Lecture 1

Chapter 15: Oscillations

15-1 Simple Harmonic Motion :
Periodic Motion :
If the motion of a body is such that it crosses from the same direction a particular point in its path
of motion at regular interval, then the motion is called periodic motion or harmonic motion
Simple Harmonic Motion :
If acceleration of a body executing periodic motion acts along a fixed point in its path of motion in
a such a way that its magnitude from that point is proportional to its displacement, then the motion
of the body is called Simple Harmonic Motion.
Such motion is a sinusoidal function of time t . That is, it can be written as a sine or a cosine of
time t. Here we arbitrarily choose the cosine function and write the displacement (or position) of
the particle in Fig.15-1 as
x (t) = xm cos (ωt + φ) ; (displacement) ……. (1)

Type equation here.

Frequency :
The frequency f of the oscillation is the number of times per second that it
completes a full oscillation (a cycle) and has the unit of hertz (abbreviated Hz),
where 1 hertz = 1 Hz = 1 oscillation per second = 1 s –1 ………. (2)

Time Period :
The time for one full cycle is the period T of the oscillation , which is
T= ………. (3)

Question : Proof that , ω = 2πf

Solution :
Ø To relate it to the frequency f and the period T, let’s first note that the position x(t) of the particle
must (by definition) return to its initial value at the end of a period.
Ø That is, if x(t) is the position at some chosen time t, then the particle must return to that same
position at time t + T.
Ø Let’s use Eq.1 to express this condition, but let’s also just set φ = 0 to get it out of the way.
Returning to the same position can then be written as
x (t) = xm cos (ωt + φ)
At t=t
x1=xm cos ωt
At t = t+T
x2=xm cos ω ( t+ T )
x1 = x2
Type equation here.
xm cos ωt =xm cos ω ( t+ T )

The cosine function first repeats itself when its argument (the phase , remember) has increased by 2 π rad. So, Eq. 4 tells us that
ω (t + T) = ω t + 2 π
or, ω T = 2 π rad
2π
Thus , from Eq.2 the angular frequency is , ω = = 2πf ……. (5)
T
The SI unit of angular frequency is the radian per second.

The Velocity of SHM :To find the velocity v(t) as a function of time , x (t) = xm cos (ωt + φ)
let’s take a time derivative of the position function x(t) in Eq. 1 :
v(t) = x(t) = [ xm cos (ωt + φ) ]
v(t) = - ω xm sin (ωt + φ) (velocity) …….. (6)
Ø The velocity depends on time because the sine function varies
with time, between the values of +1 and -1.
Ø The quantities in front of the sine function determine the extent of
the variation in the velocity, between + ωxm and
- ωxm . We say that ωxm is the velocity amplitude vm of the
velocity variation. vm= ωxm .
Ø When the particle is moving rightward through x = 0, its velocity is
positive and the magnitude is at this greatest value.
Ø When it is moving leftward through x = 0,its velocity is negative
and the magnitude is again at this greatest value.
Ø This variation with time (a negative sine function) is displayed in
the graph of Fig. b for a phase constant of φ = 0, which
corresponds to the cosine function for the displacement versus
time shown in Fig. a.

The Acceleration of SHM :

It can be found by differentiating the velocity function of Eq. 6
with respect to time to get the acceleration function of the particle
in simple harmonic motion:
a(t) = v(t) = [- ω xm sin (ωt + φ) ]
a(t) = - ω2 xm cos (ωt + φ) (acceleration) ….. (7)

ØThe acceleration varies because the cosine function varies with

time, between +1 and -1.The variation in the magnitude of the
acceleration is set by the acceleration amplitude am, which is the
product ω2 xm that multiplies the cosine function. am= ω2 xm

ØFigure c displays Eq. 7 for a phase constant φ = 0, consistent

with Figs. a and b. Note that the acceleration magnitude is zero
when the cosine is zero , which is when the particle is at x = 0.

ØAnd the acceleration magnitude is maximum when the cosine

magnitude is maximum, which is when the particle is at an
extreme point, where it has been slowed to a stop so that its
motion can be reversed.
 x (t) = xm cos (ωt + φ) ; (displacement) ……. (1)
a(t) = - ω2 xm cos (ωt + φ) (acceleration) …….. (7)
Comparing Eqs. 1 and 7 we see an extremely neat relationship:
a(t) = - ω2 x (t) …….. (8)
In SHM, the acceleration a is proportional to the displacement x but opposite in sign,
and the two quantities are related by the square of the angular frequency ω.

Linear simple harmonic oscillator [undamped oscillator] :The force law for simple
harmonic motion
Let us assume that there is no friction.
Using Eq 8 we can apply Newton’s second law to describe the force responsible for SHM:
F = ma = m(- ω2 x )= - (m ω2)x ………… (9)
The minus sign means that the direction of the force on the particle is opposite the direction of the displacement of the
particle.
That is , in SHM the force is a restoring force in the sense that it fights against the displacement , attempting to restore
the particle to the center point at x = 0 .
Now for a block on a spring as in Fig. we know from Hooke’s law,
F = - kx …………. (10)
for the force acting on the block.

F = - kx
- (m ω2)x = - kx
k= m ω2

Comparing Eqs.9 and 10,we can now relate the spring constant k (a measure of the stiffness of the spring) to
the mass of the block and the resulting angular frequency of the SHM:

k = m ω2 ……… (11)

Then the angular frequency , ω= …….. (12)

2π
the period of the motion can be found by combining Eqs.5 [ω = ] and Eq. 12 to write
T

2π
ω=
T
2π
=
T

T=2π …… ……. (13)

 3 : What is the maximum acceleration of a platform that oscillates at amplitude 2.20 cm and frequency
6.60 Hz?

xm = 2.20 cm = 0.0220 m
f = 6.60 Hz

x (t) = xm cos (ωt + φ)

v(t) = - ω xm sin (ωt + φ)

a(t) = - ω2 xm cos (ωt + φ)
am= ω2 xm = (2πf )2 xm = 4π2( 6.60)2( 0.0220) = 37.8 m/s2 = 37.8 m/s-s

13 : An oscillator consists of a block of mass 0.500 kg connected to a spring. When set into oscillation with
amplitude 35.0 cm, the oscillator repeats its motion every 0.500 s. Find the (a) period, (b) frequency, (c)
angular frequency, (d) spring constant, (e) maximum speed, and (f) magnitude of the maximum force on the
block from the spring.

Given: m =0.500 kg
xm =35.0 cm = 0.35 m
T = 0.500 s
(a) T = 0.500 s
(b) f = = = 2.00 Hz [2 oscillations/s]
.
(c) ω = 2πf = 2π(2.00) = 12.6 rad/s

(d) ω = .

k=m ω2 = (0.500)(12.6)2 = 79.0 N/m

(e) v(t) = - ω xm sin (ωt + φ)
vm = ωxm = (12.6)(0.350) = 4.40 m/s
(f) F = - k x
Fs = k xm = (79.0)(0.350) = 27.6 N
Newton’s third law, Fs = Fm = 27.6 N

Additional problem:
Sample problem 15.01; page 420
 Lecture 2

Chapter 15: Oscillations

15-2 ENERGY IN SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION
In the case of a linear oscillator, the energy transfers back and forth between kinetic energy and potential energy,
while the sum of the two—the mechanical energy E of the oscillator—remains constant.
That means,
Mechanical Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy = constant
Or, E = K(t) + U(t) = Constant

Potential Energy (elastic potential energy)

The potential energy of a linear oscillator like that of Fig.(a) is associated entirely with the spring. Its value
depends on how much the spring is stretched or compressed—that is, on x(t).
We know,
U (t) = kx2 = k x2m cos2 (ωt + φ) ……. (1)

[ x(t) = xm cos (ωt + φ) ]

Figure (a) Linear Oscillator

Kinetic Energy
The kinetic energy of the system of Figure (a) is associated entirely with the block. Its value depends on how fast the block is moving—
that is, on v(t).
We then find,
K (t) = m v2 = (m ω2)x2m sin 2(ωt + φ) ………. (2)
[ x(t) = xm cos (ωt + φ)
v(t) = - ω xm sin (ωt + φ) ]

ω=

ω2 =
k = m ω2

Substituting the value of ω2 in Eq (2) We get,

K (t) = k x2m sin2(ωt + φ) ………. (3)

Mechanical Energy
The mechanical energy follows from Eqs.1 and 3 and is
E = U(t) + K (t)
= k x2m cos2 (ωt + φ) + k x2m sin2(ωt + φ)

= k x2m [ cos2 (ωt + φ) + sin2(ωt + φ) ] [sin2 α + cos2 α = 1]

E = k x2m

The mechanical energy of a linear oscillator is indeed constant and independent of time.
 The potential energy and kinetic energy of a linear oscillator are shown as functions of time t in Fig. a

U(t)= k x2m cos2 (ωt + φ)

K (t) = k x2m sin2(ωt + φ)

Figure : (a) Potential energy U(t), kinetic energy K(t),and mechanical energy E as functions of time t for a
linear harmonic oscillator. Note that all energies are positive and that the potential energy and the kinetic
energy peak twice during every period.

The potential energy and kinetic energy of a linear oscillator are shown as functions of displacement x in Fig. b

U= k x2

K = m v2

Figure (b) Potential energy U(x), kinetic energy K(x),and mechanical energy E as functions of position x for a linear
harmonic oscillator with amplitude xm . For x = 0 the energy is all kinetic, and for x = xm it is all potential.

30 : An oscillating block–spring system has a mechanical energy of 1.00 J, an amplitude of 10.0 cm, and a
maximum speed of 1.20 m/s. Find (a) the spring constant,(b) the mass of the block, and (c) the frequency of
oscillation.
Here, E = 1.00 J
xm = 10.0 cm = 0.100 m
vm= = 1.20 m/s
(a) E = k x 2m
( . )
k= = = 200 N/m
x2 m 2

(b) E = K + U = mv2 + kx2

The maximum speed, vm is at the relaxed state, x = 0.
E = mvm2 + k(0)2 = mvm2
( . )
m= 2 = 2 = 1.39 kg
m

(c ) f = = = = 11.9 Hz [/s]
2π 2π 2π .

[T = 2 π ]
 31 : A 5.00 kg object on a horizontal frictionless surface is attached to a spring with k = 1000 N/m. The object is
displaced from equilibrium 50.0 cm horizontally and given an initial velocity of 10.0 m/s back toward the
equilibrium position. What are (a) the motion’s frequency, (b) the initial potential energy of the block–spring
system,(c) the initial kinetic energy, and (d) the motion’s amplitude?

Given:
m = 5.00 kg
k = 1000 N/m
xi = 50.0 cm = 0.500 m
vi = 10.0 m/s xm = 86.6 cm

xi = 50 cm
f= = = 2π = 2π = 2.25 Hz
2π . vi = 10.0 m/s

[T=2π ]

xi = 50 cm
vi = 10.0 m/s
(b) Ui = k xi2 = (1000) (0.500)2 = 125 J

(c) Ki = mvi2 = (5) (10)2 = 250 J

(d) E = Ui + Ki = (125 + 250 ) J = 375 J

E== k x2m + mvm2 = k x2m + m(0)2

E = k x2 m [xm = amplitude (maximum displacement)]

( )
xm = = = 0.866 m = 86.6 cm [E = Constant]

xm = 86.6 cm

36 : If the phase angle for a block–spring system in SHM is π/6 rad and the block’s position is
given by x = xm cos (ωt +φ), what is the ratio of the kinetic energy to the potential energy at
time t = 0?

[ωt +φ = phase
φ =phase angle]

Given:
Phase angle, φ = π/6 rad
x = xm cos (ωt +φ)
v = - ω xm sin (ωt + φ)
t=0

ω= ω2 = k = m ω2

mv2 m{− ωxm sin (ωt + φ)}2 (mω2)xm2 sin2(ωt + φ) kxm2 sin2(ωt + φ) sin2(ωt + φ)
= = = = =
kx 2 k{xm cos (ωt +φ)}2 2 2
kxm cos (ωt +φ) kxm cos (ωt +φ) cos2(ωt +φ)
2 2

sin(ωt + φ) 2
={ } = {tan(ωt + φ)}2= tan{ω(0) + π/6}2 = {tan (π/6)}2 = ( ) =
cos(ωt +φ) √

= Ans.
 Lecture 3
Simple Harmonic Motion and Uniform Circular Motion:
Simple harmonic motion is the projection of uniform circular motion
on a diameter of the circle in which the circular motion occurs.

Figure 15-15 (a) A reference particle P’ moving with uniform circular

motion in a reference circle of radius xm. Its projection P on the x axis
executes simple harmonic motion. (b) The projection of the velocity of
the reference particle is the velocity of SHM. (c) The projection of the
radial acceleration of the reference particle is the acceleration of SHM.

Fig. a gives an example. It shows a

reference particle P’ moving in uniform
circular motion with (constant) angular
speed ω in a reference circle. The radius
xm of the circle is the magnitude of the
particle’s position vector. At any time t,
the angular position of the particle is
+ , where φ is its angular position
at t = 0.

Position: The projection of particle P’ onto the x axis is a point P,

which we take to be a second particle. The projection of the
position vector of particle P’ onto the x axis gives the location x(t)
+x(t)
of P. Thus, we find cos( + )=
x(t) = xm cos( + )
If reference particle P’, in uniform circular motion, its projection
particle P moves in simple harmonic motion along a diameter of
the circle.

Velocity: Figure b shows the velocity ⃗ of the reference particle. From the
relation , v = ωr, the magnitude of the velocity vector is ω xm; its projection

v(t)
on the x axis is sin( + )= v(t) = - ω xm sin( + )
ω

The minus sign appears because the velocity component of P in Fig. b is

directed to the left, in the negative direction of x.
 Acceleration: Fig. c shows the radial acceleration ⃗ of the reference
particle. From the relation = r, the magnitude of the radial acceleration

a(t)
vector is xm; its projection on the x axis is cos( + )=

a(t) = - xm cos( + )

Thus, whether we look at the displacement, the velocity, or the acceleration,

the projection of uniform circular motion is indeed simple harmonic motion.

https://youtu.be/JSBw-JyFgZk

https://youtu.be/Udqxvbrpq5c

77: Figure 15-53 gives the position of a 20 g block oscillating in SHM on the end of a
spring. The horizontal axis scale is set by ts = 40.0 ms. What are (a) the maximum
kinetic energy of the block and (b) the number of times per second that maximum is
reached? (Hint: Measuring a slope will probably not be very accurate. Find another
approach)

m = 20 gm = 0.020 kg
xm= 7 cm = 0.07 m
vm vm
T = ts = 40 ms = 0.040 s
x(t) = xm cos( + )
v(t) = = {xm sin( + )}
Kmax Kmax
= - ω xm sin( + )
vm = ωxm
= = = 157.08 rad/s
.
(a) K = mv = m(ωx ) = mω x
= (0.020)(157.08) (0.07)
= 1.20 J
(b) = = = 25 Hz or [25 cycles per s]
.
From figures:
1 cycle per second = 1 Hz , the maximum KE is reached 2 times
25 cycles per second=25 Hz ,the maximum KE is reached 2x25 times or 50 times
78: Figure 15-53 gives the position x(t) of a block oscillating in SHM on
the end of a spring (ts = 40.0 ms). What are (a) the speed and
(b) the magnitude of the radial acceleration of a particle in the
corresponding uniform circular motion?

xm = 7 cm = 0.07 m
T = 40 ms = 0.040 s

(a) = = = 157.08 rad/s

.
x(t) = xm cos( + )
v(t) = = {xm sin( + )}
= - ω xm sin( + )
Speed for uniform circular motion,
= ω xm = 157.08 (0.07) = 10.99 m/s
[ v = ωr ] [r = ]
(b) a(t) = = {- ω xm sin( + )} = - xm cos( + )
Radial acceleration for uniform circular motion,
= = (157.08) (0.07) = 1727.19 m/s2
[ = r] [r = ]

Lecture 16: Damped Simple Harmonic Motion

The liquid exerts a damping force, ∝ velocity, of vane and liquid
[if vane moves slowly]
F ∝ ν [Let rod and vane = massless]
F = − bν [b = damping constant]
F =−kx
Newton’s second law for components
along the x axis F , = ma
F + F = ma Fs
−bν − kx = ma x
dx d x
−b − kx = m
dt dt
rod Fd
d x dx
m + b + kx = 0
dt dt v
d x b dx k
+ + x=0
dt m dt m
The displacement of damped simple harmonic oscillator:

x t = x e cos ω t + φ
The amplitude, x e decreases exponentially with time.

= 2 − [ = angular frequency of the damped oscillator and

= angular frequency of the undamped oscillator]
k b
ω = − [ = γ= ]
m 2m

k b
ω = −
m 4m
If there is no damping, b = 0 :

k 0
ω = −
m 4m
= = [angular frequency of an undamped oscillator]
The displacement of undamped simple harmonic oscillator becomes x t = x cos ωt + φ .
For the undamped simple harmonic motion, the amplitude xm does not change with time.

Damped ℎ :

ℎ ℎ
is constant, =

If damping (b) is very small, ≈ e

ℎ ℎ
1
, ≈ e
2
1
≈
2

58. For the damped oscillator system shown in Fig. 15-16,

with m = 250 g, k = 85 N/m, and b = 70 g/s, = 0.34 s, what
is the ratio of the oscillation amplitude at the end of 20 cycles
to the initial oscillation amplitude?
Here, m = 250 g= 0.250 kg
k = 85 N/m
b = 70 g/s = 0.070 kg/s
T’= 0.34 s
The displacement of the damped oscillation is

x t = x e cos ω t + φ
Time for 20 cycles, t = 20
Amplitude = x e = = e
t = 0,
Amplitude = x e =x e =x e = x (1) = x
Ratio of amplitudes = =e
.
[ω = − = −
. .
Fs
ω = 18.44 / x
= = 0.34 s]
rod Fd
.
( . )
Ratio of amplitudes = e . v
.
=e = 0.39

60.The suspension system of a 2000 kg automobile “sags”10

cm when the chassis is placed on it. Also, the oscillation
amplitude decreases by 50% each cycle. Estimate the values
of (a) the spring constant k and (b) the damping constant b for
the spring and shock absorber system of one wheel, assuming
each wheel supports 500 kg.

(a) Hooke’s law, F = kx [magnitude only]

mg = kx
One quarter of the vehicle mass, m = 2000/4 kg = 500 kg
x = 10 cm = 0.10 m
k = mg/x = 500(9.8)/0.10 = 49000 N/m
[The displacement is downward and the spring force is upward]

For one cycle, t = T′ s

= %

= .

[ ]= ( . )

− = − 0.69

= 0.69

Time period of a damped SHM, T’ =

T’ =
 ′ = =

′ =

= 0.69

= 0.48

( ) = 0.48

( ) = 0.48

4 = 0.48(4 − )

4 = 1.92 − 0.48

4 + 0.48 = 1.92

(4 + 0.48) = 1.92(500)(49000)

39.96 = 47040000

= 1177177.18

b = 1177177.18

b = 1084.98 kg/s

Additional problem:
Sample problem 15:06, page: 432
 Lecture 17: Waves

Transverse wave:
Vibration of particles of the string perpendicular
to the velocity of the propagation of wave

Longitudinal wave:
Vibration of the particle of air parallel to velocity
of the propagation of wave

Sinusoidal Function:
Imagine a sinusoidal wave like that of Fig. 16-1b traveling in the positive direction
of an x axis. As the wave sweeps through succeeding elements (that is, very short
sections) of the string, the elements oscillate parallel to the y axis. At time t, the
displacement y of the element located at position x is given by
Wave function:
, = sin − [+ ]

, = sin + [- x axis]

Fig. Transverse sinusoidal wave

Because this equation is written in terms of position x, it can be used to find the
displacements of all the elements of the string as a function of time. Thus, it can
tell us the shape of the wave at any given time.

Watch this spot in this series of snapshots.

Figure 16-4 Five “snapshots” of a string wave traveling in the positive

direction of an x axis. The amplitude ym is indicated. A typical
wavelength measured from an arbitrary position x1, is also indicated.
 (i) P ℎ =
, = sin −
The wavelength of a wave is the distance (parallel to the direction of the wave’s travel) between
repetitions of the shape of the wave (or wave shape).
A =0
,0 = sin − 0 = sin
The displacement y is the same at both ends
of this wavelength at = , = +
,0 = sin
x= x = x1 +
+ ,0 = sin +
+ ,0 = sin +
,0 = + ,0
sin = sin +
A sine function begins to repeat itself when its angle (or argument) is increased by =2
2
= SI unit of k = rad/m

(ii) P ℎ =
Fig. shows a graph of the displacement y versus time t at a certain position along the string, taken to be x = 0.
, = sin −
=0
0, = sin (0) −
0, = − sin
We define the period of oscillation T of a wave to be the time any string element takes to move through
one full oscillation.
The displacement y is the same at both ends of this time period at t = , = +T.
0, = − sin
0, + = − sin +
0, + =− sin + t= t = t1+T
0, = 0, +
− sin = − sin +
This can be true only if =2
2
= SI unit of = rad/s

(iii) P ℎ =
The wave is traveling in the positive direction of x.

, = sin −
If point A retains its displacement as it moves,
the phase giving it that displacement must
remain a constant:

ℎ = − =

− =

This phase (argument) is constant but both x and t are changing. In fact, as t increases, x
must also, to keep the argument constant. This confirms that the wave pattern is moving in
the positive direction of x.
To find the wave speed v, we take a derivative of phase = kx − ωt = constant
with respect to t.
d d
− =
d d

k −ω =0
− =0
=
+
=
The plus sign verifies that the wave is indeed moving in the positive direction of x.

ν= = = ( ) = = fλ

The equation tells us that the wave speed is one wavelength per period; the wave moves a
distance of one wavelength in one period of oscillation.

(iv) P ℎ =
The wave is traveling in the negative direction of x.
, = sin − ̅ A y
=−
, = sin + -x
If point A retains its displacement as it moves,
the phase giving it that displacement must
remain a constant:
t = Δt t=0
ℎ = + =

+ =

The x decrease with time. Thus, a wave is traveling in the negative direction of x.

To find the wave speed v, we take a derivative of phase = kx + ωt = constant

with respect to t.

d d
+ =
d d

k +ω =0

+ =0

=−

−
=

The minus sign verifies that the wave is indeed moving in the negative direction of x.
1. If a wave y(x, t) = (6.0 mm) sin(kx + (600 rad/s)t + φ) travels along a string, how
much time does any given point on the string take to move between displacements
y = + 2.0 mm and y = - 2.0 mm?
+0.002 m = 0.006 m sin + 600 1 +
. x
sin + 600 1 + = t1
.
sin + 600 1 + =

+ 600 1 + = sin ( ) −−− −[1]

−0.002 m = 0.006 m si n( + 600 2 + )
.
sin + 600 2 + =
.

sin + 600 2 + = t2
x
+ 600 2 + = sin ( ) −−− −[2]
1 − [2]

( + 600 1 + ) −( + 600 2 + ) = sin ( ) − sin ( )

+ 600 1 + − − 600 2 − = sin ( ) + sin ( )

1
600 1 − 600
= 2 sin ( )2
3
1
600 ( 1 − 2) = 2 sin ( )
3
2 1
( 1 − 2) = sin ( )
600 3

t= sin ( )

t = 0.001133 s [Ans]

5. A sinusoidal wave travels along a string. The time for a particular point to
move from maximum displacement to zero is 0.170 s. What are (a) the period
and (b) frequency? (c) The wavelength is 1.40 m; what is the wave speed?

t1
(a) t1 – t2 = T/4 = 0.170 s
T = 4 (0.170) s = 0.680 s
x
(b) f =1/T = (1/ 0.680) Hz = 1.47 Hz T
4 2

(c) λ = 1.40 m

v = fλ = 1.47 (1.40) m/s = 2.06 m/s

x
t2
Additional problem:
Sample problem 16.02, page:451

Lecture 6

16-2: Wave speed on a stretched string, v =

Ø Speed of a wave is set by the properties of the medium

(stretched string).
Ø If a wave is to travel through a medium, it must cause the
particles of that stretched string (medium) to oscillate as it
passes.
Ø It requires both mass ( for kinetic energy, K= ) and
elasticity (for potential energy, U = ) properties.
Ø Thus the mass and elasticity properties of the medium
determine how fast the wave can travel in the medium.

Derivation from Newton’s second law of motion, v =

+y
+x
∆l

2
O
R

.: .
ℎ ℎ .
ℎ ∆l located at the top of the pulse
 +y
+x
∆l

2
O
R

1. Radial restoring force:

∆
F = τ sin + τ sin = 2τ sin = 2τ = τ(2 ) = τ ( )
∆
[If is very small, sin ≅ ≅ 2 = ]
2. Mass of the element: Linear density of the string =
∆
=
∆
∆ = ∆

+y
+x
∆l

2
O
R

3. Centripetal acceleration:
String element moves in an arc of a circle. It has a centripetal acceleration
toward the center of the circle.
Centripetal acceleration is given by a=

+y
+x
∆l

2
O
R

Newton’s 2nd law of motion

F=∆ a
∆
τ ( )= ∆ ( )

τ= The speed of a wave along a stretched ideal string

depends only on the tension and linear density
= of the string and not on the frequency of the wave.

=√
6. A sinusoidal wave travels along a string under tension. Figure gives
the slopes along the string at time t = 0. The scale of the x axis is set by
xs = 0.80 m. What is the amplitude of the wave?

y(x, t) = ym sin(kx - t)
= slope
= {ym sin(kx - ωt)}

= ym {sin(kx - ωt)}

= kym cos(kx - ωt)

At t = 0 and x =0, = kym cos{k(0) -
ω(0)}
= kym cos0

= kym

y(x, 0) = ym sinkx
= kym y(0, 0)= 0
Both graph t = 0
0.2 = ym

.
ym =
xs
From the Fig., λ =
.
λ= = slope

λ = 0.40
m . ( . )
ym =

ym = 0.01273 m = 1.27
cm

14. The equation of a transverse wave on a string is

y = (2.0 m) sin [(20 m-1)x - (600 s-1)t]. The tension in the string is 15 N.
(a) What is the wave speed? (b) Find the linear density of this string in
grams per meter.
y = (2.0 m) sin [(20 m-1)x - (600 s-1)t]
y = ym sin(kx - t)
Given, ym = 2.0 m
k = 20 rad/m
= 600 rad/s
τ = 15 N

(a) v = = = 30 m/s

=√

=
= = = 1.67x10-2 kg/m = 16.7 gm/m
( )
 Lecture 7
The Principle of Superposition for Waves
Suppose that two waves travel simultaneously
along the same stretched string. Let y1(x, t)
and y2(x, t) be the displacements that the
string would experience if each wave traveled
alone.

The displacement of the string when the waves

overlap is then the algebraic sum

y’(x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)

Overlapping waves algebraically add to produce a
resultant wave (or net wave)

Overlapping waves do not in any way alter the

travel of each other.

Interference of Waves
Suppose we send two sinusoidal waves of the same wavelength and
amplitude in the same direction along a stretched string.

y1(x, t) = ym sin(kx - t) (f ), k ( ), ym , v are

y2(x, t) = ym sin(kx - t + ) same
Superposition principle, y’(x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)
y’(x, t) = ym sin(kx - t)+ ym sin(kx - t + )
= ym {sin(kx - t)+ sin(kx - t + )}
= ym {2 sin ( )cos ( )}
= 2ym sin { ( )
}cos ( )
= 2ym sin { − + } cos ( )
y’(x, t) = [2ym cos ( )] sin ( − +
)
Resultant[traveling waves]
displacement = y’(x, t)
Amplitude = [2ym cos ( )]
Oscillating term = sin ( − + )

If two sinusoidal waves of the same amplitude and wavelength travel in

the same direction along a stretched string, they interfere to produce a
resultant sinusoidal wave traveling in that direction.
Interfering waves: y1(x, t) = ym sin(kx - t)
y2(x, t) = ym sin(kx - t + )
Resultant wave : y’(x, t) = [2ym cos ( )] sin ( − + )
The resultant wave differs from the interfering waves in two respects:
(1) its phase constant is and (2) its amplitude is y’m= [2ym cos ( )]
(1) If = 0 rad (00): fully constructive interference

y’(x, t) = [2ym cos ( )] sin ( ) }

= [2ym cos0] sin −
y’(x, t) = 2ym sin − [greatest amplitude]
(2) If = rad (1800): fully destructive interference
y’(x, t) = [2ym cos ( )] sin ( − + )
= [2ym (0)] sin ( − + )
y’(x, t) = 0
(3) If = rad (1200): intermediate interference

y’(x, t) = [2ym cos( )] sin { − + ( )}

= 2ym cos ( ) sin ( − + )
= 2ym ( ) sin ( − + )
y’(x, t) = ym sin ( − + )

32. What phase difference between two identical traveling waves, moving in the
same direction along a stretched string, results in the combined wave having an
amplitude 1.50 times that of the common amplitude of the two combining waves?
Express your answer in (a) degrees, (b) radians, and (c) wavelengths.
y1(x, t) = ym sin(kx - t)
y2(x, t) = ym sin(kx - t + )
Superposition principle,y’(x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)
y’(x, t) = ym sin(kx - t)+ ym sin(kx - t + )
= ym {sin(kx - t)+ sin(kx - t + )}
= ym {2 sin ( ) cos ( )}
= 2ym sin { ( )
} cos ( )
= 2ym sin { − + } cos ( )
y’(x, t) = [2ym cos ( )] sin ( − +
) [2y cos ( )] = 1.50 y
(a) m m

cos ( ) = 1.50/2

cos ( ) = 0.75
−1
= cos (0.750)
= 41.41
= 2(41.41)
= 82.820 Ans.
−1
(b) = cos (0.75 rad)
= 0.7227 rad
φ = 1.45 rad Ans.
c 2π rad = λ
λ
1 rad = ( )
2π
1.45 rad = 1.45 = 0.23λ Ans.
 Additional problem:
Sample problem 16.04, page: 461

Lecture 8: Standing Waves

If two sinusoidal waves of the same amplitude and wavelength travel in
opposite directions along a stretched string, their interference with each
other produces a standing wave.
y1(x, t) = ym sin(kx - ωt) traveling waves
y2(x, t) = ym sin(kx + ωt )
Superposition principle,y’(x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)
y’(x, t) = ym sin(kx - ωt) + ym sin(kx + ωt )
= ym {sin(kx - ωt)+ sin(kx + ωt )}
= ym {2 sin ( ) cos ( )}
= 2ym sin ( ) cos ( )
y’(x, t) = [2ym sin ]cosωt [standing wave]
Resultant displacement = y’(x, t)
Amplitude at position x = [2ym sin ]
Oscillating term = cosωt

Nodes: The string never moves. The amplitude of the

resultant wave will be zero. The f .
Amplitude = 2ym (sin kx) = 2ym (0) = 0
If sin kx = 0
sin kx = sin (0, π, 2π, 3π,…………)
sin kx = sin nπ for n = 0, 1, 2 , 3, … …
kx = nπ

x = nπ
x=n for n = 0, 1,2,3……….

Distance between adjacent nodes, Δx =

 Antinodes: The halfway between nodes are called
antinodes, where the amplitude of the resultant wave
will be maximum. ℎ .
Amplitude = 2ym (sin kx) = 2ym (1) = 2ym
If sin kx = 1
sin kx = sin (1 , 3 , 5 …………)
sin kx = sin (n+ ) for n = 0, 1, 2 , 3, … …
kx = (n+ )
x=( + )

x = (n+ ) for n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ………..

Distance between adjacent antinodes, Δx =

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eu1PC4boType equation
here.tbM

Fig. In phase: at t = 0, , ℎ
ℎ ℎ ℎ .
Fig. out of phase: at t = , ℎ
ℎ .

Nodes: some points never oscillate.

Antinodes: some points oscillate the most.

53. A string oscillate according to the equation

y′ = (0.50 cm) sin [(π/3 cm-1)x] cos [(40π s-1)t]. What are (a) the amplitude and (b)
the speed of the two waves (identical except for direction of travel) whose
superposition gives this oscillation? (c) What is the distance between nodes? (d)
What is the speed of a particle of the string at the position x = 1.5 cm when t = 9/8 s?
y′ = [(0.50 cm) sin {(π/3 cm-1)x}] cos [(40π s-1)t]
y’ = [2ym sin ] cosωt
π π
Given, = rad/cm= rad/m; = 40π rad/s
.
(a) 2ym = 0.50 cm
2ym = 0.0050 m
ym = 0.0050/2 m
ym = 0.0025 m Ans.
40π
(b) v = = π = 0.03(40) = 1.20 m/s Ans.
.
(c) Adjacent distance between nodes,
π
π π
∆ = = = = π = 0.03 m Ans.
.
(d) y’(x, t) = [2ym sin ] cosωt
The speed of a particle of a string is given by
’
u= = (2ym sin cosωt)
= 2ym sin (cosωt)

= 2ym sin ( − sinωt) (ωt)

= 2ym sin ( − sinωt) (ω)
= −ω 2ym sin (sinωt)
= −40 π 2(0.0025) sin {( π. )( . )} sin {40 π(9/8)}
= −40 π 2(0.0025) sin (π) sin (45 π)
= {−40 π 2(0.0025) sin (π)} (0)
=0

76. A standing wave results from the sum of two transverse traveling waves
given by y1 = 0.050 cos(πx - 4πt) and y2 = 0.050 cos(πx + 4πt), where x,
y1,and y2 are in meters and t is in seconds. (a) What is the smallest positive
value of x that corresponds to a node? Beginning at t = 0, what is the value of
the (b) first, (c) second, and (d) third time the particle at x = 0 has zero velocity?
y1 = 0.050 cos(πx - 4πt)
y2 = 0.050 cos(πx + 4πt)
y’(x, t) = y1(x, t) + y2(x, t)
y’= 0.050 cos(πx - 4πt) + 0.050 cos(πx + 4πt)
y’= 0.050 {cos(πx - 4πt) + cos(πx + 4πt)}
y’= 0.050 {2cos (πx − 4πt πx + 4πt) cos (πx − 4πt πx− 4πt)
y’= 2(0.050) cos (2πx) cos {− 2(4πt)}
y’= [0.1 cos πx] cos 4πt [resultant wave is a standing wave]
Amplitude of the resultant wave = 0.1 cos πx
Node: Amplitude of the resultant wave = 0.1 cos πx = 0.1 (0)
=0

If cos πx = 0
cos πx = cos (1 , 3 , 5 …………)
cos πx = cos (n+ ) π for n = 0, 1, 2, 3 … … … … …
πx = (n+ ) π

x = (n+ ) for n = 0, 1, 2, 3 … … … … …

(a) For the smallest value of x: n = 0, x = (0+ ) = m

The speed of a particle of a string is given by

’
u= = (0.1 cos πx cos 4πt)
u = 0.1 cos πx (cos 4πt)
u = 0.1 cos πx (- sin 4πt) (4πt)
u = 0.1 cos πx (- sin 4πt) (4π)
 u = - 0.4π cos πx sin 4πt
At x = 0, u = 0
0 = - 0.4π cos π(0) sin 4πt
- 0.4π cos0 sin 4πt = 0

- 0.4π (1) sin 4πt = 0

- 0.4π sin 4πt = 0
sin 4πt = 0
sin 4πt = sin (0, π, 2π, 3π,……….)
sin 4πt = sin nπ for n = 0, 1, 2, 3,……….)
4πt = nπ
4t = n
t=

(b) for n = 0, t = = 0 s, first time

(c) for n = 1, t = s, second times

(d) for n = 2, t = = s, third times

So the particle velocity, u = 0 at t = 0, , s.

Lecture 9
Reflections at a Boundary:

Hard reflection: incident Soft reflection: incident

pulse is up and reflected pulse is up and reflected
pulse is down. reflected pulse is also up. reflected
pulse is inverted. out of pulse is not inverted. in
phase. destructive phase. constructive
interference. node. interference. antinode.

Fig. (a) Wall: hard reflection and (b) Rod: soft reflection
 Standing waves and resonance:
Consider a string, such as a guitar string, that is stretched between two
clamps. Suppose we send a continuous sinusoidal wave of a certain
frequency along the string, say, toward the right. When the wave reaches
the right end, it reflects and begins to travel back to the left. That left-
going wave then overlaps the wave that is still traveling to the right.

For certain frequencies, the interference produces a standing wave

pattern (or oscillation mode) with nodes and large antinodes like those
in Fig. 16-20. Such a standing wave is said to be produced at
resonance, and the string is said to resonate at these certain
frequencies, called resonant frequencies.

node = 2
antinode = 1
loop = 1
= L or =

node = 2+1
antinode = 1+1
loop = 1+1
+ = L or =

node = 3+1
antinode = 2+1
loop = 2+1
+ + = L or =

Thus, a standing wave can be set up on a string of length L by a wave with

a wavelength equal to one of the values, λ = for n = 1, 2, 3. ……..

The resonant frequencies that corresponds to these

wavelengths follow from the equation
v=fλ
f=

f= =√

Resonant frequency, f = √

Oscillation mode: n = 1, 2, 3,………………..

If n = 1, f1 = ;

If n = 2, f2 = ;

If n = 3, f3 = ;

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DUPLRe5PHvE
 44. A 125 cm length of string has a mass 2.00 g and tension 7.00 N
between fixed supports. (a) What is the wave speed for this string?
(b) What is the lowest resonant frequency of this string?

Here, L = 125 cm = = 1.25 m

m = 2.00 gm = kg = 0.002 kg
τ = 7.00 N
.
μ= = kg/m = 0.0016 kg/m
.
.
a v =√ =√ = √(4375) = 66.14 m/s Ans.
0.0016
(b) For the lowest resonant frequency, n = 1: f= √

f1 = .
. . .

85. A 120 cm length of string is stretched between fixed supports. What

are the (a) longest, (b) second longest, and (c) third longest wavelength
for waves traveling on the string if standing waves are to be set up? (d)
Sketch those standing waves.

Here, L = 120 cm = m = 1.20 m

(a) =L = 2L = 2 (1.20) = 2.40 m Ans.

(b) + =L =L λ = L = 1.20m Ans.

( . )
(c) + + =L =L λ= = = 0.80 m Ans.

Additional problem:
Sample problems 16.06, page: 469