Proof methods

 We will discuss six proof methods:

1. Direct proofs
2. Proof by cases
3. Indirect proofs
4. The Bi-conditional
5. Proof by contradiction
6. Counterexamples

111
Definition even and odd numbers
 We call n is even if n is divisible by 2
 i.e., n = 2*m for some integer m
 n= 2 n = 2.1
 n = 4 n = 2.2
 ….
 ….
 N is odd if n is not divisible by 2
 i.e., n = 2*m +1 for some integer m
 n = 3 n = 2.1 + 1
 n = 5 n = 2.2 + 1
 ….
 ….
112
 Proving Theorems
Direct proof:
An implication p  q can be proved by showing that
if p is true, then q is also true.
Example: Give a direct proof of the theorem
“If n is odd, then n2 is odd.”
Idea: Assume that the hypothesis of this implication
is true (n is odd). Then use rules of inference and
known theorems of math to show that q must also be
true (n2 is odd).

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 113

 Proving Theorems

n is odd.

Then n = 2k + 1, where k is an integer.

Consequently, n2 = (2k + 1)2.

= 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1
= 2m + 1

Since n2 can be written in this form, it is odd.

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 114

 Proving Theorems
Direct proof:
An implication p  q can be proved by showing that if
p is true, then q is also true.

Example: Give a direct proof of the theorem

Show that the square of an even number is an
even number
 Rephrased: if n is even, then n2 is even

Idea: Assume that the hypothesis of this implication is

true (n is even). Then use rules of inference and
known theorems of math to show that q must also be
true (n2 is even).
Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 115
 Proving Theorems

n is even.

Then n = 2k, where k is an integer.

Consequently, n2 = (2k)2.
= 4k2
= 2(2k2)
= 2m

Since n2 can be written in this form, it is even.

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 116

 Proving Theorems
Direct proof:
An implication p  q can be proved by showing that if
p is true, then q is also true.

Example: Give a direct proof of the theorem

For all integers x and y, if x, y are both odd, then x
+ y is even
Idea: Assume that the hypothesis of this implication is
true (x, y are both odd). Then use rules of inference
and known theorems of math to show that q must also
be true (x + y is even).

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 117

 Proving Theorems

x and y are odd.

Then x = 2k+1, and y = 2m +1 where k, m integers.

Consequently, x + y = 2k+1 + 2m +1.

= 2k + 2m + 2
= 2(k+m+1)
= 2p

Since x + y can be written in this form, it is even.

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 118

 Proving Theorems
Direct proof:
An implication p  q can be proved by showing that if
p is true, then q is also true.

Example: Give a direct proof of the theorem

For all integers x and y, if x, y are both odd, then
x.y is also odd
Idea: Assume that the hypothesis of this implication is
true (x, y are both odd). Then use rules of inference
and known theorems of math to show that q must also
be true (x.y is odd).

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 119

 Proving Theorems

x and y are odd.

Then x = 2k+1, and y = 2m +1 where k, m integers.

Consequently, x.y = (2k+1).(2m +1)

= 2km + 2k + 2m + 1
= 2(km+k+m) +1
= 2p + 1

Since x.y can be written in this form, it is odd.

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 120

Proof methods
 We will discuss six proof methods:
1. Direct proofs
2. Proof by cases
3. Indirect proofs
4. The Bi-conditional
5. Proof by contradiction
6. Counterexamples

121
 Proving Theorems
Direct proof using cases:
Example: If q is not divisible by 3 then q2 mod 3 = 1

Idea: Assume that the hypothesis of this implication is

true (q is not divisible by 3). Then you will see there
could be 2 cases. Use rules of inference and known
theorems of math to show that q2 mod 3 = 1 in both
the cases.

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 122

 Proving Theorems

q is not divisible by 3. Then either q mode 3 = 1 or q

mod 3 = 2 (for example 7 mod 3 = 1 and 8 mod 3 = 2)

Case 1: Suppose q mod 3 = 1. Then q = 3k+1, where

k is an integer.

Consequently, q2 = (3k+1).(3k +1)

= 9k2 + 6k + 1
= 3(3k2+2k) +1
= 3p + 1

Since q2 can be written in this form, q2 mode 3 = 1 .

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 123
 Proving Theorems
q is not divisible by 3. Then either q mode 3 = 1 or q
mod 3 = 2 (for example 7 mod 3 = 1 and 8 mod 3 = 2)

Case 2: Suppose q mod 3 = 2. Then q = 3k+2, where

k is an integer.

Consequently, q2 = (3k+2).(3k +2)

= 9k2 + 12k + 4
= 9k2 + 12k + 3 + 1
= 3(3k2+4k + 1) +1
= 3p + 1
Since q2 can be written in this form, q2 mode 3 = 1 .
Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 124
Proof methods
 We will discuss six proof methods:
1. Direct proofs
2. Proof by cases
3. Indirect proofs
4. The Bi-conditional
5. Proof by contradiction
6. Counterexamples

125
 Proving Theorems
Indirect proof:
An implication p  q is equivalent to its contra-
positive q  p. Therefore, we can prove p  q
by showing that whenever q is false, then p is also
false.
Example: Give an indirect proof of the theorem
“If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.”
Idea: Assume that the conclusion of this implication
is false (n is even). Then use rules of inference and
known theorems to show that p must also be false
(3n + 2 is even).

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 126

 Proving Theorems
n is even.

Then n = 2k, where k is an integer.

It follows that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2

= 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1)

Therefore, 3n + 2 is even.

We have shown that the contrapositive of the

implication is true, so the implication itself is also true
(If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd).

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 127

Which to use
 When do you use a direct proof versus
an indirect proof?

 If it’s not clear from the problem, try

direct first, then indirect second
 If indirect fails, try the other proofs

128
Example of which to use
 Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd,
then n is even

 Via direct proof

 n3+5 = 2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd
numbers)
 n3 = 2k-4
 n = (2k-4)^(1/3)
 Umm…

 So direct proof didn’t work out. Next up: indirect

proof

129
Example of which to use
 Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then
n is even

 Via indirect proof

 Contra-positive: If n is odd, then n3+5 is even
 Assume n is odd, and show that n3+5 is even
 n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)
 n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
 As 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, it is even

130
Proof methods
 We will discuss six proof methods:
1. Direct proofs
2. Proof by cases
3. Indirect proofs
4. The Bi-conditional
5. Proof by contradiction
6. Counterexamples

131
 Proving Theorems
The Bi-conditional proof:
If a theorem is of the form p  q is equivalent to p
 q and q  p. You have to prove both
Example: Give a proof of the theorem
“An integer x is even if and only if x2 is even.”
Idea: Prove two things:-- (1) If x is even then x2 is
even , and (2) if x2 is even then x is even. We have
already proved both in previous slides.

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 132

Proof methods
 We will discuss six proof methods:
1. Direct proofs
2. Proof by cases
3. Indirect proofs
4. The Bi-conditional
5. Proof by contradiction
6. Counterexamples

133
Proof by contradiction
 Given a statement p, assume it is false
 Assume ¬p

 Prove that ¬p cannot occur

 A contradiction exists

 Given a statement of the form p→q

 To assume it’s false, you only have to consider
the case where p is true and q is false

134
Proof by contradiction example 1
 Theorem (by Euclid): There are infinitely many
prime numbers.

 Proof. Assume there are a finite number of

primes
 List them as follows: p1, p2 …, pn.
 Consider the number q = p1p2 … pn + 1
 This number is not divisible by any of the listed primes
○ If we divided pi into q, there would result a remainder of 1
 We must conclude that q is a prime number, not among
the primes listed above
○ This contradicts our assumption that all primes are in the list
135 p1, p2 …, pn.
Proof by contradiction example 2
 Prove that if n is an integer and n3+5 is odd, then n is
even
 Rephrased: If n3+5 is odd, then n is even
 Assume False: If n3+5 is odd, then n is even
 Assume p is true and q is false
 Assume that n3+5 is odd, and n is odd

 n=2k+1 for some integer k (definition of odd numbers)

 n3+5 = (2k+1)3+5 = 8k3+12k2+6k+6 = 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3)
 As 2(4k3+6k2+3k+3) is 2 times an integer, it must be
even
 Contradiction!
136
 Proof by contradiction example 3
If 3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd

Suppose n is even (negation of the conclusion).

Then n = 2k, where k is an integer.
It follows that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2
= 6k + 2
= 2(3k + 1)
Therefore, 3n + 2 is even.

However, this is a contradiction since 3n + 2 is given to

be odd, so the conclusion (n is odd) holds.

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 137

 Proof by contradiction example 3
√ 2 is irrational

Suppose it is rational. Then s/t = √2. where s and t has

no common factor.

Then (s/t)2 = 2 or s2 = 2t2

s2 is even

Then s is also even

Let, s = 2k, where k is an integer.

It follows that s2 = 4k2 = 2t2
t2 = 2k2
So t is also even
That means s and t has common factor 2
Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 138
Proof methods
 We will discuss six proof methods:
1. Direct proofs
2. Proof by cases
3. Indirect proofs
4. The Bi-conditional
5. Proof by contradiction
6. Counterexamples

139
The counter example
 Sometimes we wish to show that a
proposition x (P(x) is false

 Prove that for a single example x = x0 the

proposition cannot occur, i.e., P(x0) is false

140
 Another Example on Proof
STATEMENT: All multiples of 3 are odd.
COUNTER EXAMPLE: The number 6 is multiple of 3
but it is not odd.

STATEMENT: All triangles are equilateral.

COUNTER EXAMPLE: The 3-4-5 is not equilateral.

STATEMENT: The product of any two irrational numbers is

irrational.
COUNTER EXAMPLE: Let x = √12 AND y = √3. Both x and y
are irrational. But √12. √3 = √36 = 6

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 141

 Another Example on Proof
Hypotheses:
1. Anyone performs well is either intelligent or a good actor.
x (P(x)  I(x)  A(x))
2. If someone is intelligent, then he/she can count
from 1 to 10.
x (I(x)  C(x) )
3. Gary performs well.
P(G)
4. Gary can only count from 1 to 3.
C(G)
Conclusion: not everyone is both intelligent and a good actor
x(I(x)  A(x))

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 142

 Another Example on Proof
Direct proof:
Step 1: x (P(x)  I(x)  A(x)) Hypothesis
Step 2: P(G)  I(G)  A(G) Univ. Inst. Step 1
Step 3: P(G) Hypothesis
Step 4: I(G)  A(G) Modus ponens Steps 2 & 3
Step 5: x (I(x)  C(x)) Hypothesis
Step 6: I(G)  C(G) Univ. inst. Step5
Step 7: C(G) Hypothesis
Step 8: I(G) Modus tollens Steps 6 & 7
Step 9: I(G)  A(G) Addition Step 8
Step 10: (I(G)  A(G)) Equivalence Step 9
Step 11: x(I(x)  A(x)) Exist. general. Step 10
Step 12: x (I(x)  A(x)) Equivalence Step 11
Conclusion: x (I(x)  A(x)), not everyone is both intelligent
and a good actor.

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 143

 Summary, Section 1.5
 Terminology (axiom, theorem, conjecture,
argument, etc.)
 Rules of inference (Tables 1 and 2)
 Valid argument (hypotheses and conclusion)
 Construction of valid argument using rules of
inference
 For each rule used, write down and the statements
involved in the proof
 Direct and indirect proofs
 Other proof methods (e.g., induction, pigeon hole)
will be introduced in later chapters

Fall 2020 CSE 173 - Discrete Mathematics 144