C languages note’s

Q [1]. What is Algorithm in C Language ?

Algorithm is a step-by-step procedure, which defines a set of instructions to be executed in a certain
order to get the desired output. Algorithms are generally created independent of underlying languages,
i.e. an algorithm can be implemented in more than one programming language.

From the data structure point of view, following are some important categories of algorithms −

• Search − Algorithm to search an item in a data structure.

• Sort − Algorithm to sort items in a certain order.
• Insert − Algorithm to insert item in a data structure.
• Update − Algorithm to update an existing item in a data structure.
• Delete − Algorithm to delete an existing item from a data structure.

Characteristics of an Algorithm
Not all procedures can be called an algorithm. An algorithm should have the following characteristics −

• Unambiguous − Algorithm should be clear and unambiguous. Each of its steps (or phases), and their
inputs/outputs should be clear and must lead to only one meaning.
• Input − An algorithm should have 0 or more well-defined inputs.
• Output − An algorithm should have 1 or more well-defined outputs, and should match the desired output.
• Finiteness − Algorithms must terminate after a finite number of steps.
• Feasibility − Should be feasible with the available resources.
• Independent − An algorithm should have step-by-step directions, which should be independent of any
programming code.

How to Write an Algorithm?

There are no well-defined standards for writing algorithms. Rather, it is problem and resource dependent.
Algorithms are never written to support a particular programming code.

As we know that all programming languages share basic code constructs like loops (do, for, while), flow-
control (if-else), etc. These common constructs can be used to write an algorithm.

We write algorithms in a step-by-step manner, but it is not always the case. Algorithm writing is a process
and is executed after the problem domain is well-defined. That is, we should know the problem domain,
for which we are designing a solution.

Example
Let’s try to learn algorithm-writing by using an example.

Problem − Design an algorithm to add two numbers and display the result.

Step 1 − START

Step 2 − declare three integers a, b & c

Step 3 − define values of a & b

Step 4 − add values of a & b

Step 5 − store output of step 4 to c

Step 6 − print c

Step 7 − STOP

Algorithms tell the programmers how to code the program. Alternatively, the algorithm can be written as
−

Step 1 − START ADD

Step 2 − get values of a & b

Step 3 − c ← a + b

Step 4 − display c

Step 5 − STOP

In design and analysis of algorithms, usually the second method is used to describe an algorithm. It
makes it easy for the analyst to analyze the algorithm ignoring all unwanted definitions. He can observe
what operations are being used and how the process is flowing.

Writing step numbers, is optional.

We design an algorithm to get a solution of a given problem. A problem can be solved in more than one
ways.

Hence, many solution algorithms can be derived for a given problem. The next step is to analyze those
proposed solution algorithms and implement the best suitable solution.

Algorithm Analysis
Efficiency of an algorithm can be analyzed at two different stages, before implementation and after
implementation. They are the following −
 • A Priori Analysis − This is a theoretical analysis of an algorithm. Efficiency of an algorithm is measured by
assuming that all other factors, for example, processor speed, are constant and have no effect on the
implementation.
• A Posterior Analysis − This is an empirical analysis of an algorithm. The selected algorithm is implemented
using programming language. This is then executed on target computer machine. In this analysis, actual
statistics like running time and space required, are collected.

We shall learn about a priori algorithm analysis. Algorithm analysis deals with the execution or running
time of various operations involved. The running time of an operation can be defined as the number of
computer instructions executed per operation.

Algorithm Complexity
Suppose X is an algorithm and n is the size of input data, the time and space used by the algorithm X are
the two main factors, which decide the efficiency of X.

• Time Factor − Time is measured by counting the number of key operations such as comparisons in the
sorting algorithm.
• Space Factor − Space is measured by counting the maximum memory space required by the algorithm.

The complexity of an algorithm f(n) gives the running time and/or the storage space required by the
algorithm in terms of n as the size of input data.

Space Complexity
Space complexity of an algorithm represents the amount of memory space required by the algorithm in
its life cycle. The space required by an algorithm is equal to the sum of the following two components −

• A fixed part that is a space required to store certain data and variables, that are independent of the size of
the problem. For example, simple variables and constants used, program size, etc.
• A variable part is a space required by variables, whose size depends on the size of the problem. For
example, dynamic memory allocation, recursion stack space, etc.

Space complexity S(P) of any algorithm P is S(P) = C + SP(I), where C is the fixed part and S(I) is the
variable part of the algorithm, which depends on instance characteristic I. Following is a simple example
that tries to explain the concept −

Algorithm: SUM(A, B)

Step 1 – START

Step 2 – C ← A + B + 10

Step 3 – Stop

Here we have three variables A, B, and C and one constant. Hence S(P) = 1 + 3. Now, space depends on
data types of given variables and constant types and it will be multiplied accordingly.

Time Complexity
Time complexity of an algorithm represents the amount of time required by the algorithm to run to
completion. Time requirements can be defined as a numerical function T(n), where T(n) can be measured
as the number of steps, provided each step consumes constant time.
For example, addition of two n-bit integers takes n steps. Consequently, the total computational time is
T(n) = c ∗ n, where c is the time taken for the addition of two bits. Here, we observe that T(n) grows
linearly as the input size increases.

Q [2]. What is a flowchart ?

What do you mean by flowchart?

The Flowchart is the most widely used graphical representation of an algorithm and procedural design workflows. It
uses various symbols to show the operations and decisions to be followed in a program. It flows in sequential order.

Types of Flowchart
The various types of the flowchart are given below.

o Horizontal Flowchart
o Panoramic Flowchart
o Vertical Flowchart
o Architectural Flowchart

Rules or guidelines of Flow

chart:
The various Rules or Guidelines for drawing the flowchart

are given below.

o Only conventional flowchart symbols should be used.

o Proper use of names and variables in the flowchart.
o If the flowchart becomes large and complex, use connector symbols.
o Flowcharts should have start and stop points.

Flowchart symbols:
The different flowchart symbols have different conventional meanings.

The various symbols used in Flowchart Designs are given below.

o Terminal Symbol: In the flowchart, it is represented with the help of a circle for denoting the start and stop
symbol. The symbol given below is used to represent the terminal symbol.

o Input/output Symbol: The input symbol is used to represent the input data, and the output symbol is used
to display the output operation. The symbol given below is used for representing the Input/output symbol.

o Processing Symbol:It is represented in a flowchart with the help of a rectangle box used to represent the
arithmetic and data movement instructions. The symbol given below is used to represent the processing
symbol.

o Decision Symbol: Diamond symbol is used for represents decision-making statements. The symbol given
below is used to represent the decision symbol.
o Connector Symbol:The connector symbol is used if flows discontinued at some point and continued again
at another place. The following symbol is the representation of the connector symbol.

o Flow lines: It represents the exact sequence in which instructions are executed. Arrows are used to represent
the flow lines in a flowchart. The symbol given below is used for representing the flow lines:

o Hexagon symbol (Flat): It is used to create a preparation box containing the loop setting statement. The
symbol given below is used for representing the Hexagon symbol.

o On-Page Reference Symbol: This symbol contains a letter inside that indicates the flow continues on a
matching symbol containing the same letters somewhere else on the same page. The symbol given below is
 used for representing the on-page reference symbol.

o Off-Page Reference: This symbol contains a letter inside indicating that the flow continues on a matching
symbol containing the same letter somewhere else on a different page. The symbol given below is used to
represent the off-page reference symbol.

o Delay or Bottleneck: This symbol is used for identifying a delay in a flowchart. The alternative name used for
the delay is the bottleneck. The symbol given below is used to represent the delay or bottleneck symbol.
 o Document Symbol: This symbol is used in a flowchart to indicate a document or report.The symbol given
below is used to represent the document symbol.

o Internal storage symbol: The symbol given below is used to represent the internal storage symbol.

Advantages of Flowchart in C:
Following are the various advantages of flowchart:

o Communication: A flowchart is a better way of communicating the logic of a program.

o Synthesis: Flowchart is used as working models in designing new programs and software systems.
o Efficient Coding: Flowcharts act as a guide for a programmer in writing the actual code in a high-level
language.
o Proper Debugging: Flowcharts help in the debugging process.
o Effective Analysis: Effective analysis of logical programs can be easily done with the help of a related
flowchart.
o Proper Documentation: Flowchart provides better and proper documentation. It consists of various activities
such as collecting, organizing, storing, and maintaining all related program records.
o Testing: A flowchart helps in the testing process.
o Efficient program maintenance: The maintenance of the program becomes easy with the help of a
flowchart.

Disadvantages of Flowchart in C:
Following are the various disadvantages of flowchart:

o Time-consuming: Designing a flowchart is a very time-consuming process.

o Complex: It isn't easy to draw a flowchart for large and complex programs.
o There is no standard in the flowchart; there is no standard to determine the quantity of detail.
o Difficult to modify: It is very difficult to modify the existing flowchart.
Examples of flowchart:
The various examples of the flowchart are given below:

Example 1:
Design a flowchart for adding two numbers entered by the user.

Example 2:
Design a flowchart for finding the largest among three numbers entered by the user.
Example 3:
Design a flowchart for calculating the profit and loss according to the value entered by the user.
Example 4:
Draw a flowchart to calculate the average of two numbers.
Example 5:
Design a flowchart for the multiplication of three numbers entered by the user.
Example 6:
Design a flowchart for calculating the area of a rectangle.