What Is a Proposition?

A proposition is a statement, precisely a declarative sentence, which can be true or false.

For instance, the statement “Red is a primary color” is an example of a proposition because
this statement is a declarative sentence. Furthermore, we can identify the truthfulness of this
statement since it states true information (red, blue, and yellow are the primary colors).

Another example is the statement, “Manuel A. Roxas is the fifth president of the Republic of
the Philippines,” as it can either be true or false and is a declarative sentence.

The statement “Cats have wings” is also an example of a proposition because this statement
is a declarative sentence. Although this statement is false (of course, cats don’t have
wings!), we can still identify whether it is true or false, making it a proposition.

Likewise, “The sum of 1 and 3 is 4” is an example of a proposition. We can identify whether

this statement is true or false and is also a declarative sentence.

Note that a statement is not a proposition if we cannot identify whether it’s true or false.

For example, the statement “Can you get me a glass of water?” is not a proposition since the
given statement is not a declarative sentence (it is an interrogative sentence). Furthermore,
we cannot determine whether the sentence is true or false since it doesn’t tell us any
information.

Sample Problems: Which of the following is/are proposition(s)?

a) Two raised to five is 32

b) The square of a negative number is positive

c) 3 + 6 = 9

d) 3 + x = 9

Solution:

a) This statement is a proposition since it is a declarative sentence, and we can identify

whether it is true or false.

b) This statement is also a proposition since it is a declarative sentence, and we can identify
whether it is true or false.

c) This equation is a proposition. Notice that we can write 3 + 6 = 9: “Three increased by 6

equals 9.” This statement is a declarative sentence, and we can identify whether the
statement is true or false.

d) This is not a proposition since we cannot verify whether the statement is true or false
unless a value of x is specified.
The Truth Value of a Proposition

We say that the truth value of a proposition is “true” or “T” if the statement is factual.
Otherwise, the statement has a truth value of “false” or “F.”

For instance, “Red is a primary color” has a truth value of TRUE or T.

Note that a proposition has one truth value only. This means that there’s no proposition that
is both true and false at the same time. This also implies that once a statement is already
known to be false, it follows that it is false.

For instance, the statement “Red is a primary color,” as we know, has a truth value of
“TRUE.” it is already impossible for this statement to have a truth value of FALSE since
every proposition has one truth value only.

Sample Problems: Identify the truth value of the following propositions.

1. The square of a number is always positive.

2. The sum of two even numbers is always an even number.

Solution:

1. This proposition’s truth value is FALSE since it is not the case that the square of a
number is always positive. For instance, when you square the number 0: 0 2 = 0 x 0 =
0. Notice that the result is not a positive number. 0 is neither positive nor negative
since it is the basis to define the sign of the number. This is why the set of numbers
{0, 1, 2, 3, …} is called nonnegative numbers, not positive ones. Hence, it is not true
that the square of a number is always positive.
2. This proposition’s truth value is TRUE. You will always get an even number when
you add two even numbers, such as 2 + 8 = 10, 16 + 22 = 38, and so on.

Propositional Statements Are Expressed As Equations, Expressions, Inequalities, etc.

Propositional statements sometimes appear not in the form of an English sentence. There
are some instances when they appear as symbols or mathematical expressions.

For instance, 5 + 1 = 6 is a propositional statement, although it is not written as an English

declarative sentence. This is because we can identify the truth value of this statement. 5 + 1
= 6 is a true statement.

On the other hand, x + 1 = 6 is not a proposition since we cannot identify its truth value
unless we specify the value for x. Furthermore, note that the statement’s truth value depends
on the value of x we will use. For instance, if we let x = 0, we know the statement will be
false since 0 + 1 ≠ 6. On the other hand, if we let x = 5, the statement becomes true since 5
+ 1 = 6.

Propositional Variables: Symbolizing Propositions

We can write propositions as symbols or variables so that we don’t need to write them at full
length. We usually use lowercase or uppercase Roman letters to represent a particular
proposition. For instance, the proposition “Red is a primary color” can be represented by the
variable p. Therefore, in this case, proposition p stands for or represents the
proposition “Red is a primary color.”

The variables used to represent a particular proposition are called propositional variables.
They are a valuable shorthand way of expressing propositions as it saves time and space,
especially when dealing with too complex or compound propositions.

Complex Propositions and Connectives

If a proposition is composed of two or more propositions, we call that proposition a complex

proposition.

For example, the proposition “Red is a primary color and cats have wings” is an example of
a complex proposition since it is composed of two “smaller” propositions.

The first “smaller” proposition is “Red is a primary color,” while the second is “Cats have
wings.”

Note that the propositions “Red is a primary color” and “Cats have wings” are formed by
connecting them using the word “and.” The word “and” is an example of a connective.
A connective combines two or more propositions to form a complex proposition.

To write the complex proposition more precisely, let p be “Red is a primary color” and
let q be the proposition “Cats have wings.” The symbol “∧” is used to represent the
connective “and.”

Hence, we can rewrite the proposition “Red is a primary color and cats have wings” using
the symbols we have set: p ∧ q.

Different connectives combine propositions to form complex propositions. Below is the list of
the connectives and their respective symbols:

Connective Symbol

and ∧

or ∨

not ¬

implies ⇒

If and only if (iff) ⇔

In the succeeding sections, we will discuss the types of complex propositions formed using
these connectives.

1. Conjunctions

If two propositions are connected by the word “AND” to form a complex proposition, then we
have a conjunction.
If p and q are propositions, then the conjunction of p and q is written as p ∧ q. The symbol
“∧” represents the word “AND” that connects the propositions p and q.

For example, let p be the proposition “Snakes are reptiles,” and q be the proposition “7 is an
odd number.” Then, the conjunction of p and q or p ∧ q should be “Snakes are reptiles AND
7 is an odd number”.

Sample Problems: Define the conjunction of the following given propositions:

1. Define m ∧ n if m is “Tomorrow is Saturday” and if n is the proposition “Physics is a

branch of Science.”
2. Define a ∧ b if a is the proposition “Earth is a terrestrial planet” and b is the
proposition “-3 is a positive number.”
3. Define p ∧ q if p is the proposition “9 is a positive number” and q is the proposition “9
is an odd number.”

Solution:

1. The conjunction m ∧ n is “Tomorrow is Saturday and Physics is a branch of Science.”

2. The conjunction a ∧ b is “Earth is a terrestrial planet and -3 is a positive number.”
3. The conjunction p ∧ q is “9 is a positive number and 9 is an odd number.” However,
note that this statement or conjunction can be written more concisely: “9 is a positive
number and an odd number.” But, the most concise way to write the conjunction is “9
is a positive odd number.”

Truth Value of a Conjunction

How can we determine whether the conjunction we constructed is true or false? We refer to
the truth values of the respective propositions that composed the conjunction to identify it.

“A conjunction p ∧ q has a truth value of TRUE if and only if p and q are both true.”

The statement above tells us that a conjunction is stating a piece of true information if both
of the propositions that composed it are also true. This implies that if at least one of the
propositions of the conjunction is false, then the conjunction becomes false.

Consider the conjunction: “7 is a prime number, and 9 is an odd number.”

The propositions that compose the conjunction above are:

1. 7 is a prime number; and

2. 9 is an odd number

Note that both of these propositions are true. 7 is a prime number since its only factors are
one and itself, and 9 is an odd number since it is not divisible by 2.

Since both propositions of the given conjunction are true, the entire conjunction is true.
Hence, the truth value of the conjunction “7 is a prime number, and 9 is an odd number” is
also true.

Now, let P be the proposition, “Red is a primary color,” and let Q be the proposition, “Cats
have wings.” What is the truth value of P ∧ Q?
The expression “P ∧ Q” refers to the conjunction of the propositions P and Q. If
both P and Q are true, the conjunction P ∧ Q is also true.

Proposition P is true since red is indeed a primary color. On the other hand, Q is false since
cats do not have wings. As you can see, one of the propositions of the conjunction is false.
Recall that for a conjunction to be true, both propositions that compose it must also be true.
Since proposition Q is false in P ∧ Q, it implies that the conjunction P ∧ Q must be false.

Hence, the conjunction P ∧ Q or “Red is a primary color and cats have wings” is false.

Sample Problem 1: Let p be the proposition “All three-sided polygons are triangles” and
let q be the proposition “All right angles are congruent.” What is the truth value of p ∧ q?

Solution: Since p ∧ q indicates the conjunction of the propositions p and q, p ∧ q will be true
if both p and q are true.

Proposition p is true since the definition of a triangle states that it is a three-sided polygon.
On the other hand, q is also true since all right angles have a measure of 90 degrees,
implying that all have equal measures (and, thus, congruent). Since both p and q are true,
the conjunction p ∧ q must also be true.

Sample Problem 2: Is the conjunction “2 is an even number and a prime number” true or
false?

Solution: The first proposition of the conjunction is “2 is an even number,” while the second
is “2 is a prime number.” Both propositions are true. Hence, the conjunction “2 is an even
number and a prime number” must also be true.

Sample Problem 3: Identify the truth value of m ∧ n if m is the proposition “-5 is greater than
0,” and n is the proposition “the square root of a negative number is a real number.”

Solution: The truth value of m ∧ n is true if both m and n are true.

Proposition m is false since -5 is less than 0. Meanwhile, n is false since the square root of a
negative number is an imaginary number and not a real number. Since both statements are
false, then m ∧ n is false.

2. Disjunction

A disjunction is a complex proposition formed by connecting two or more propositions using

the word “OR.” The symbol used for OR is “∨.”

If p and q are propositions, the disjunction of p and q is written as “p ∨ q” (read as “p or q”).

For instance, consider proposition p “Cats are mammals,” and proposition q “Chickens are
birds.” The disjunction of the propositions p and q or “p ∨ q” is “Cats are mammals or
chickens are birds.”

Sample Problem 1: Let m be the proposition “Mozart is a classical composer” and n be the
proposition “Newton is a physicist.” What is m ∨ n?

Solution: The expression m ∨ n indicates the propositions m and n disjunction. Hence, m ∨

n must be “Mozart is a classical composer, or Newton is a physicist.”
Sample Problem 2: Form the disjunction of the propositions “5 is an odd number” and “3 is
an even number.”

Solution: The disjunction of the propositions is “5 is an odd number, or 3 is an even

number.”

Truth Value of a Disjunction

The truth value of a disjunction is TRUE if at least one of the propositions that compose it is
true. In other words, if one of the propositions is already true, the entire disjunction is true
regardless of the truth value of the other proposition.

“A disjunction p ∨ q is true if at least one of p and q is true.”

The statement above tells us that for a disjunction to be true, it is sufficient that one of the
propositions that compose it is true. In other words, disjunction p ∨ q is true if:

• p is true, and q is false

• p is false, and q is true
• p and q are both true

This also implies that a disjunction is false if and only if both of the propositions p and q are
false.

Don’t be confused too much about the truth value of a disjunction. The simplest way to
identify its truth value is to identify whether one of the disjunction’s propositions is true. If one
of the propositions is already true, the disjunction is true regardless of the truth value of the
other proposition.

Sample Problem 1: Identify the truth value of the disjunction “5 is an odd number or an even
number.”

Solution: The given disjunction has the following propositions:

1. 5 is an odd number
2. 5 is an even number

Proposition 1 is true since 5 is not divisible by 2. Since one of the propositions of the
disjunction is already true, the entire disjunction is already true regardless of the truth value
of proposition 2.

Sample Problem 2: Let p be the proposition “The square of 7 is 36” and let q be the
proposition “9 is an integer.” What is the truth value of p ∨ q?

Solution: p ∨ q implies the disjunction of the propositions p and q. For p ∨ q to be true, at

least one of p and q must be true.

Proposition p is false since the square of 7 is not 36 but 49 (72 = 7 x 7 = 49). Does this mean
that the disjunction p ∨ q is already false? No, since we haven’t considered the truth value of
proposition q yet.
Proposition q is true since 9 is indeed an integer. We have now shown that one of the
propositions of p ∨ q is true. Since a disjunction is true if at least one of its propositions is
true, then p ∨ q must be true.

Although we discovered proposition p is false earlier, it doesn’t matter anymore since q is

true. Note that we only need one true proposition of the disjunction to conclude that the
entire disjunction is true. Hence, the truth value of the disjunction in this example is true.

Sample Problem 3: What is the truth value of “8 is a multiple of 5 or less than 6”?

Solution: We can dissect the given disjunction into propositions:

1. 8 is a multiple of 5
2. 8 is less than 6

Proposition 1 is false since 8 is not a multiple of 5 (8 is a multiple of 4 instead). Meanwhile,

proposition 2 is also false since 8 is not less than 6 (it is 6 that is less than 8). Since both
propositions of the disjunction are false and none of its propositions are true, then it follows
that the disjunction is false.

The answer for this example is false.

From our previous example, you might have noticed that a disjunction is false if both
propositions that compose it are false.

3. Negation of a Proposition

The negation of a proposition is the “opposite” of the proposition. For instance,

negating “Dino is happy” is just “Dino is not happy.”

Note that simply adding the word “not” forms the negation of a proposition (but this is not the
only way to construct the negation of a proposition).

Formally, the negation of the proposition p is written as ∿p or ¬p (read as “not p”).

Sample Problems: Form the negation of the following propositions.

1. French is a European language

2. Cats have wings
3. 7 is an even number
4. π is a rational number

Solution:

1. French is not a European language

2. Cats do not have wings
3. 7 is not an even number (or “7 is an odd number”)
4. π is not a rational number (or “π is an irrational number”)

Truth Value of the Negation of a Proposition

The truth value of the negation of a proposition is the opposite of the truth value of the
proposition.

“If proposition p is true, then ∿p is false. Similarly, if proposition p is false, then ∿p is

true.”

Sample Problem 1: What is the truth value of the negation of “7 is an even number”?

Solution: The proposition “7 is an even number” is false since 7 is an odd number. This
means that the negation of the proposition must be true.

Sample Problem 2: Let j be the proposition “All numbers greater than 100 are three-digit
numbers.” What is the truth value of ∿j?

Solution: The symbol ∿j indicates the negation of proposition j. Proposition j is false since
not all numbers greater than 100 are three-digit numbers. For instance, 1000 is greater than
100 and has four digits. For this reason, j is false. Since j is false, then its negation ∿j must
be true.

4. Conditional Statements or Logical Implications (“If and Then” Statements)

Some propositions are related using a conditional statement or more commonly known as “If
and then” statements. These are among the most common statements you might have
encountered in mathematics.

For instance, “If -2 is a negative number, then -2 is less than 0” is an example of a

conditional or “If and then” statement. Note that the propositions that compose this statement
are:

1. -2 is a negative number
2. -2 is less than 0

Formally, if p and q are propositions, then the conditional of p and q is written

as “p ⇒ q” (read as “p implies q” or “If p then q”).

Return to our conditional statement, “If -2 is a negative number, then -2 is less than 0.” The
first proposition of a conditional statement is called the hypothesis, while the second is
called the conclusion. Hence, in the example conditional statement, “-2 is a negative
number” is the hypothesis, and “-2 is less than 0” is the conclusion.

In a conditional statement, the conclusion is the logical consequence of the hypothesis.

Sample Problems: Construct a conditional statement using the given hypothesis and
conclusion:

1. Hypothesis: Abel is a high school student

Conclusion: Abel is studying algebra

2. Hypothesis: The sum of the interior angles of a polygon is 180 degrees

Conclusion: The polygon is a triangle

Solution:

1. “If Abel is a high school student, then he is studying algebra.”

2. “If the sum of the interior angles of a polygon is 180 degrees, then the polygon is a
triangle.”

Sometimes, conditional statements do not appear with “If” and “then.”

For instance, the statement “The divisibility of 8 by 2 implies that it is an even number” is
also a conditional statement even if the words “If” and “then” are absent. By intuition, we can
deduce that the hypothesis of the statement is “The divisibility of 8 by 2,” and the conclusion
is “8 is an even number.” The reason behind this is that the statement implies that the
second proposition, “8 is an even number,” is a consequence of the first proposition,
“Divisibility of 8 by 2 (or 8 is divisible by 2).

Truth Value of a Conditional Statement or Logical Implication

It is quite tricky to identify whether a conditional is true or false. A conditional statement is

true if at least one of these indicators occurs:

• Both hypothesis and conclusion are true

• The hypothesis is false, and the conclusion is true.
• Both hypothesis and conclusion are false

If you are having a difficult time remembering the three indicators above, you can use this
indicator instead:

A conditional statement will be false if and only if the hypothesis is true and the
conclusion is false. Otherwise, the conditional statement is true.

The statement above also implies that once the hypothesis of a logical statement is already
false, the logical implication is now true regardless of the truth value of the conclusion.

Sample Problem 1: Determine the truth value of this statement: “If 9 is divisible by 3, then
32 = 9.”

Solution: Note that the hypothesis (9 is divisible by 3) and the conclusion (3 2 = 9) are true.
Since a logical implication will be false only if the hypothesis is true and the conclusion is
false, then the logical implication above must be true.

Thus, the answer is true.

Sample Problem 2: Is the conditional statement “If 25 is a multiple of 9, then 25 is less than
1” true or false?

Solution: The hypothesis “25 is a multiple of 9” is false. Now, note that a logical implication
will be false only if the hypothesis is true and the conclusion is false. Since we have already
identified that the hypothesis is already false, then regardless of what will be the truth value
of the conclusion, the logical implication will be true.
Thus, the conditional statement above is true.

Sample Problem 3: Let p be the proposition “0 is a whole number” and q be the proposition
“0 is less than -1.” What is the truth value of p ⇒ q?

Solution: Proposition p, the hypothesis of the logical implication, is true since 0 is an

element of the set of whole numbers. On the other hand, proposition q is false since 0 is
greater than -1.

So, we have a true hypothesis and a false conclusion. Note that a logical implication is
false if and only if its hypothesis is true and its conclusion is false. Therefore, the truth value
of p ⇒ q is false.

5. Biconditional Statements

A biconditional statement connects two propositions using “if and only if.”

For instance, “A polygon is a triangle if and only if it has three sides” is an example of a
biconditional statement.

The biconditional statement of p and q is written as p ⇔ q or p iff q (read as “p if and only if

q”).

Here are some biconditional statements:

(a) Proposition p: The Earth is a terrestrial planet

Proposition q: The Earth is in the solar system

p ⇔ q: The Earth is a terrestrial planet if and only if it is in the solar system.

(b) Proposition p: π is an irrational number

Proposition q: π < 0

p ⇔ q: π is an irrational number if and only if it is less than 0.

Truth Value of a Biconditional Statement

A biconditional statement is true if and only if both of the propositions have the same truth
value. Otherwise, the statement is false.

This implies that a biconditional statement is true if both of the propositions are true or both
of them are false.

A biconditional statement p ⇔ q is true if both p and q are true or both p and q are
false.
Sample Problems: What is the truth value of the biconditional statements below?

(a) The Earth is a terrestrial planet if and only if it is in the solar system.

(b) 2 is an odd number if and only if it is less than 0.

(c) Manila is the capital of the Philippines if and only if Manila is not in the Philippines

Solution:

(a) Both of the propositions in the statement are true (Earth is a terrestrial planet and is in
the solar system). Hence, the biconditional statement is true.

(b) Both statements’ propositions are false (2 is not odd and should be greater than 0). The
biconditional statement is true since the propositions have the same truth value.

(c) The first proposition is true (Manila is the capital of the Philippines), while the second
proposition is false (Manila is definitely in the Philippines). Since the propositions differ in
truth value, the biconditional statement is false.

Summary of Complex Propositions: Conjunction, Disjunction, Negation, Conditional

Statement (Logical Implication), and Biconditional

We summarize all the vital information related to complex propositions in the table below:

How to
Type write in Truth Value
symbols

Conjunction
p∧q p ∧ q is true if and only if both p and q are true.
of p and q

Disjunction
p∨q p ∨ q is true if and only if at least one of p and q is true.
of p and q

Negation of p ∿p If p is true, then ∿p is false, and vice versa.

p conditional p ⇒ q is false if and only if p is true and q is false. Otherwise, the

p⇒q
of q implication is true.

p⇔q
Biconditional
or p iff p ⇔ q is true if and only if p and q have the same truth values.
of p and q
q

Sample Problems: Let p be the proposition “-17 is a rational number” and let q be the
proposition “17 < 0.” Identify the truth value of the following:
 1. p∨q
2. p∧q
3. ∿q
4. p⇒q
5. p⇔q
6. q⇒p

Solution:

1. Proposition p is true since -17 is a rational number (integers are rational numbers).
On the other hand, proposition q is false since 17 should be greater than 0. Note that
the disjunction p ∨ q is true if at least one of the propositions is true. The disjunction
is true since we already have one true proposition (proposition p).
2. The conjunction p ∧ q is true if both p and q are true. We already determined in item
1 that p is true while q is false. For this reason, the conjunction must be false.
3. We already identified that q is a false statement. We take the opposite of the truth
value of ∿q to obtain the truth value of q. Since q is false, then ∿q must be true.
4. In p ⇒ q, the hypothesis is proposition p, while the conclusion is proposition q. Recall
that we have already discovered that proposition p is true while proposition q is false.
A logical implication is false if and only if the hypothesis is true and the conclusion is
false. For this reason, the implication p ⇒ q is false.
5. A biconditional statement p ⇔ q is true if both p and q have the same truth value.
However, we have already identified from item 1 that p is true while q is false. This
means that the propositions have different truth values. For this reason, the
biconditional is false.
6. For this item, we have q as the hypothesis of the logical implication and p as the
conclusion (opposite of item 4). Recall that q is false. If you can remember, if the
hypothesis of a logical implication is already false, then the logical implication will be
true regardless of the truth value of the conclusion. Since q is the hypothesis in this
case and is false, then the logical implication in this item is true.

SOURCE: https://filipiknow.net/propositional-logic-examples-and-solutions/#1-conjunctions