher
Subkey generation - Greater complexity can make analysis harder, but slows cipher
Round function - Greater complexity can make analysis harder, but slows cipher
Fast software en/decryption & ease of analysis - are more recent concerns for practical use
and testing.
Fig: Classical Feistel Network
 Fig: Feistel encryption and decryption

The process of decryption is essentially the same as the encryption process. The rule is as follows:
use the cipher text as input to the algorithm, but use the subkey k i in reverse order. i.e., kn in
the first round, kn-1 in second round and so on. For clarity, we use the notation LEi and REi for
data traveling through the decryption algorithm. The diagram below indicates that, at each
round, the intermediate value of the decryption process is same (equal) to the corresponding value
of the encryption process with two halves of the value swapped.

i.e., REi || LEi (or) equivalently RD16-i || LD16-i

 After the last iteration of the encryption process, the two halves of the output are
swapped, so that the cipher text is RE16 || LE16. The output of that round is the cipher text. Now
take the cipher text and use it as input to the same algorithm. The input to the first round is RE16
|| LE16, which is equal to the 32-bit swap of the output of the sixteenth round of the
encryption process.
Now we will see how the output of the first round of the decryption process is equal to a
32-bit swap of the input to the sixteenth round of the encryption process. First consider the
encryption process,
LE16 = RE15
RE16 = LE15 F (RE15, K16) On the decryption side,
LD1 =RD0 = LE16 =RE15
RD1 = LD0 F (RD0, K16)
= RE16 F (RE15, K16)
= [LE15 F (RE15, K16)] F (RE15, K16)
= LE15
Therefore, LD1 = RE15

RD1 = LE15 In general, for the ith iteration of the encryption algorithm, LEi = REi-1
REi = LEi-1 F (REi-1, Ki)
Finally, the output of the last round of the decryption process is RE0 || LE0. A 32-bit swap
recovers the original plaintext.
MODULE - II
BLOCK CIPHER PRINCIPLES
Virtually, all symmetric block encryption algorithms in current use are based on a structure
referred to as Fiestel block cipher. For that reason, it is important to examine the design principles
of the Fiestel cipher. We begin with a comparison of stream cipher with block cipher.
• A stream cipher is one that encrypts a digital data stream one bit or one byte at a time. E.g,
vigenere cipher. A block cipher is one in which a block of plaintext is treated as a whole and
used to produce a cipher text block of equal length. Typically a block size of 64 or 128 bits is
used.
 Block cipher principles
• most symmetric block ciphers are based on a Feistel Cipher Structure needed since must be
able to decrypt ciphertext to recover messages efficiently. block ciphers look like an extremely
large substitution
• would need table of 264 entries for a 64-bit block
• Instead create from smaller building blocks
• using idea of a product cipher in 1949 Claude Shannon introduced idea of substitu-
tion-permutation (S-P) networks called modern substitution-transposition product cipher
these form the basis of modern block ciphers
• S-P networks are based on the two primitive cryptographic operations we have seen before:
• substitution (S-box)
• permutation (P-box)
• provide confusion and diffusion of message
• diffusion – dissipates statistical structure of plaintext over bulk of ciphertext
• confusion – makes relationship between ciphertext and key as complex as possible

DATA ENCRYPTION STANDARD (DES)

In May 1973, and again in Aug 1974 the NBS (now NIST) called for possible encryption
algorithms for use in unclassified government applications response was mostly disappointing,
however IBM submitted their Lucifer design following a period of redesign and comment it
became the Data Encryption Standard (DES)
it was adopted as a (US) federal standard in Nov 76, published by NBS as a hardware only scheme
in Jan 77 and by ANSI for both hardware and software standards in ANSI X3.92-1981 (also
X3.106-1983 modes of use) subsequently it has been widely adopted and is now published in
many standards around the world cf Australian Standard AS2805.5-1985
one of the largest users of the DES is the banking industry, particularly with EFT, and EFTPOS
it is for this use that the DES has primarily been standardized, with ANSI having twice
reconfirmed its recommended use for 5 year periods - a further extension is not expected however
although the standard is public, the design criteria used are classified and have yet to be released
there has been considerable controversy over the design, particularly in the choice of a 56-bit key
· recent analysis has shown despite this that the choice was appropriate, and that DES is well
designed
· rapid advances in computing speed though have rendered the 56 bit key susceptible to
exhaustive key search, as predicted by Diffie & Hellman
· the DES has also been theoretically broken using a method called Differential
Cryptanalysis, however in practice this is unlikely to be a problem (yet)

Overview of the DES Encryption Algorithm

· the basic process in enciphering a 64-bit data block using the DES consists of:
o an initial permutation (IP)
o 16 rounds of a complex key dependent calculation f
o a final permutation, being the inverse of IP
· in more detail the 16 rounds of f consist of:

· this can be described functionally as