Chem Reviewer

Lesson1-2:
 Solid has an ordered and dense molecule but has fixed shape and volume. It is slightly
compressible because of the presence of strong intermolecular forces. The diffusion is
extremely low because its particles are held together by a strong force of attraction
called bonds. The particles vibrate to and fro near their fixed locations and never come
in contact with any particles other than their immediate neighbor. Hence, solids have
definite shape, definite volume, definite melting point, high density, incompressible, and
has low rate of diffusion. Examples are iron, concrete, marble, pebbles, wood, glass and
others.
 It is a common observation that it is easy to pour any liquid like water, tea or juice from
a container to another like in your previous activity. Sometimes, instead of pouring out
normally, the liquid runs down the side of the container and creates a mess. This
happens because unlike solids, liquids have disordered, slightly dense but has definite
volume. The attractive forces in liquids are not strong enough to keep the molecules
from moving past from one another this is why liquids can be poured, and it can fill any
shape. They are also called fluid. Fluids have loosely packed molecules. They vibrate
vigorously that the attraction cannot hold them in a fixed position. Hence, liquids are
almost incompressible, have fixed volume but no fixed shape, it readily flows, and have
boiling point above room temperature.
Strongest: hydrogen bonding
Weakest: London dispersion forces

Lesson 3: Electric
Lesson 5: Solids (amor and crys)
Arrangement of particles
 The components of solids can be arranged in two general ways: they can form a regular
repeating three-dimensional structure called a crystal lattice, thus producing a crystalline
solid, or they can be aggregate with no particular long-range order, and form an
amorphous solid (from the Greek word ámorphos, meaning “shapeless”).
 Crystalline solids are arranged in fixed geometric patterns or lattices.
 Examples of crystalline solids are ice and sodium chloride (NaCl), copper sulfate (CuSO4),
diamond, graphite, and sugar (C12H22O11). The ordered arrangement of their units
maximizes the space they occupy and are essentially.
 Amorphous solids have a random orientation of particles. Examples of amorphous solids
are glass, plastic, coal, and rubber. They are considered super-cooled liquids where
molecules are arranged in a random manner similar to the liquid state.
  More than 90% of naturally occurring and artificially prepared solids are crystalline.
Minerals, sand, clay, limestone, metals, alloys, carbon (diamond and graphite), salts (e.g.
NaCl and MgSO4), all have crystalline structures. They have structures formed by
repeating three dimensional patterns of atoms, ions, or molecules. The repetition of
structural units of the substance over long atomic distances is referred to as long-range
order.
 Amorphous solids (e.g. glass), like liquids, do not have long range order, but may have a
limited,localized order in their structures.
Behavior of Solids when heated
 The presence or absence of long-range order in the structure of solids results in a
difference in the behavior of the solid when heated. The structures of crystalline solids
are built from repeating units called crystal lattices.
 The surroundings of particles in the structure are uniform, and the attractive forces
experienced by the particles are of similar types and strength. These attractive forces
are broken by the same amount of energy, and thus, crystalline solids become liquids at
a specific temperature (i.e. the melting point). At this temperature, physical properties
of the crystalline solids change sharply.
 Amorphous solids soften gradually when they are heated. They tend to melt over a
wide range of temperature. This behavior is a result of the variation in the arrangement
of particles intheir structures, causing some parts of the solid to melt ahead of other
parts.
Lesson 6: Water
Water is undergoing phase changes. Based on the illustration when ice cube melts and becomes
water it evaporates and becomes water vapor. Phase changes require either the addition of
heat energy (melting, evaporation, and sublimation) or subtraction of heat energy
(condensation and freezing). Changing the substance changes from one state, or phase, of
matter to another it has undergone a change of state, or a change of phase. These changes of
phase always occur with a change of heat.
A change of state occurs when matter is converted from one physical state to another. For
example, when water is heated, it changes from a liquid to a gas—when cooled water will
eventually freeze into a solid which is commonly called ice. A change of state is usually
accompanied by a change in temperature and/or pressure.
For you to really understand the physical states of a substance under different conditions, a
phase diagram is of great help. Phase diagram is a graphical representation of the physical
states of a substance under different conditions of temperature and pressure. A typical
phasediagram for a pure substance is shown
in Figure 1. A typical phase diagram has pressure on the y-axis and temperature on the x-axis. As
the line crosses or curves on the phase diagram, a phase change occurs. The phase diagrams
indicate the physical states that exist under specific conditions of pressure and temperature and
also provide the pressure dependence of the phase-transition temperatures (melting points,
sublimation points, boiling points).
Finally, point A is the point of intersection of all lines, where the solid/liquid, liquid/gas, and
solid/gas lines intersect, which is called the triple point. The only combination of temperature
and pressure at which all three phases (solid, liquid, and gas) are in equilibrium. The pressure
lower than the triple point cannot exist as a liquid, regardless of the temperature. The phase
diagram shown in figure 2 is for a single pure substance in a closed system, not for a liquid in an
open container in contact with air at 1 atm
The phase diagram of water is divided into three regions each of which represents a pure phase.
The line separating two regions indicates conditions under which two phases can exist in
equilibrium. For example, the curve between the liquid and the vapor phase shows the variation
of vapor pressure with temperature. The other two curves similarly indicate conditions for
equilibrium between ice and liquid water and water vapor. The point at which all three curves
meet is called a triple point, the only condition under which all three phases can be in
equilibrium with one another. The phase diagram of water shows that the triple point occurs at
0.00980C and 4.58 mmHg (0.010C and 0.0006 atm). The normal melting (freezing) point is 00C.
The normal boiling point is 1000C. A critical point is 3740C and 218 atm.

You can use the phase diagram to identify the physical state of a sample of water under
specified conditions of pressure and temperature. Example, a pressure of 1.5 atm and a
temperature of −15 °C correspond to the region of the diagram labeled “ice.” Under these
conditions, water exists only as a solid (ice). A pressure of 0.75 atm and a temperature of 75 °C
correspond to the “water” region—here, water exists only as a liquid. At 0.25 atm and 200 °C,
water exists only in the gaseous state. Note that the pressure and temperature axes are not
drawn to a constant scale to permit the illustration of several important features as described
on the H2O phase diagram.

Lesson 7: Heating and cooling curve

A change of state can be brought about by putting heat into a system or removing it from the
system.
The temperature of a system will not change as long as the substance is undergoing a change
from solid to liquid or liquid to gas, and vice versa.
A heating curve is a graph that displays the changes that occur when heat is added to a
substance; a good example would be melting ice. A cooling curve is the opposite of a heating
curve. It shows the effect that a decreasing temperature has on a substance. A practical
example of this process would be freezing water into ice.
A heating curve (Figure 1) graphically represents the phase transitions that a substance
undergoes as heat is added to it. The plateaus on the curve mark the phase changes. The
temperature remains constant during these phase transitions.

A cooling curve (Figure 2) is a line graph that represents the change of phase of matter, typically
from a gas to a solid or a liquid to a solid. The independent variable (X-axis) is time and the
dependent variable (Y-axis) is temperature.
Heating curves show how the temperature changes as a substance is heated. Cooling curves are
the opposite. They show how the temperature changes as a substance is cooled down. Just like
heating curves, cooling curves have horizontal flat parts where the state changes from gas to
liquid, or from liquid to solid. All of the changes of state that occur between solid, liquid and gas
are summarized in the diagram as shown in the figures below. Freezing is the opposite of
melting and both represent the equilibrium between the solid and liquid states. Evaporation
occurs when a liquid turns to a gas. Condensation is the opposite of vaporization and both
represent the equilibrium between the liquid and gas states. Deposition is the opposite of
sublimation and both represent the equilibrium between the solid and gas states.