Introduction: Adult Personality Assessments

Personality is a fundamental construct in psychology that encompasses an individual's unique,

relatively enduring internal and external characteristics that influence behavior across situations
(Schultz & Schultz, 2012). It represents a constellation of traits that contribute to a person’s way
of thinking, feeling, and behaving.

Psychological assessment is the process of discovering patterns in another person’s behavior

by (1) distinguishing situational from enduring behaviors, (2) predicting how the person will
respond to different situations, and (3) finding an environmental event or treatment that will help
or allow a person to change a troubling self-related aspect. (Harwood et al., 2011, p. 4)

Several perspectives have proposed various theories to explain how personality develops and
changes across ages, identifying causes and processes driving these changes. (e.g. Caspi &
Moffitt, 1993; Denissen, McCrae & Costa, 2008). Also, recent research has shown that
personality traits are natural and develop independently over time. Studying personality
psychology can help us understand many social and psychological issues. (McCrae & Costa,
2008)

This burgeoning work has considerably advanced our understanding of adult personality
development in recent years

Historical Background of Adult Personality Assessment

Personality assessments date back to early psychological theories, but the formal study of adult
personality assessment gained prominence in the early 20th century. The first significant
personality assessments emerged in clinical psychology and intelligence testing, with pioneers
like Francis Galton (1884) exploring individual differences through lexical analysis.

In the 1920s, the Woodworth Personal Data Sheet was developed to screen World War I
soldiers for psychological instability, marking one of the first large-scale personality
assessments (Woodworth, 1919). Later, assessments such as the Minnesota Multiphasic
Personality Inventory (MMPI) (Hathaway & McKinley, 1943) expanded personality testing for
clinical and occupational use.

The field evolved with Raymond Cattell’s 16 Personality Factor (16PF) model in the 1940s
and Hans Eysenck’s Personality Questionnaire (EPQ) in the 1950s, focusing on personality
traits. The most influential development, however, was the Five-Factor Model (FFM) introduced
by Costa and McCrae (1992), which has since dominated adult personality assessment
research.

During the mid-to-late 20th century, personality assessments became more structured and
empirically driven:
 ●​ Five-Factor Model (FFM, 1992): Costa and McCrae (1992) developed this model,
which became the most widely accepted framework for personality research, identifying
five core traits: Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness, Agreeableness, and
Conscientiousness.
●​ Big Five Inventory (BFI, 1999): A simplified FFM version developed for research and
applied settings (John & Srivastava, 1999).

Modern Developments in Personality Assessment

Recent advancements in technology and psychology have influenced personality assessments:

●​ Ecological Momentary Assessment (EMA, 2000s): Real-time data collection through

digital platforms, improving accuracy in personality measurement (Shiffman et al., 2008).
●​ Neurobiological and fMRI-Based Assessments (2010s-present): Advances in
neuroscience have allowed researchers to explore the neural basis of personality traits
(DeYoung, 2010).

Why Categorize Personality Stages in Adulthood?

Perhaps the most basic question in studies of development is - what changes with age? Do
people become more rigid,or wiser,or more introverted? And if so,is this a natural and
more-or-less inevitable process,or is it due to features of our culture and historical era that
would not be widely generalizable to other places and times? (Costa and McCrae, 1992)

The categorization of adulthood into stages was primarily influenced by Erik Erikson (1950),
who introduced psychosocial development stages. Later, researchers such as Daniel Levinson
(1978), George Vaillant (2002), and Paul Baltes (1990) expanded upon this concept,
integrating cognitive, social, and biological perspectives. A staged approach was taken that
allows assessments to align with psychosocial, cognitive, and emotional changes specific to
different phases of adulthood.

Age-based Milestones

Adulthood (20-39 years)

●​ Identity Exploration & Self-Discovery (Arnett, 2000)

●​ Transition to Independence & Instability (Levinson, 1978)
●​ Exploration of Love, Work, & Worldviews (Erikson, 1950)
●​ Career Consolidation & Long-term Commitments (Vaillant, 2002)
●​ Emotional Regulation & Relationship Stability (Baltes, 1990)
●​ Establishment of Personal & Social Identity (Costa & McCrae, 1992)

Middle Adulthood (40-65 years)

●​ Generativity vs. Stagnation (Erikson, 1950)

●​ Cognitive & Emotional Maturity (Baltes, 1990)
 ●​ Life Reassessment & Midlife Transitions (Levinson, 1978)

Late Adulthood (65+ years)

●​ Integrity vs. Despair (Erikson, 1950)

●​ Wisdom & Emotional Stability (Vaillant, 2002)
●​ Coping with Aging & Societal Roles (Baltes, 1990)

Key Considerations for Personality Stage Categorization:

●​ Tailored Assessments: Personality traits fluctuate across different life stages, requiring
specific measurement tools (Costa & McCrae, 1992).
●​ Psychosocial Relevance: Different life challenges (e.g., career building, parenting,
aging) influence personality traits (Levinson, 1978).
●​ Clinical Utility: Psychologists can use stage-specific assessments to identify
developmental concerns and psychological distress (Vaillant, 2002).

Theories of Adult Personality

1.​ PEN model or three-factor model of personality by Hans Eysenck
The PEN model is a biological theory of personality developed by influential psychologist
Hans Eysenck (1916-1997). The model focuses on three broad personality factors:
psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism (PEN). Eysenck believed that biological
factors, including cortical arousal and hormone levels, along with environmental factors,
such as behavior learned through conditioning, influence a person’s score on these
personality dimensions

2.​ Big Five

The big five personality traits, given by Paul Costa and Robert McCrae often referred to
as OCEAN, and sometimes CANOE, are: Openness, Conscientiousness, Extroversion,
Agreeableness, and Neuroticism. These five traits represent broad domains of human
behaviour and account for differences in both personality and decision making.

3.​ Cattell's 16 personality factors

Psychologist Raymond Cattell whittled Allport's list down to 171 characteristics, mostly
by eliminating redundant and uncommon ones. He then used a statistical technique
known as factor analysis to identify interrelated traits and condense his list into 16 key
personality factors. Abstractedness, Apprehension, , Dominance, Emotional stability,
Liveliness, Openness to change, Perfectionism, Privateness, Reasoning,
Rule-consciousness, Self-reliance, Sensitivity, Social boldness, Tension, Vigilance,
Warmth
 4.​ Carl Jung's psychological type theory
Carl Jung's theory of psychological types posits that individuals differ in their preferred
ways of perceiving and judging the world, leading to eight distinct personality types
based on the combination of introversion/extraversion and four psychological functions:
●​ Thinking (T)
●​ Feeling (F)
●​ Sensing (S)
●​ Intuition (N)

5.​ Erick Erikson

Erik Erikson's theory of Psychosocial Development describes personality development
across eight stages of life, from infancy to old age. Each stage presents a crisis or
challenge that a person must resolve to develop a healthy personality. Successful
resolution leads to psychological strengths, while failure can result in difficulties later in
life.The stages that make up his theory are as follows along with virtues learnt:

Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months) - Hope

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18 months to three years)
- Will
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five) - Purpose
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11) - Competence
Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18) - Fidelity
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40) - Love
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65) - Care
Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death) - Wisdom

Assessments for Adult Personality

A.​ 16 Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF)

Developers: Raymond Cattell
Year of Publication: 1949
Key components: Measures 16 primary personality traits and 5 global factors
- Contains 185 multiple-choice questions in the latest version (16PF Fifth Edition)
- Takes approximately 35-50 minutes to complete
- Uses factor analysis to identify fundamental personality dimensions
- Designed for individuals aged 16 and older
- determines:
Primary Factors (16 Personality Dimensions)
Global Factors (Second-Order Factors)
 B.​ Rorschach test
Developers: Hermann Rorschach
- Year of Publication: 1921
- Key components: Projective psychological test using 10 standardized inkblot images to
analyze thought processes and emotional functioning
●​ Patients' perceptions are analyzed for thought organization, perception accuracy,
emotional functioning, and psychological preoccupations. Responses are scored
using standardized systems (primarily the Comprehensive System).
- Special Applications: Clinical settings for assessing personality structure and
psychopathology
- Precautions: Requires professional interpretation

C.​ TAT
- Developers: Henry A. Murray and Christiana D.
- Year of Publication: the 1930s
- Key components: Projective test using 31 ambiguous images where subjects create
stories to reveal unconscious drives
-Responses are analyzed for recurring themes, needs, motivations, and conflicts. The
test aims to reveal unconscious drives, concerns, and patterns in interpersonal
relationships that subjects might not express directly.
- Special Applications: Clinical assessment, research, and occasional forensic settings
- Precautions: Requires expert analysis of responses

D.​ Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Developers: Katharine Cook Briggs and Isabel Briggs Myers

- Year of Publication: 1962
- key components: Categorizes people into 16 personality types based on four preference
dimensions
- Self-report questionnaire format
- Takes approximately 20-30 minutes to complete
The MBTI measures preferences across four dimensions:
1. *Extraversion (E) vs. Introversion (I)*
2. *Sensing (S) vs. Intuition (N)*
3. *Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F)*
4. *Judging (J) vs. Perceiving (P)*

16 Personality Types- These four preferences combine to create 16 possible personality

types, each with a four-letter code (e.g., INTJ, ESFP).

- Special Applications: Career counseling, team building, personal development

- Precautions: Not designed for clinical diagnosis; faces scientific criticism regarding reliability
 E.​ NEO-PI-R
Developers: Paul Costa and Robert McCrae
- Year of Publication: Original version in 1978
- key components: Measures five major personality traits (OCEAN) with 30 detailed
facets. neuroticism (N) and extraversion (E), openness (O), agreeableness (A) and
conscientiousness (C).
–The test has 240 items rated on a 5-point scale, takes 30-40 minutes to complete, and is
validated across cultures.
- Special Applications: Clinical settings, research, personnel selection, career counseling

F.​ Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ)

Developers: Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck
- Year of Publication:
- Key components:
The EPQ is based on Eysenck's theory that personality traits have biological foundations
and can be linked to different levels of arousal in the central nervous system.
Measures three major personality dimensions
*Extraversion-Introversion (E)*
2. *Neuroticism-Stability (N)*
3. *Psychoticism (P)*
Additional Scale
- *Lie Scale (L)*: Measures a person's tendency to present themselves in a socially
desirable way (response bias)
- Special Applications: The questionnaire uses yes/no questions to assess these
personality traits and has been translated into many languages and validated across
numerous cultural contexts.

Used in workplaces
A.​ The Hogan Personality Inventory (HPI)
Developers: Drs. Robert and Joyce Hogan
- Year of Publication: 1987
- Key components: Workplace personality assessment measuring seven primary scales
1.​ Adjustment
2.​ Ambition
3.​ Sociability
4.​ Interpersonal Sensitivity
5.​ Prudence
6.​ Inquisitive
7.​ Learning Approach
- Special Applications: Organizational settings, job performance prediction

​
 B.​ Gallup – CliftonStrengths™ Assessment
Developers: Gallup and Don Clifton
- Year of Publication: 1999
- Key components: Identifies individual talents across 34 themes in four domains
1.Executing
2. Influencing
3. Relationship Building
4. Strategic Thinking

- Special Applications: Personal development, team building, leadership development

- Precautions: Focuses on developing strengths rather than fixing weaknesses

Middle Adulthood Assessments (40-65)

A.​ Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES)

Developed by - Ralf Schwarzer and Matthias Jerusalem
Year of publication - 1995
Key components -
It is a 10-item self-report instrument designed to assess an individual's belief in their
ability to handle various situations and challenges. Each item is rated on a 4-point Likert
scale, ranging from 1 ("Not at all true") to 4 ("Exactly true"). The total score reflects the
respondent's general sense of self-efficacy.

Application in Real-Life Settings: The GSES is utilized across various domains,

including:
1.​ Clinical Psychology
2.​ Occupational Health

B.​ Retirement Readiness Scale (RRS)

Developed by - PT Pembangkitan Jawa Bali (PJB)
Key components -
The Retirement Readiness Scale (RRS) is a self-assessment tool designed to evaluate
an individual's preparedness for retirement across multiple dimensions. One such scale,
encompasses five key dimensions:

●​ Physical Health
●​ Mental Health
●​ Financial Preparedness.
●​ Performance
 ●​ Health Assessment

Each dimension is assessed through specific items, with responses typically rated on a Likert
scale. The aggregated scores provide a comprehensive overview of an individual's readiness for
retirement.

Application in Real-Life Settings: The RRS is utilized across various domains, including:

●​ Financial Planning
●​ Human Resources
●​ Healthcare

Late adulthood (65+ years)

1. Geriatric assessments:
A.​ Gerontological Personality Disorder Scale (GPS)
Developers - S.P.J. van Alphen, G.J.J.A. Engelen, Y. Kuin, H.J.A. Hoijtink, and J.J.L.
Derksen.
Year of publication - 2006
Key points -
●​ It is a screening instrument designed to identify personality disorders (PDs) in
older adults, with two versions: a patient version (GPS-pv) and an informant
version (GPS-iv).
●​ The GPS aims to help clinicians identify potential personality disorders in older
adults, which are often overlooked or misdiagnosed.

B.​ Loyola Generativity Scale (LGS)

Developers - Dan P. McAdams and Ed de St. Aubin
Year of publication - 1992
Key points -
●​ Developed specifically for personality assessment in older adults, including those
in long-term care facilities.
●​ Completed by relatives to gather information about the individual's personality
before significant health issues or cognitive decline.

Advantages of Using Different Personality Assessment Tools Across the Lifespan

 ●​ Stage-Specific Precision – Different tools capture personality shifts at each life stage,
improving accuracy (McCrae & Costa, 2008).
●​ Psychometric Strength – Some tools offer better reliability and validity for specific age
groups (Specht et al., 2014).
●​ Holistic Perspective – Integrating genetic (Five-Factor Theory) and environmental
(Neo-Socioanalytic Theory) influences provides a balanced view (Roberts & Wood,
2006).
●​ Predictive Utility – Stage-specific tools improve predictions of well-being, career
success, and interventions (Specht et al., 2014).
●​ Diverse Data Collection – Combining self-reports, behavioral observations, and implicit
measures reduces bias (Specht et al., 2014).
●​ Cross-Cultural & Longitudinal Insights – Enables tracking personality changes across
time and cultures (Specht et al., 2014).

LIMITATIONS
These multifaceted theoretical perspectives and empirical studies come with at least five
limitations for the ongoing scientific debate.
1.​ Different theories use confusing or inconsistent terminology.
2.​ Many theories lack strong evidence and sometimes contradict each other, yet all have
some support.
3.​ Some research findings don’t fit any existing theories.
4.​ Certain aspects of personality development remain untested.

Ethical Considerations

1.​ Informed Consent

2.​ Purpose and Use: Clearly explain to the individual why the personality assessment is
being conducted and how the results will be used.
3.​ Confidentiality: Assure the individual that their responses will be kept confidential and
used only for the stated purpose.
4.​ Voluntary Participation: Ensure the individual understands that participation is voluntary
and they can withdraw at any time.
5.​ Right to Refuse: Respect the individual's right to refuse to participate in the assessment.
6.​ No Coercion: Avoid any pressure or coercion to participate in the assessment.
7.​ Be Patient: Allow the individual sufficient time to complete the test without rushing them
especially with geriatric population
8.​ Provide Feedback: Offer the individual feedback on their results in a constructive and
supportive manner.

RESEARCH
Title 1
Screening for personality disorders in geriatric medicine outpatients
Authors
E. C. H. Meuwissen‑van Pol et al
Objective
The aim of the research was to Optimize screening of personality disorders (PDs) in geriatric
medicine outpatients.
Findings
The Gerontological Personality disorder Scale (GPS) proves to be a reliable and valid tool to
screen for PDs in Dutch geriatric medicine outpatients.

Title 2
Rorschach inkblot test and psychopathology among patients suffering from schizophrenia: A
correlational study
Authors
Anwesha Mondal, Manish Kumar
Objective
The aim of the present study is to assess the relationship
between Rorschach response patterns and different symptoms in schizophrenia patients.
Findings
The results showed that there is a significant positive and negative correlation among positive,
negative schizophrenia symptoms, and different Rorschach variables

Conclusion

Personality development is a lifelong phenomenon. It is influenced by a multitude of factors that

directly, indirectly and in transaction with each other shape who we are and who we become.
Attempts to understand this overwhelming complexity have sometimes resulted in mono-causal
attributions of personality development as the result of either nature or nurture, but both
perspectives oversimplify reality. Conversely, models that integrate the effects of nature and
nurture as well as their interrelation bear the risk of being too complex to allow for precise and
testable predictions of how personality will develop. Several theoretical perspectives have been
developed, one needs to go beyond these simplified explanations and specify exact predictions
that can be empirically tested. All the perspectives received empirical support—some more than
others—and are by no means mutually exclusive, but there are several similarities across
perspectives.
Baumeister (1999) has recently depicted the field of personality psychology as small,
underfunded, and relatively isolated from other fields. Small and underfunded it may well be, but
its recent advances cannot be and have not been, ignored by other disciplines.

Once again, personality psychology may become ‘‘the intellectual center of all the social
sciences’’ (Baumeister,1999,p. 371).
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