CHAPTER 2

SEQUENCES & SERIES

Sub-topics Solution:
2.1 Introduction (a) a1 = 22 = 4, a2 = 42 = 16, a3 = 162 = 256
2.2 Arithmetic Sequence (b) a1 = 2x3-1 = 5, a2 = 2x5-1=9, a3 = 9x2-1=17
2.3 Geometric Sequence
Qn.2 Find terms 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , and 𝑎3 , given:
2.4 Sigma notation 
(a) 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑛, 𝑎0 = 1
2.5 Infinite Series
(b) 𝑎𝑛+1 = 2𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎0 = 2
2.6 Power Series
Series
Lesson 1 It is the sum of all terms of a sequence. Either
2.1 Introduction finite series (countable terms) or infinite series
Sequence (countless terms).
It is a list of numbers (terms) formed using a (a) Finite series
given formula, i.e. addition/subtraction, For example;
multiplication/division . Either finite sequence Odd numbers 1 + 3 + 5 + 7
(countable terms) or infinite sequence Even numbers 2 + 4 + 6 + 8
(countless terms). (b) Infinite sequences
To define or specify a sequence For example;
1. Listing terms Odd numbers 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 + …
Separate elements using comma, Even numbers 2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + …
(a) Finite sequences 3 dots are used to mean sequence is endless.
For example; See summation notation in Section 2.4.
Odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7 Qn.3
Even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8 Give finite and infinite series of:
(b) Infinite sequences (a) prime numbers
For example; (b) square numbers
Odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7, … (c) cubic numbers
Even numbers 2, 4, 6, 8, …
Exercise 2.1
3 dots are used to mean sequence is endless.
1. Write the first 5 terms of the sequences:
Qn.1
(𝑎) 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛 + 2
List finite and infinite sequences of:
(a) prime numbers (𝑏) 𝑎𝑛 = 2(3𝑛−1 )
(b) square numbers (−1)𝑛
(c) cubic numbers (𝑐) 𝑎𝑛 =
(𝑛 + 1)!
2. Formula
(a) Subscript notation (b) an = 2(3n-1)
Same formula used to obtain each term. Where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, …
(b) Recursive relation 2. Find the sum of the first 6 terms of the
Next term defined in terms of previous term. sequences:
Example 2.1 𝑎𝑛 = 2𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 ; 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 1
Find terms 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , and 𝑎3 , given: 2.2 Arithmetic Sequence
(a) 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛2 , 𝑎0 = 2 Also known as Arithmetic Progression (AP).
(b) 𝑎𝑛+1 = 2𝑎𝑛 − 1, 𝑎0 = 3 Terms have a common difference.
𝑎 = 1st term & 𝑑 = common difference

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CHAPTER 2
Let Exercise 2.2
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛th term & 𝑆𝑛 = sum of 1st 𝑛 terms 1. Arithmetic sequence is 7.0, 9.2, 11.4, …
Find 5th term and sum of first 10 terms.
1-To find expression for 𝑎𝑛
2. The 7th term of arithmetic sequence is 29
Trick:
and the 11th term is 54. Find:
Add 𝑑 to get next terms in the sequence
(a) the 16th term (b) sum of first 20 terms
3. The 5th term is 12 and the sum of the first
10 terms is 130. Find the first term 𝑎 and
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑 … … . (1) the common difference 𝑑.
2-To find expression for 𝑆𝑛 4. Three numbers are in arithmetic series.
Reverse numbers and add them. Their sum is 15 and their product is 80.
Find the numbers.
5. Shs. 1 m was deposited in a bank at simple
interest rate 10% per annum. Find:
(a) amount accumulated after 10 years
(b) number of years for amount to be
1st term + nth term = a+{a+(n-1)d} =2a+(n-1)d Shs. 5m
2Sn = {2a+(n-1)d}×n 2.3 Geometric Sequence
1
𝑆𝑛 = 2 𝑛{2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑} … … … (2) Also known as Geometric Progression (GP).
Example 2.2a Terms have a common ratio 𝑟.
Add numbers from 1 up to 1000. 𝑎 = 1st term & 𝑟 = common ratio
Solution: Let
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛th term & 𝑆𝑛 = sum of 1st 𝑛 terms
1-To find expression for 𝑎𝑛
Trick:
Multiply by 𝑟 to get next terms in sequence
Sn = (1001x1000)/2= 1001x500=500,500
Example 2.2b
Arithmetic sequence has first term 5 and
common difference 4. Find: 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 … … . (1)
(a) 10th term (b) sum of first 20 terms 2-To find expression for 𝑆𝑛
Solution: Multiply terms by 𝑟 and subtract.
𝑎 = 5, 𝑑 = 4 i.e sequence 5, 9, 13, 17, …
(𝑎) 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑, 𝑛 = 10
𝑎10 = 5 + (10 − 1) × 4 = 41
1
(𝑏) 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛{2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑}, 𝑛 = 20
2
Sn(1-r) = a(1- rn)
1
𝑆20 = × 20{2 × 5 + (20 − 1)4} = 860
2 𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 )
Qn.4 𝑆𝑛 = … … … . (2)
1−𝑟
Arithmetic sequence has 10th term 41 and
15th term 61. Find: 2-To find expression for sum to infinity, 𝑆∞
(a) 1st term (b) common difference Assume, 0 < 𝑟 < 1 i.e r is a fraction e.g r = 1/2.
𝑆∞ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑆𝑛
𝑛→∞

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CHAPTER 2
Read RHS as “Limit of Sn as 𝑛 tends to infinity” After 2nd year:
𝑎(1 − 𝑟∞)
𝑎 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = 1𝑚 × 1.1 × 1.1 = 1𝑚(1.1)2
𝑆∞ = = Since 𝑟 ∞ ⟶ 0 After 3rd year:
1−𝑟 1−𝑟
𝑎 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = 1𝑚(1.1)2 × 1.1 = 1𝑚(1.1)3
𝑆∞ = . … … … . . (3) e.t.c
1−𝑟
After 20th year:
Example 2.3a 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = 1𝑚(1.1)20 = 𝑆ℎ. 6.73𝑚
Geometric sequence first term 3 and common This is geometric series with 𝑟 = 1.1.
ratio 2. Find 10th term and sum of first 20 Exercise 2.3
terms. 1. Geometric sequence is 5, 10, 20, ….
Solution: Find 10th term and sum of first 20 terms.
𝑎 = 3, 𝑟 = 2 i.e sequence 3, 6, 12, 24, … 2. The 1st term of geometric sequence is 4
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 , 𝑛 = 10 and 6th term is 128. Find 11th term and
sum of first 20 terms.
𝑎10 = 3 × 29 = 1,536 3. Express recurring decimal 0.111 … as a
𝑎(1 − 𝑟 𝑛 ) geometric series. Find its sum to infinity.
𝑆𝑛 = , 𝑛 = 20 4. A geometric sequence has 6th term 8 times
1−𝑟
its 3rd term. The sum of 7th term and 8th
3(1 − 220 ) term is 192. Find the sum of terms from
𝑆20 = = 1,048,573
1−2 5th to 11th.
Qn.5
5. Sh. 1 m was invested at compound interest
Geometric sequence has 10th term 1,023 and
rate 10% per annum. Find:
15th 32,767. Find:
(a) amount accumulated after 5 years
(a) 1st term (b) common ratio
(b) number of years for amount to be
Example 2.3b
Shs. 3m
Express recurring decimal 0.333 … as a
geometric series. Find its sum to infinity. Lesson 2
Solution: 2.4 Sigma notation , Summation
0.333 … = 0.3 + 0.03 + 0.003 + … It used as short form for a series.
3 3 3 Finite series in terms of 
= + + + … Sum of terms of finite sequence.
10 100 1000
3/100 1 Example 2.4a
𝑎 = 0.3, 𝑟 = = = 0.1 Evaluate:
3/10 10 4 4
𝑎 3/10 3/10 1 (𝑎) ∑ 𝑛 (𝑏) ∑ 𝑛2
𝑆∞ = = = =
1−𝑟 1 − 1/10 9/10 3 𝑛=1 𝑛=1

Compare with O-Level method: Solution:

4
R = 0.333…, 10R = 3.333…, 9R = 3, R = 1/3
Example 2.3c (𝑎) ∑ 𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
𝑛=1
Sh. 1 m was invested at compound interest
4
rate 10% per annum. Find the amount after 20
years. (𝑏) ∑ 𝑛2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + 42
𝑛=1
Solution: = 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 = 30
After 1st year:
110
𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 = 1𝑚 × 100 = 1𝑚 × 1.1

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CHAPTER 2
Qn.6 Evaluate: Example 2.4c
6 4
Expand:
(𝑎) ∑ 𝑛2 (𝑏) ∑(2𝑛 + 1) ∞ ∞

𝑛=3 𝑛=1 (𝑎) ∑ 𝑛 (𝑏) ∑ 𝑛2

𝑛=1 𝑛=1
General ∞ ∞
𝑛 1 1
(𝑐) ∑ (𝑑) ∑
𝑆𝑛 = ∑ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑛 𝑛2
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
𝑖=1
Qn.7 Expand: Solution:
3 4 ∞

(𝑎) ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑏) ∑ 𝑎𝑛2 (𝑎) ∑ 𝑛

𝑛=1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
= 1+2+3+⋯
Example 2.4b
4
Express in sigma notation:
1 1 1 (𝑏) ∑ 𝑛2
(𝑎) 1 + + + 𝑛=1
2 3 4
1 1 1 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯
(𝑏) 1 + + +
4 9 16 =1+4+9+⋯
1 1 1 ∞
(𝑐) 1 + + + 1
2 6 24 (𝑐) ∑
𝑛
Solution: 𝑛=1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
(𝑎) 1 + + + = + + …=1+ + +⋯
2 3 4 1 2 3 2 3
4
1 1 1 1 1 ∞
= + + + =∑ 1
1 2 3 4 𝑛 (𝑑) ∑
𝑛=1 𝑛2
1 1 1 𝑛=1
(𝑏) 1 + + + 1 1 1 1 1
4 9 16 = + 2+ 2+⋯=1+ + +⋯
4 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 9
= 2+ 2+ 2+ 2= ∑ 2
1 2 3 4 𝑛 Qn.9 Expand:
𝑛=1 ∞ ∞
1 1 1
(𝑐) 1 + + + (𝑎) ∑ 𝑛 (𝑏) ∑ 𝑛2
2 6 24
4 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
1 1 1 1 1 ∞ ∞
= + + + =∑ 1 1
1! 2! 3! 4! 𝑛! (𝑐) ∑ (𝑑) ∑
𝑛=1
𝑛 𝑛2
Qn.8 Express in sigma notation: 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
1 1 1
(𝑎) 1 + + + Properties of , summation
2 4 8
1 1 1 Let c, k be constants & 𝑎𝑘 , 𝑏𝑘 be variables.
(𝑏) 1 + + +
4 8 16 1. ∑ 𝑐 𝑎𝑘 = 𝑐 ∑ 𝑎𝑘
Infinite series in terms of 
Sum of terms of infinite sequence. 2. ∑(𝑎𝑘 + 𝑏𝑘 ) = ∑ 𝑎𝑘 + ∑ 𝑏𝑘
∞

𝑆∞ = ∑ 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ Examples
𝑖=1 ∑4𝑥 = 4∑𝑥

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CHAPTER 2

∑(𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) = ∑ 𝑥 + ∑ 𝑥 2 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 2
= [ ]
2
These are cubic numbers.
∑(4𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 ) = 4 ∑ 𝑥 + 5 ∑ 𝑥 2
Refer to Proving by induction later.
Compare with integration; Example 2.4d
Use formula to evaluate:
∫(4𝑥 + 5𝑥2 )𝑑𝑥 = 4 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 + 5 ∫ 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 4 4

Useful shortcuts (𝑎) ∑ 5 (𝑏) ∑ 𝑛

𝑛 𝑛=1 𝑛=1
1. ∑ 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐 4 4
(𝑐) ∑ 𝑛 2 (𝑑) ∑ 𝑛3
𝑖=1
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
To prove:
Solution:
𝑛

(𝑎) ∑ 𝑐 = 𝑛𝑐
𝑛 𝑖=1
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 4
2. ∑ 𝑖 =
2 ∑ 5 = 4 × 5 = 20
𝑖=1
𝑛=1
To prove:
𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) Expansion:
∑𝑖 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯+ 𝑛 = 5 + 5 + 5 + 5 = 20
2 𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
These are counting numbers. (𝑏) ∑ 𝑖 =
Refer to Arithmetic sequence. 2
𝑖=1
4
𝑛 4(4 + 1)
1𝑠𝑡 + 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) ∑𝑛= = 10
∑𝑖 = .𝑛 = 2
2 2 𝑛=1
𝑖=1

Alt: Refer to Proving by induction later. Expansion:

𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10
3. ∑ 𝑖 2 = 𝑛
6 𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
𝑖=1 (𝑐) ∑ 𝑖 2 =
6
To prove: 𝑖=1
𝑛 4
4(4 + 1)(2 × 4 + 1)
∑ 𝑖 2 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 ∑ 𝑛2 = = 30
6
𝑖=1 𝑛=1
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
= Expansion:
6
These are square numbers. 12 + 22 + 32 + 42 = 1 + 4 + 9 + 16 = 30
𝑛
Refer to Proving by induction later. 𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 2
𝑛 (𝑑) ∑ 𝑖 3 = [ ]
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 2 2
4. ∑ 𝑖 3 = [ ] 𝑖=1
2 4
𝑖=1 4(4 + 1) 2
∑ 𝑛3 = [ ] = 100
To prove: 2
𝑛 𝑛=1
3 3 3 3 3
∑𝑖 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯+ 𝑛 Expansion:
𝑖=1
13 + 23 + 33 + 43 = 1 + 8 + 27 + 64 = 100

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CHAPTER 2
4. Harmonic series
Example 2.4e 1 1 1
1+2+3+4+⋯
Prove by induction
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) Qn.11
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯+ 𝑛 = Express alternating series in sigma notation.
2
Solution: Lesson 3
Step 1. Prove 𝑛 = 1 holds. 2.5 Infinite Series
1(1 + 1) Let, 𝑆𝑛 = sum of 1st n terms
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 1, 𝑅𝐻𝑆 = =1 𝑎𝑛 = nth term
2
Step 2. Prove 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1 holds. There are 2 types:
𝑘(𝑘 + 1) 1. Convergent series i.e Converging series
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯+ 𝑘 =
2 2. Divergent series i.e Diverging series
Prove Convergent Series
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1) = Derived from convergent sequence.
2 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆∞ = 𝐿. Limit exists.
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1) 𝑛→∞
𝑘(𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
= + (𝑘 + 1) = = 𝑅𝐻𝑆 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎∞ = 0
2 2 𝑛→∞
Terms become smaller; tend to zero.
Qn.10 Prove by induction
(𝑎) 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 Divergent Series
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) Derived from divergent sequence.
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆∞ = ∞. Limit does not exist.
6 𝑛→∞
(𝑏) 13 + 23 + 33 + ⋯ + 𝑛3
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 2 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎∞ = ∞
=[ ] 𝑛→∞
2 Terms become bigger; tend to infinity.
Exercise 2.4 Partial Sums & Limit of Series
1. Expand: The 𝑛𝑡ℎ partial sum 𝑆𝑛 is the sum of the first
5 6 𝑛 terms of a sequence.
(𝑎) ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑏) ∑ 𝑎𝑛2 Example: General
∞
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
∑ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯
2. Express the series in sigma notation: 𝑛=1
(a) 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯ 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛
Partial sums:
(b) 1 + 2 + 6 + 24 + ⋯
S1 = a1
3. Prove by induction: S2 = a1 + a2
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1) S3 = a1 + a2 + a3
(𝑎)1 + 4 + 9 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 =
6 e.t.c
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 2
(𝑏)1 + 8 + 27 + ⋯ + 𝑛3 = [ ] Convergence Theorem
2
Note: ∞

1. Arithmetic series ∑ 𝑎𝑛 converges  𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 0

𝑛→∞
1+2+4+8+⋯ 𝑛=1
2. Geometric series  “if –then” same as “implies”
1 1 1 “if converges, then 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 0” Always.
1+ + +4 9 16
+⋯ 𝑛→∞
3. Alternating series “if 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 0, then converges” Not always.
𝑛→∞
It means the reverse may not be true.
1−1+1−1+⋯
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CHAPTER 2
Divergence Test (b) Partial sums
∞
S1 = 1
∑ 𝑎𝑛 diverges  𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0 S2 = 1-1 = 0
𝑛→∞
𝑛=1
 “if and only if” same as “equivalent” S3 = 1-1+1 = 1
“if 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0, then series diverges” Always. S4 = 1-1+1-1= 0
𝑛→∞
“if series diverges, then 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0”Always.
𝑛→∞ Sn = 1 if n even, Sn = 0 if n odd
It means the reverse is always true.
Note: Limit does not exist. Series diverges.
1. For any real number, 𝑛 Alt: Divergence Test
𝑛 ∞ 2 ∞
= 0 , = ∞ e.g = 0, =∞
∞ 𝑛 ∞ 2 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 (−1)𝑛 = (−1)∞ = ±∞ ≠ 0.
2. For real number, 𝑛 > 0 (positive) 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞

𝑛∞ = ∞ e.g 2∞ = ∞ Test conclusive. Series diverges.

3. For real number, 0 < 𝑛 < 1 (fraction) Example 2.5b
1 ∞
𝑛∞ = 0 e.g (2)∞ = 0 1
Given series ∑ 𝑛 :
Example 2.5a 2
𝑛=0
Show that: (a) Write the series in expanded form.
(a) the arithmetic series (b) Show that the series converges and
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ diverges. find its limit L.
(b) the alternating series Solution:
1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ⋯ diverges. ∞
1
Solution: ∑
2𝑛
(a) Partial sums 𝑛=0
1 1 1 1 1
𝑆𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ = 0
+ 1+ 2+⋯=1+2+4+⋯
2 2 2
S1 = 1 Partial sums
1 1
S2 = 1 + 2 = 3 Let Sn = 1 + 2 + 4 + ⋯
S3 = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6 𝑆1 = 1
S4 = 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 = 10, e.t.c 1
𝑆2 = 1 +
2
Limit does not exist. Series diverges.
= 1 + 0.5 = 1.5
Alt: Divergence Test
1 1
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑛 = ∞ ≠ 0 𝑆3 = 1 + 2 + 4
𝑛→∞

Test conclusive. Series diverges. = 1.5 + 0.25 = 1.75

Alt: Find expression for 𝑆𝑛 . 1 1 1
𝑆4 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) = 1.75 + 0.125 = 1.875
𝑆𝑛 =
2 1 1 1 1
𝑆5 = 1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) ∞
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = =∞ = 1.875 + 0.0625 = 1.9375
𝑛→∞ 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
Limit does not exist. Series diverges. 𝑆6 = 1 + + + + +
2 4 8 16 32

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CHAPTER 2
= 1.9375 + 0.03125 = 1.9688 2𝑛 + 1 2∞ 2
(𝑐) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 2 = =0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 + 4 ∞ ∞
Limit L = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆∞ = 2
𝑛→∞
Limit L exists. Series converges. Alt: Divide through by 𝑛.
Alt: 2 + 1/𝑛 2 + 1/∞ 2
1 1 1 1 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = = =0
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑛 = ∞ = = 0 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 4/𝑛2 ∞ + 4/∞ ∞
2 𝑛→∞ 2 2 ∞
2𝑛2 + 1 2∞2 1
Series converges. (𝑑) lim = =
𝑛→∞ 4𝑛2 4∞2 2
Alt: Find expression for 𝑆𝑛 .
1 1
1 + 2 + 4 + ⋯ is geometric series Alt: Divide through by 𝑛2 .

1 1 2 + 1/𝑛2 2 + 1/∞ 2 1
𝑟 = < 1, 𝑥= , 𝑎=1 lim = = =
2 2 𝑛→∞ 4 4 4 2
1 1 Mixed indices/Powers of 𝒙
1 + 2 + 4 + ⋯ = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + ⋯
𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎0
𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑆𝑛 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑥 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑏𝑚 𝑥 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚−1 𝑥 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑏0
Where 𝑎s and 𝑏s are constants, 𝑚 and 𝑛 +ve
𝑥𝑆𝑛 = 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯ + 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑥 𝑛+1
Subtract; intergers.
𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
(1 − 𝑥)𝑆𝑛 = 1 − 𝑥 𝑛+1 1. 𝑛 < 𝑚  𝐿 = = 0. Converges
∞
1 − 𝑥 𝑛+1 1 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑚
𝑆𝑛 = = − 2. 𝑛 = 𝑚  𝐿 = 𝑜𝑟 𝐿 = . Depends
1−𝑥 1−𝑥 1−𝑥 𝑏𝑛 𝑏𝑚
∞
1 𝑥∞ 1 3. 𝑛 > 𝑚  𝐿 = = ∞. Diverges
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑆𝑛 = − = 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
𝑛→∞ 1−𝑥 1−𝑥 1−𝑥 Example 2.5d
1 Determine whether series converges or
Limit 𝐿 = =2
1 diverges.
1−2
∞ ∞
Limit L exists. Series converges. 1 4𝑛2 − 𝑛3
(𝑎) ∑ 2 (𝑏) ∑
Example 2.5c 𝑛 −1 10 + 2𝑛3
𝑛=2 𝑛=0
Evaluate: Solution:
3 2𝑛 + 1 (𝑎) Divergence test
(𝑎) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 4 − 2 (𝑏) 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 4
1 1
2𝑛 + 1 2𝑛2 + 1 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = =0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 −1 ∞
(𝑐) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2 (𝑑) 𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 4 𝑛→∞ 4𝑛2 Divergent test fails. Test inconclusive.
Solution: Alt:
3 3 ∞
(𝑎) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 4 − = 4 − =4 1 1 1 1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 ∞ ∑ = + + +⋯
𝑛2 − 1 3 8 15
2𝑛 + 1 2∞ 𝑛=2
(b) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = =2
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 4 ∞ Decreasing terms. Convergent series.
(𝑏) Divergent test
Alt: Divide through by 𝑛.
4𝑛2 − 𝑛3 −𝑛3 ∞ 1
2 + 1/𝑛 2 + 1/∞ 2 𝑙𝑖𝑚 ≅ = − =− ≠0
𝑛→∞ 10 + 2𝑛3 2𝑛3 2∞ 2
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = = =2
𝑛→∞ 1 + 4/𝑛 1 + 4/∞ 1
Divergent test passes. Convergent series.

Page | 8
CHAPTER 2
Qn.12 𝑎𝑛+1
2. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 | | > 1  Diverges
Find limit L for convergent series in (b) above. 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
Sum of Convergent series 𝑎𝑛+1
Theorem 3. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 | | = 1  Inconclusive
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
Sum of convergent series is also convergent.
Example 2.5e Qn.13
Determine whether the series is convergent or Identify series for both cases 1, 2 and 3 above.
divergent. Example 2.5f
∞
2 3
Use Ratio Test to determine whether series
∑[ 𝑛 + ( )𝑛 ] converges or diverges.
3 4 ∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛! 𝑛2
Solution: (𝑎) ∑ 𝑛 (𝑏) ∑
∞ ∞ ∞ 5 (2𝑛 − 1)!
2 3 2 3 𝑛=0 𝑛=2
(𝑎) ∑[ 𝑛 + ( )𝑛 ] = ∑ 𝑛 + ∑( )𝑛
3 4 3 4 ∞ ∞
𝑛=1 𝑛=1 𝑛=1 9𝑛 𝑛+2
Both series are convergent. Sum of series is (𝑐) ∑ (𝑑) ∑
(−2)𝑛+1 𝑛 2𝑛 + 7
also convergent. 𝑛=1 𝑛=0
∞
2 Solution:
∑
3𝑛 𝑛! (𝑛 + 1)!
𝑛=1
Divergent test. (𝑎) 𝑎𝑛 = & 𝑎𝑛+1 =
5𝑛 5𝑛+1
2 2 𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 1)! 5𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑛
= =0 | | = | 𝑛+1 . | = | |
𝑛→∞ 3 ∞ 𝑎𝑛 5 𝑛! 5
Test inconclusive. Try other method. (𝑛 + 1) ∞
∞
2 2 2 2 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = =∞>1
∑ 𝑛= + + +⋯ 𝑛→∞ 5 5
3 3 9 27
𝑛=1 Series diverges.
Decreasing terms. Series converges.
∞
3 𝑛2 (𝑛 + 1)2
∑( )𝑛 (𝑏) 𝑎𝑛 = & 𝑎𝑛+1 =
4 (2𝑛 − 1)! [2(𝑛 + 1) − 1]!
𝑛=1
3 3 𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 1)2 (2𝑛 − 1)!
𝑙𝑖𝑚 ( )𝑛 = ( )∞ = 0 | |=| . |
𝑛→∞ 4 4 𝑎𝑛 (2𝑛 + 1)! 𝑛2
Divergent test fails. Test inconclusive.
Alt: (𝑛 + 1)2 1 1
∞ 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2
≅ 2= =0<1
3 3 9 27 𝑛→∞ (2𝑛 + 1). 2𝑛. 𝑛 4𝑛 ∞
∑( )𝑛 = + + +⋯
4 4 16 64 Series diverges.
𝑛=1
Decreasing terms. Convergent series. 9𝑛
Therefore, sum of series is convergent. (𝑐) 𝑎𝑛 = & 𝑎𝑛+1
(−2)𝑛+1 𝑛
Lesson 4
9𝑛+1
Ratio Test =
This offers another method of proving (−2)𝑛+2 (𝑛 + 1)
convergence or divergence of a series. 𝑎𝑛+1 9𝑛+1 (−2)𝑛+1 𝑛
𝐿𝑒𝑡 ∑ 𝑎𝑛 be a series with non-zero terms. | |=| . |
𝑎𝑛 (−2)𝑛+2 (𝑛 + 1) 9𝑛
𝑎𝑛+1
1. 𝑙𝑖𝑚 | | < 1  Converges 𝐿 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 |
9
.
𝑛
|
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
𝑛→∞ (−2) 𝑛 + 1
Page | 9
CHAPTER 2
9 𝑛 9 ∞ ∞
𝐿 = . 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = = 4.5 > 1 𝑛2 + 𝑛 + 3 5 2
2 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1 2 (𝑔) ∑ (ℎ) ∑ ( 𝑛 + )
2𝑛2 + 1 2 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=0
Series diverges.
𝑛+2 (𝑛 + 1) + 2 4. Use Ratio Test to determine whether series
(𝑑) 𝑎𝑛 = & 𝑎𝑛+1 =
2𝑛 + 7 2(𝑛 + 1) + 7 converges or diverges.
𝑎𝑛+1 𝑛 + 3 2𝑛 + 7 𝑛2 ∞ ∞ ∞
| |=| . |≅ 2= =1 31−2𝑛 (2𝑛)!
𝑎𝑛 2𝑛 + 9 𝑛 + 2 𝑛 ∞ (𝑎) ∑ 2 (𝑏) ∑
𝑛 +1 5𝑛 + 1
Test inconclusive. Try Divergence Test. 𝑛=1 𝑛=0
∞ ∞
𝑛+2 𝑛 ∞ 1 𝑛+2 (2𝑛 − 1)!
𝑙𝑖𝑚 ≅ = = ≠0 (𝑐) ∑ 1−𝑛 (𝑑) ∑
𝑛→∞ 2𝑛 + 7 2𝑛 2∞ 2 5 (𝑛 + 1) (3𝑛)!
Series diverges. 𝑛=1 𝑛=0

Exercise 2.5 Lesson 5

1. Show that: 2.6 Power Series
(a) the series Power series is a special case of infinite series.
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + ⋯ diverges. Power Series centred at 𝒙0
(b) the geometric series ∞

1 + 14 + 19 + 16
1
+⋯ ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛
converges and find its limit L. 𝑛=0

. = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑎2 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )2 + ⋯
2. Evaluate:
Where, 𝑥0 , 𝑎0, 𝑎1, 𝑎2, …, 𝑎n are constants and 𝑥
2𝑛2 + 4𝑛 − 3
(a) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 is a variable.
3
𝑛→∞ 5𝑛 − 6𝑛 + 1 1
For example, 𝑥0 = 1 and 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛:
2𝑛2 + 4𝑛 − 3 ∞
(𝑏) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 1 1
𝑛→∞ 5𝑛2 − 6𝑛 + 1 ∑ (𝑥 − 1)𝑛 = (𝑥 − 1) + 2 (𝑥 − 1)2 + ⋯
𝑛
2𝑛3 + 4𝑛 − 3 𝑛=1
(c) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 2
Power Series centered at 0 (zero)
𝑛→∞ 5𝑛 − 6𝑛 + 1
∞

3. Determine whether series convergences or ∑ 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑎0 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + ⋯

𝑛=0
diverges. If it converges find its limit L.
For example, 𝑎𝑛 = 1:
∞ ∞ 𝑛 Geometric series, 𝑎𝑛 = 1 and 𝑟 = 𝑥
(−1) ∞
(𝑎) ∑(−1)𝑛+1 (𝑏) ∑
𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑛 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯
𝑛=1 𝑛=0
∞ ∞ 𝑛=0
1 𝑛 1⁄𝑛
(𝑐) ∑ (𝑑) ∑(−1) 2 From Binomial theorem:
3𝑛−1 1
𝑛=2 𝑛=1
= (1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯
∞ ∞ 1−𝑥
1 4𝑛2 − 𝑛3
(𝑒) ∑ 2 (𝑓) ∑ ∞
𝑛 −1 10 + 2𝑛3 1
𝑛=2 𝑛=0 ∑ 𝑥𝑛 = = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯
1−𝑥
𝑛=0

Page | 10
CHAPTER 2
Convergence of Power Series Qn.14 Identify examples of power series for
Power series may converge for some values of each of cases 1, 2 and 3 above.
𝑥 and diverge for other values of 𝑥. Radius of convergence R
For example, geometric series: Case 1: R = 0, Case 2: R = ∞, Case 3: R > 0
∞
Interval of convergence
∑ 𝑥𝑛 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ The interval that consists of all values of 𝑥 for
𝑛=0 which power series converges.
Converges for |𝑥| < 1  − 1 < 𝑥 < 1. Case 1: Non-existent
Case 2: Entire real number line [-∞, ∞]
Check: Case 3: |𝑥 − 𝑥0 | < 𝑅
∞
1 1 1 1  − 𝑅 < (𝑥 − 𝑥0) < 𝑅  𝑥0 − 𝑅 < 𝑥 < 𝑥0 + 𝑅
For 𝑥 = ; ∑ 𝑥 𝑛 = 1 + + + + ⋯
2 2 4 8 Note:
𝑛=0
[-1, 1] means both x = -1 and x = 1 included
Power series converges. {-1, 1} means both x = -1 and x = 1 excluded
∞
[-1, 1} means only x = -1 included
For 𝑥 = 1: ∑ 1𝑛 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ⋯ {-1, 1] means only x = 1 included
𝑛=0
Qn.15
Power series diverges. Illustrate interval of convergence
∞
−1 < 𝑥 − 2 < 1 on a number line.
For 𝑥 = −1: ∑(−1)𝑛 = 1 − 1 + 1 − 1 + ⋯ Example 2.6a
𝑛=0 Use Ratio test to determine interval of
Power series diverges. convergence and radius of convergence
for power series:
Power series as function of 𝒙 ∞ ∞
∞ 𝑥𝑛 (𝑥 − 2)𝑛
(𝑎) ∑ (𝑏) ∑
𝑓(𝑥) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑛=0
𝑛=0 Solution:
Domain of 𝑓(𝑥) is a set of all values 𝑥 for 𝑥𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+1
convergence of power series. (𝑎) 𝑎𝑛 = & 𝑎𝑛+1 =
𝑛! (𝑛 + 1)!
There exists a positive real number, R ≥ 0.
One of the 3 cases below will be true: 𝑎𝑛+1 𝑥𝑛+1 𝑛! |𝑥|
| |=| . 𝑛| =
Case 1: Series converges only at 𝑥0 𝑎𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)! 𝑥 𝑛+1
Case 2: Series converges for all values of 𝑥 𝑎𝑛+1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 | | < 1 Converges
Case 3: Series; 𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
(a) converges for |𝑥 − 𝑥0 | < 𝑅 | 𝑥| 1
(b) diverges for |𝑥 − 𝑥0 | > 𝑅 𝑙𝑖𝑚 < 1 ⇒ |𝑥| 𝑙𝑖𝑚 <1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 +1
Ratio test inconclusive for Case 3 (b).
1
Number line | 𝑥| < 1  | 𝑥| < ∞  − ∞ < 𝑥 < ∞
∞
Case 1: Single point {𝑥0 }
Radius of converges = ∞
𝑥o
Interval of convergence = {-∞, ∞}
Case 2: Entire real number line [-∞, ∞] Power Series centered at 0 (zero).

𝑥o
Case 3: Interval centred at 𝑥0 .

𝑥o
Page | 11
R R
CHAPTER 2
Qn.16 Check endpoints for convergence. 1 1
𝑛 𝑛 =
(𝑥 − 2) (𝑥 − 2) 1 + 𝑥 1 − (−𝑥)
(𝑏) 𝑎𝑛 = & 𝑎𝑛+1 =
𝑛 𝑛 ∞
1
𝑎𝑛+1 (𝑥 − 2)𝑛+1 𝑛 ∑(−𝑥)𝑛 =
| |=| . | ≅ |𝑥 − 2| 1 − (−𝑥)
𝑛=0
𝑎𝑛 𝑛+1 (𝑥 − 2)𝑛
= 1 + (−𝑥) + (−𝑥)2 + (−𝑥)3 + ⋯
𝑎𝑛+1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 | | < 1 Converges = 1 − 𝑥 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 + ⋯
𝑛→∞ 𝑎𝑛
|𝑥 − 2| < 1  −1 < 𝑥 − 2 < 1  1 < 𝑥 < 3 For convergence
Check endpoints for convergence. |−𝑥| < 1  |𝑥| < 1  − 1 < 𝑥 < 1
∞ Interval of convergence = [-1, 1]
(−1)𝑛
𝑥=1 ⇒∑ Radius of converges = 1
𝑛
𝑛=0 Example 2.6c
𝑛
(−1) (−1)∞ 1
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = = 0 < 1 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 (a) Express as sum of power series.
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 ∞ 𝑥+2
∞
1𝑛 (b) Find interval of convergence and radius of
𝑥=3 ⇒ ∑ convergence.
𝑛
𝑛=0
Solution:
𝑛 ∞
1 1 ∞
𝑙𝑖𝑚 = = 0 < 1 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 1
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 ∞ ∑ 𝑥𝑛 = = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯
1−𝑥
𝑛=0
Therefore, 1 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 3
For convergence
Interval of convergence = [1, 3]
Radius of convergence = 1 |𝑥| < 1  − 1 < 𝑥 < 1.
Qn. 17 Factorise out 2 in denominator.
Use ratio test to determine interval of
convergence and radius of convergence Replace 𝑥 with –𝑥/2.
for power series 1 1 1 1
∞ = = .
𝑥 + 2 2(1 + 𝑥/2) 2 1 − (−𝑥/2)
∑ 𝑥𝑛
∞
𝑛=0 1 1 1
Example 2.6b ∑(−𝑥/2)𝑛 = .
2 2 1− (−𝑥/2)
1 𝑛=0
(a) Express as sum of power series. 1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
1+𝑥 = [1 + (− ) + (− ) 2 + (− )3 + ⋯ ]
2 2 2 2
(b) Find interval of convergence and radius of
1 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
convergence. = − + − +⋯
2 4 8 16
Solution:
∞ For convergence
1
∑ 𝑥𝑛 = = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ 𝑥
1−𝑥
𝑛=0 |− | < 1  − 2 < 𝑥 < 2
2
For convergence
Interval of convergence = [-2, 2]
|𝑥| < 1  − 1 < 𝑥 < 1. Radius of converges = 2
Put in same format. Replace 𝑥 by –𝑥.

Page | 12
CHAPTER 2
Qn. 18 Show that:
∞ ∞
1 (−1)𝑛
∑(−𝑥/2)𝑛 = ∑ 𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑛
2 2
𝑛=0 𝑛=0

Exercise 2.6
1. Use ratio test to determine radius of
convergence and interval of convergence
for power series:
∞ ∞
𝑥𝑛 𝑥𝑛
(𝑎) ∑ (𝑏) ∑(−1)𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
∞ ∞
(−1)𝑛 𝑛 (𝑥 − 1)𝑛
(𝑐) ∑ 𝑥 (𝑑) ∑ 𝑛
2𝑛 + 1 3 (𝑛 + 1)𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
∞ ∞
𝑛(2𝑥 − 1)𝑛 (𝑥 + 2)𝑛
(𝑒) ∑ (𝑓) ∑
5𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)4𝑛
𝑛=1 𝑛=1

(𝑔) (ℎ)

(𝑖) (𝑗)

(𝑘) (𝑙)
𝑥3
2.(a) Express as sum of power series.
𝑥+2
(b) Find radius of convergence and interval of
convergence.
(c) Show that the power series is:
∞
(−1)𝑛−1 𝑛
∑ 𝑥
2𝑛−2
𝑛=3

Page | 13