Irrigation Worldwide:

Irrigation is the practice of watering crops using man-made means, such as pipes, canals, or
sprinklers. It's used in many parts of the world, especially in arid and semi-arid regions.

Irrigation worldwide

 Irrigation area: In 2021, 352 million hectares of land worldwide were equipped for irrigation.

 Irrigation countries: More than 130 countries have irrigated land.

 Irrigation regions: Asia has the largest area of irrigated land, followed by the Americas and
Europe.

 Irrigation countries with large areas: India and China have the largest areas of irrigated land.

 Irrigation methods: Sprinkler and localized irrigation methods are used in many parts of the
world.

 Irrigation water use: Irrigation schemes use about 3,500 cubic kilometers of water per year,
which is about 80% of all water used by humans.

Irrigation benefits

 Irrigation can increase crop yields by two to four times.

 Irrigation can help countries increase their self-sufficiency in food production.

 Irrigation can help improve agricultural land.

Irrigation challenges

 Irrigation can cause environmental damage.

 Irrigation can lead to groundwater depletion.

 Irrigation can be affected by external factors, such as national policies and international
attitudes.

Source and storage of Irrigation water

Irrigation water can come from surface water, groundwater, or rain. The water can be stored in
tanks, ponds, lakes, or reservoirs.

Sources of irrigation water:

 Surface water: Water from rivers, streams, lakes, and ponds.

 Groundwater: Water from springs, wells, or borings.

 Rain: Water that falls from the sky.

 Floodwater: Water that is diverted to dry riverbeds and spread over large areas.
  Municipal water: Water from public water systems.

 Non-conventional sources: Treated wastewater, desalinated water, or drainage water.

Storage of irrigation water:

 Tanks: Water can be stored in tanks for later use.

 Ponds: Water can be stored in ponds for later use.

 Lakes: Water can be stored in lakes for later use.

 Reservoirs: Water can be stored in reservoirs for later use.

 Dams: Water can be stored in dams for later use.

 Barrages: Water can be stored in barrages for later use.

 Diversionary bunds: Water can be stored in diversionary bunds for later use.

The quality of the water used for irrigation can affect the yield and quality of crops.

Water: Supply and Sources

The main sources for irrigation water are groundwater from wells, surface water, drainage
ponds, rain and municipal water.

The primary sources of irrigation water include surface water like rivers, lakes, and reservoirs,
and groundwater extracted from wells or springs, with the water being stored in reservoirs,
ponds, tanks, or underground aquifers depending on the source and irrigation system
used; rainwater harvesting can also be a source in certain regions, though its availability is
inconsistent.

Key points about irrigation water sources and storage:

 Surface water:

 Rivers: A major source of irrigation water, particularly in areas with flowing rivers.

 Lakes and reservoirs: Artificial storage created by dams, providing a more consistent
water supply.

 Ponds: Smaller bodies of water that can be used for irrigation, especially in localized
areas.

 Groundwater:

 Wells: Holes drilled into the ground to access water stored in aquifers.

 Springs: Natural points where groundwater emerges at the surface.

 Storage methods:
  Reservoirs: Large artificial water storage facilities built behind dams.

 Tanks: Smaller storage containers, often used for rainwater harvesting.

 Aquifers: Underground layers of permeable rock that store groundwater.

Important considerations:

 Water quality:

The quality of irrigation water needs to be monitored to ensure it is suitable for crops and does
not harm the soil.

 Sustainability:

Over-extraction of groundwater can lead to depletion, requiring careful management.

 Irrigation systems:

The type of irrigation system used (e.g., flood, sprinkler, drip) influences how water is drawn
from the source and distributed to the fields.

Basic soil- water Relations:

Basic soil water relations refer to the way soil holds and releases water, primarily influenced by
its texture (particle size distribution), structure, and organic matter content, where finer textured
soils like clay hold more water than coarser sands, and water is retained through forces like
adhesion and cohesion, with key concepts including: field capacity, permanent wilting point,
available water, saturation, and the soil water potential curve which illustrates how much water
a soil can hold at different tensions or suction forces; essentially, the more negative the water
potential, the harder it is for plants to extract water from the soil.

Key points about soil water relations:

 Soil Texture:

 Sandy soils have large pore spaces, drain quickly, and have low water holding capacity.

 Clayey soils have small pore spaces, drain slowly, and have high water holding capacity.

 Loam soils have a balanced mix of sand, silt, and clay, providing good water retention
and drainage.

 Soil Structure:

 Granular structure (well-aggregated particles) allows for better water infiltration and
movement through the soil.

 Compacted or platy structures restrict water movement.

 Organic Matter:
  Organic matter acts like a sponge, increasing the soil's water holding capacity.

 Important Soil Water Constants:

 Saturation: When all pore spaces in the soil are filled with water.

 Field Capacity: The amount of water a soil holds after excess gravitational water has
drained away.

 Permanent Wilting Point: The point at which a plant can no longer extract water from
the soil, causing wilting.

 Available Water: The water held between field capacity and permanent wilting point,
which is accessible to plants.

Factors affecting soil water movement:

 Gravity: Pulls water downwards through the soil profile.

 Capillary action: Movement of water through small pores due to surface tension.

 Hydraulic gradient: The difference in water potential between two points, driving water
movement.

How to manage soil water relations:

 Irrigation scheduling: Applying water based on soil moisture levels to optimize plant growth.

 Cover cropping: Using plants to protect the soil surface and improve infiltration.

 Tillage practices: Managing soil structure to enhance water holding capacity

Why we measure soil moisture?

We measure soil moisture primarily to optimize irrigation practices, understand the natural environment,
and predict potential weather events like droughts or floods, as soil moisture plays a crucial role in plant
growth, water resource management, and overall ecosystem health; by monitoring it, we can efficiently
water crops, identify potential water shortages, and make informed decisions regarding land use and
water conservation.

Key reasons to measure soil moisture:

 Agriculture:

To determine the optimal timing and amount of irrigation needed for crops, preventing both
overwatering and underwatering, leading to improved yields.

 Environmental Monitoring:

To track changes in soil moisture levels which can indicate potential drought or flood conditions, allowing
for proactive management.
  Water Resource Management:

To understand how water is distributed within the soil profile and make informed decisions about water
allocation.

 Weather Forecasting:

Soil moisture data can contribute to more accurate weather predictions, particularly regarding
evapotranspiration and local precipitation patterns.

 Forestry:

To assess the health of forests and identify areas at risk of wildfires, as soil moisture levels can impact
tree growth and fire potential.

Why measure soil moisture?

 Drought and Soil Moisture Data

Soil moisture plays an important role in agricultural monitoring, drought and flood forecasting, forest fire
prediction, water supply

 Soil Moisture: Methods Of Measuring & Tools For Monitoring

Why Is Soil Moisture Important For Agriculture. The parameter is vital in monitoring farming activities.

Knowing the soil moisture status enables highly efficient irrigation, providing the water as and when
required, and eliminating the wasteful use of water when irrigation is not needed.

Soil moisture is measured using a variety of methods, including gravimetric, volumetric, and electrical
conductivity methods.

Gravimetric method:

 Principle: Compares the weight of a wet soil sample to the weight of the same sample after it's
been dried

 Calculation:

GWC-Gravimetric water Content

𝐺𝑊𝐶=[(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑚𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑡−𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑟𝑦)/𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑑𝑟𝑦]×100

 Benefits: A direct measurement of soil water content

 Principle: Compares the volume of water in a soil sample to the total volume of the sample

 Calculation:

VWC- Volume water content

𝑉𝑊𝐶=(𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙)×100

 Relation to gravimetric method: Can be converted to gravimetric water content by multiplying

Electrical conductivity method

 Principle: Measures the electrical conductivity of a medium, such as gypsum, that's in contact
with water in the soil

 Benefits: Not affected by soil type, pH, or temperature

Other methods

 Tensiometers

Tubes filled with water that measure water stress in the root zone of crops

 Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR)

Sends an electrical signal through rods inserted into the soil to measure the time it takes for the signal to
return

 Remote sensing platforms

Can measure soil moisture in large areas, but can be affected by atmospheric factors and overlapping
data

Soil Moisture: Methods Of Measuring & Tools For Monitoring

The gravimetric soil moisture is calculated based on measuring the difference between the wet and dry
sample weight.

What is soil moisture? The science behind the measurement

Gravimetric water content is the mass of water per mass of soil (i.e., grams of water per gram of soil).

Determining soil moisture -

Watermark sensors are the most well-known gypsum sensors that measure electrical conductivity. Since
the electrodes are embedded?
It's calculated by weighing the wet soil sampled from the field, drying it in an oven, and then weighing
the dry soil. Thus gravimetric water content equals the wet soil mass minus the dry soil mass divided
by the dry soil mass.

Example problems encountered when measuring soil moisture include: variations in soil texture
impacting sensor readings, temperature fluctuations affecting sensor accuracy, difficulty in determining
optimal sampling depth, inconsistent moisture distribution within a field, calibration issues with different
soil types, and interpreting data from remote sensing techniques due to factors like vegetation cover and
topography; all of which can lead to inaccurate readings when trying to assess the overall moisture
content of a soil profile.

Specific examples of problems:

 Sensor calibration issues:

A soil moisture sensor may need different calibration settings for a sandy soil compared to a clay soil,
leading to inaccurate readings if not properly adjusted.

 Depth-related inconsistencies:

Measuring soil moisture at different depths within the soil profile can yield varying results, making it
difficult to accurately assess the overall water availability for plant roots.

 Spatial variability:

Soil moisture can vary significantly across a field due to factors like topography and microclimates,
requiring multiple measurements to capture the true range of moisture levels.

 Temperature effects:

Some soil moisture sensors can be affected by temperature fluctuations, leading to inaccurate readings if
not properly compensated for.

 Interpreting remote sensing data:

Using satellite imagery to estimate soil moisture can be challenging due to factors like cloud cover,
vegetation canopy, and surface roughness.

 Choosing the right method for the situation:

Deciding whether to use a gravimetric method (drying soil samples in a lab), a tensiometer, a time
domain reflectometry (TDR) probe, or a neutron probe depends on the desired accuracy, access to
equipment, and soil conditions.

How to address these problems:

 Proper calibration:

Regularly calibrate soil moisture sensors based on the specific soil type being measured.
  Multiple sampling points:

Take measurements at various locations within a field to account for spatial variability.

 Depth-specific measurements:

Sample soil moisture at relevant depths based on the root zone of the plants being studied.

 Temperature correction:

Use sensors that are designed to compensate for temperature fluctuations or implement temperature
correction algorithms.

 Consider soil texture:

Choose a measurement method that is best suited to the soil texture (e.g., sandy vs. clayey).

 Data analysis and modeling:

Utilize statistical methods to analyze and interpret soil moisture data, accounting for spatial variability
and other influencing factors.

Field measurements

Bulk density varies considerably with depth and over an irrigated field. Thus, it is generally necessary to
repeat the measurement?

Soil moisture sensors for irrigation scheduling

The neutron probe method is considered to be the most accurate method of measuring soil moisture?

Soil Moisture Measuring Techniques

While measuring SSM across more significant regions, ground-penetrating radar and remote sensing
methods are susceptible to errors.?

The formula for measuring soil moisture content (gravimetric method) is: Soil Moisture Percentage (%) =
[(Wet Soil Weight - Dry Soil Weight) / Dry Soil Weight] x 100; where you weigh a soil sample before and
after drying it in an oven, then calculate the percentage of water based on the weight difference
between the wet and dry soil.

Key points about the formula:

 Wet Soil Weight: The weight of the soil sample before drying.

 Dry Soil Weight: The weight of the soil sample after drying in an oven.

 Result: The calculated percentage represents the proportion of water in the soil sample.
 Soil Moisture: Methods Of Measuring & Tools For Monitoring

The gravimetric soil moisture is calculated based on measuring the difference between the wet and dry
sample weight.

Soil Moisture Content in Construction -Soil Works

After the drying process, weigh the soil sample again; this weight represents the dry soil. Now,
apply the formula:

Soil water content: gravimetric method

Water content % = (weight of moist soil (g) – weight of dry soil. (g)) / weight of dry soil (g) * 100.

It's calculated by weighing the wet soil sampled from the field, drying it in an oven, and then weighing
the dry soil. Thus gravimetric water content equals the wet soil mass minus the dry soil mass divided by
the dry soil mass.

A soil sample is collected from a field and weighed at 100 grams wet weight. After drying in an oven at
105°C until a constant weight is reached, the soil sample weighs 85 grams. Calculate the percentage of
soil moisture content in the sample.

Solution:

 Given:

o Wet soil weight (W) = 100 grams

o Dry soil weight (D) = 85 grams

 Calculation:

o Soil moisture content (%) = ((W - D) / D) x 100

o Soil moisture content (%) = ((100g - 85g) / 85g) x 100

o Soil moisture content (%) = 17.6%

Explanation:
  This problem demonstrates the basic calculation of soil moisture content using the gravimetric
method, which involves weighing a soil sample before and after drying to determine the water
content lost.

Key points to consider:

 Representative sampling: Ensure the soil sample accurately represents the overall soil
conditions in the area you are studying.

 Drying temperature: The standard oven temperature for drying soil samples is around 105°C.

 Constant weight: Continue drying the sample until the weight remains consistent between
weighings.

Basic Calculation Problems:

 Calculating soil moisture content:

A soil sample weighs 100 grams wet and 80 grams dry after oven drying. What is the soil moisture
content as a percentage?

 Solution: (Wet weight - Dry weight) / Dry weight x 100% = (100g - 80g) / 80g x 100% =
25% moisture content.

 Converting between mass and volume based measurements:

If a soil sample has a volumetric water content of 0.25 cm^3/cm^3 and a bulk density of 1.5 g/cm^3,
what is the gravimetric water content (mass basis)?

 Solution: Gravimetric water content = Volumetric water content x Bulk density = 0.25
cm^3/cm^3 x 1.5 g/cm^3 = 0.375 g/cm^3

Field Sampling and Interpretation:

 Representative sampling:

You need to measure the soil moisture content of a field before irrigation. How many soil samples should
you collect and where should you take them from to ensure a representative measurement?

 Answer: Collect multiple samples from different locations across the field, including
areas with different topography and vegetation, to account for potential variations in
moisture content.

 Depth considerations:

You are studying the root zone of a crop. At what depths should you collect soil samples to best assess
available soil moisture?
  Answer: Sample at different depths within the root zone, depending on the plant
species and soil type, to understand moisture distribution at different levels.

Advanced Scenarios:

 Calibration of a soil moisture sensor:

A soil moisture sensor reads a value of 200 when placed in a saturated soil sample and 50 in a
completely dry soil sample. What is the calibration equation to convert sensor readings to volumetric
water content?

 Answer: Develop a linear regression equation using the known saturated and dry values
to convert sensor readings to volumetric water content.

 Impact of soil texture:

Compare the water holding capacity of a sandy soil to a clay soil. How would this affect irrigation
management strategies?

 Answer: Clay soils have a higher water holding capacity due to their smaller pore spaces,
requiring less frequent irrigation compared to sandy soils.

Data Analysis and Interpretation:

 Temporal trends: You have collected soil moisture data over a month. How would you analyze
the data to identify trends related to rainfall events and potential drought periods?

o Answer: Plot the soil moisture data over time and identify periods of rapid moisture
increase (after rain) and gradual decline (during dry periods).