CHAPTER 2- MICRONUTRIENTS

Nutri-II
Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, the students should be able to:
• Explain the classifications of micronutrients: vitamins and minerals
• Recognize the roles of these micronutrients in the diet

MICRONUTRIENTS

➢ According to WHO - Micronutrients are vitamins and minerals needed by the body in very small amounts.
Micronutrient deficiencies can cause visible and dangerous health conditions, but they can also lead to
less clinically notable reductions in energy level, mental clarity and overall capacity. This can lead to
reduced educational outcomes, reduced work productivity and increased risk from other diseases and
health conditions.

WHAT IS VITAMINS?
o latin words “ vita” means life and suffix “amine” which is nitrogen compound
o Are group of unrelate organic compounds found in food which are needed only in minute quantities in the
diet.
o They are crucial in growth, repair, and healthy functioning of body tissue.
o Help convert food into energy through many biochemical reactions.

TERMS ASSOCIATED WITH VITAMINS

1. Precursor or Provitamins – an inactive form found in food that the body coverts to the active form. Beta
carotene is a provitamin of vitamin A.
2. Performed Vitamins – Naturally occurring vitamins that are in inactive form and ready for biological use. -
Avitaminosis- Condition resulting from lack of a vitamin.
3. Hypervitaminosis – Vitamin toxicity
4. Vitamin Malnutrition-
5. Vitamin-like Compounds
6. Antivitamins or vitamins Antagonists

HISTORY BACKGROUD
➢ Vitamins are formally called “accessory food factors”- they are the last group of organic compounds which
were discovered to be vital to life maintenance and growth.
➢ Vitamins was coined by Casimir Funk in 1912
➢ “Vitamine “comes from vite means necessary for life
➢ “Amine” denoting that the anti-beriberi factor contained nitrogen

CLASSIFICATION OF VITAMINE ON THE BASIS OF SOLUBILITY

1. The fat-soluble vitamin A, D, E, and K in association with lipids are found in foods.
2. The water-soluble vitamins are B complex and vitamin C.

GENERAL PROPERTIES AND STABILITY

Fat-soluble vitamins differ from water-soluble vitamins based on the following factual criteria:
1. Fat-soluble vitamins generally have precursors of provitamins
2. Because they can be stored in the body, deficiencies are slow to develop.
3. They are not absolutely needed daily from food sources.
4. They are generally stable

On other hand, water-soluble vitamins have the following general characteristics:

1. Thay must be supplied every day in the diet
 2. They do not have precursors
3. They are not stored significantly in the body and any excess in excreted in the urine
4. Deficiency symptoms develop relatively fast
5. They destroyed in ordinary cooking

A. FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS

1. VITAMIN A (RETINOL)
- RDA: Men 900 microgram & Women 700 microgram
- Roles in normal vision, reproduction, growth and immune system functioning

a. Chemical and Physical Nature

a.1 Vit A- Animal Source
a.2 Provitamin A - found in green and yellow plants

b. Absorption and Storage

➢ Absorption aided by bile salt, pancreatic lipase and dietary fat
➢ Carotene converted in Vitamin A in intestinal wall
➢ Absorbed through lymphatic system and portal blood to liver
➢ Large storage capacity in liver, hence potential toxicity levels with large intestine

c. Stability
➢ Stable to light and heat
➢ Easily destroyed by oxidation and ultraviolet light.
➢ Cool atmosphere and refrigeration tend to preserve this vitamin.

d. Physiologic Function
➢ Vision cycle
➢ Epithelial Tissue
➢ Growth and bone development-
➢ Reproduction

e. Deficiency
➢ Poor adaptation or night blindness
➢ Eye lesion
➢ Retarded growth
➢ Lower resistance to infection
➢ Faulty skeletal and dental development
➢ Skin lesion

f. Toxicity
➢ Violent headache
➢ Nausea and vomiting
➢ Thickening of the skin with peeling off
➢ Swollen, painful long bones
➢ Coarse sparse hair
➢ Enlargement of the spleen and liver
➢ In young girls’ cessation of menstruation
➢ Hypercarotenemia –

g. Food Source
➢ Preformed Vitamin A- animal sources (liver, egg yolk, milk, cream, butter and cheese)
➢ Fortified margarine or skim milk
➢ Fishes
 ➢ Precursors of provitamin A – Green and yellow vegetables

2. VITAMIN D (Calciferol)
- It is possible to fulfill vitamin D requirements by taking a daily 15-minutes’ walk in the sun under optimal
condition
a. Chemical and Physical Nature
➢ Sterol, more hormone like in source and action
➢ Formed in the skin by irradiation of cholesterol by sunlight

b. Absorption and Storage

➢ Absorption accompanies that of calcium and phosphorous in the small intestine’
➢ It is formed in sunlight in the skin absorbed into systemic circulation as hormone
➢ Stored in the liver

c. Stability
➢ Vitamin D is remarkably stable and foods containing it can be warned or kept for long periods without
deteriorating

d. Physiologic Function
➢ Vitamin D absorbs calcium and phosphorous
➢ Essential for normal growth and development and is important in the formation of normal bones and
teeth
➢ Important in immune function

e. Deficiency
➢ Poor adaptation or night blindness
➢ Tetany
➢ Rickets-.
➢ In infants detention and closing of the fontanels are delayed
➢ In adult Osteomalacia

f. Toxicity
➢ Nausea
➢ Diarrhea
➢ Polyuria
➢ Weight loss in the early stages
➢ Demineralization of bones and deposits of minerals in soft tissue-
➢ Renal damage -
➢ Hypercalcemia -

g. Food Source
➢ Animal Source
➢ Plant source

3. VITAMIN E (Tocopherol)

a. Chemical and Physical Nature

➢ Resistance to oxidation
➢ Fat-soluble, stable to heat and acids

b. Absorption and Storage

➢ Absorption with other fat-soluble vitamins, aided by bile and fats
c. Stability
 ➢ Vitamin E is fairly stable to heat and acids and unstable to alkalis, ultraviolent light, a nd oxygen.

d. Physiologic Function
➢ Antioxidant function- Acts in vitro as a lipid from polysaturated fatty acids.
➢ It helps sustain tissue integrity

e. Deficiency
➢ Hemolysis of RBC-
➢ Low levels of tocopherols in the blood
➢ Increased urinary excretion of creatine and decrease excretion of creatinine

f. Toxicity
➢ Hypervitaminosis E

g. Food Source
➢ Animal Source – egg yolk, butter, milk
➢ Plant source- germ oil of wheat, corn, cottonseed or soybeans

4. VITAMIN K (Phylloquinone, menadione)

a. Chemical and Physical Nature

➢ Fat-soluble
➢ Synthesized by normal intestinal bacteria

b. Absorption and Storage

➢ Absorption by usual route for fats – lacteals, portal blood to liver

c. Stability
➢ Vitamin K is fairly resistant to heat, but sunlight destroy the K. It is not lost in cooking or boiling water

d. Physiologic Function
➢ Vitamin K is necessary for the maintenance of prothrombin level in blood plasma.
➢ Vitamin K is needed for phosphorylation

e. Deficiency
➢ Hemorrhagic disease in newborn
➢ Delayed blood clotting time in adult

f. Toxicity
➢ Vomiting
➢ Hemolysis -.
➢ Albuminuria -
➢ Kernicterus –

g. Food Source
➢ Liver, dark green leaves, wheat bran, vegetable oils especially soy beans and wheat germ oil

B. WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
1. VITAMIN C (Ascorbic Acid)
- known as “fresh food vitamin”
- Found in the growing parts of plants
- Serve as antioxidants
 a. Chemical and Physical Nature
➢ Chemical and physical nature

b. Absorption and Storage

➢ Easily absorbed by the small intestine
➢ Not stored in tissue depots

c. Stability
➢ Vitamin K is fairly resistant to heat, but sunlight destroy the K. It is not lost in cooking or boiling water –
➢ Bruising, cutting and allowing fruit and vegetables to be exposed to the air cause much loss of ascorbic
acid.

d. Physiologic Function
➢ Vitamin C is needed in the formation and maintenance of intercellular cementing substance
➢ It converts folic acid into the active form
➢ It aides in the healing of wounds and bone fractures
➢ It prevents megaloblastic anemia and petechiae hemorrhage
➢ Helps build body resistance against infection
➢ It helps produce steroid hormones
➢ Necessary for tyrosine and phenylalanine metabolism

e. Deficiency
➢ Irritability
➢ General weakness
➢ Lack of appetite
➢ Lowered resistance to infection
➢ Pallor
➢ Scurvy

f. Toxicity
➢ There is no toxicity or hypervitaminosis C since the vitamin cannot be stored in the body.

g. Requirement or allowance
➢ Males need more vitamin C than females
➢ Vitamin C needs are also increased during growth period

2. VITAMIN B COMPLEX
- B complex consists of the vitamins B1, B6, B12, niacin, pantothenic acid, folic acid and biotin.
- It is a group of water-soluble vitamins that need to be continually replaced. –
- Vitamin B transform increased amount of proteins, carbohydrates and fats into extra energy
- They provide energy necessary for muscle contraction

A. Classic Disease Factor

a. Thiamine (B1)
- Is an integral part of the coenzyme factor, thiamine pyrophosphate of TPP, needed for carbohydrate
metabolism
- It helps maintain healthy appetite, good muscle tone, especially of the GI tract, and normal functioning of
nerves

b. Riboflavin (B2)
- An essential for protein, fat and carbohydrate metabolism
- It is needed for conversion of tryptophan into
- It helps maintain healthy skin, tongue, and mouth, and normal vision; and proper growth and development.
 c. Niacin ( Nicotinic acid)
- It acts as a hydrogen and electron acceptor
- It plays an important role in energy metabolism, fatty acid synthesis/ oxidation, and protein synthesis
catabolism

B. More Recently Discovered Coenzyme Factor

a. Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)

- Plays an essential role in many of the complex biochemical processes by which foods are metabolized by
the body
- Found in the cell in active form
- Essential for the formation of tryptophan and for conversion of tryptophan into nicotine acid.

b. Pantothenic Acid
- Essential for carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism
- It helps maintain normal growth, healthy skin, and integrity of the central nervous system
- It has many metabolic roles in the cell

c. Lipoic Acid
- This is a sulfur-containing fatty acid and is not a true vitamin because it can be synthesized in adequate
amount in the body

d. Biotin
- It serves as a coenzyme factor on CO2 fixation
- It helps in the synthesis of purines, pyrimidines, fatty acids, and carboxylation reaction.
C. Cell Growth and Blood-forming Factors

a. Folic Acid
- Plays a vital role in the transfer of one carbon units to appropriate metabolites into synthesis of DNA , RNA,
methionine and series.
- It is essential for the formation of both RBC and WBC in the bone marrow and for their maturation.
- Not enough intake of folic acid before and during pregnancy has higher risk for neural tube defects –

b. Cobalamin (B12)
- Essential for normal metabolism and growth of all cells, especially those in the GI tract, bone marrow and
nervous tissue
- Aids the transfer of methyl groups in the synthesis of nucleic acids, purines and pyrimidine intermediates.
- It involves myelin formation
- Essential for carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism, and is associated with folic acid absorption
and metabolism

D. Other Related Factor (pseudo-vitamins)

a. Inositol
- It is abundant in the diet
- It is similar to glucose, hence it is alternatively called “muscle sugar”
- It is linked with phospholipids as phosphoinositol which help in the transport and metabolism of
fats.

b. Choline
 - It mobilizes fat and prevents the build-up of fatty acids
- It helps in the transmission of nerve impulses
- Deficiency of choline results in fatty livers
- The richest food source is egg yolk

MINERALS
➢ In nutrition they are commonly referred to as mineral elements or in the case of those present or required in
small amounts, they are known as trace elements or trace minerals.

A. Group I- Major Minerals

1. CALCIUM –
a. Total body weight, approximately 1.5% to 2.2% is calcium.
- 99% is present mostly in the bones and the teeth and the remaining 1% is found in the soft tissues and
body fluids and serves important functions unrelated to bone structure.

b. Function
➢ Calcium combines with phosphorus to form calcium phosphate, the hard material of the bones and
teeth
➢ Calcium participates in muscular contraction and relaxation
➢ It promotes blood coagulation
➢ Calcium is required in nerve transmission and regulation of heart beat

c. Utilization
➢ Calcium absorption is better during periods of increased body needs such as in growth, pregnancy
and lactation
- Vitamin D enhances the optimum absorption of calcium- it activates the transport system. –
- Lack of exercise may cause a loss of bone calcium and reduced ability to replace it.
- Mental stress or emotional instability has been found to decrease calcium absorption
- Alcohol intake among alcoholics may cause decreased calcium absorption
- Caffeine increases urinary calcium excretion. Approximately 1 cup of coffee can increase calcium
excretion by 6 mg.

d. Food Sources
➢ Kuhol, seaweed gamet, malunggay leaves, saluyot, carabao milk, dilis, hipon, suso, talalngka,
silinyasi, cheese, bagoong, dried fish, biya, galunggong, sardinas, milk, evaporated

e. Effects of deficiency or excess

a. Effect of deficiency
➢ Retarded growth
➢ Rickets
➢ Osteomalacia
➢ Tetany

b. Effect of excess
➢ Hypercalcemia

2. MAGNESIUM
a. Distribution
- About 50% of the magnesium in the body is present in the bones in combination with phosphate and
calcium
- Approximately 0.5gm/kg fat-free body weight (approx. 25 gm) is magnesium
 b. Function
➢ Magnesium is an essential part of many enzyme systems responsible for the transfer of energy
➢ It is essential in cellular metabolism as evidenced by a high level of intercellular magnesium in
metabolically active muscle tissue and liver
➢ It regulates blood phosphorus level
➢ It is necessary to promote the conduction of nerve impulses and to allow normal muscle contraction
➢ It may also increase the stability of calcium in the tooth enamel

d. Food Sources
➢ Nuts, soybeans, meat, milk, cocoa, sea foods, whole grains, dried beans, peas, green plates

e. Effects of deficiency or excess

- Magnesium deficiency ( hypomagnesemia tetany) has been observed among infants and children
suffering from kwashiorkor and diseases characterized by intestinal malabsorption, prolonged diarrhia or
vomiting and alcoholism.

3. Sodium
a. Distribution
- Monovalent cation.
- 50% found in the extracellular fluid -

b. Function
➢ Responsible for maintaining fluid balance
➢ Maintaining acid-base balance
➢ Allows the passage of materials like glucose through the cell wall and maintains normal muscle
irritability or excitability

c. Food Sources
➢ Carrots, celery, beets, soy sauce, catsup, spinach, peas, vetsin and fish sauce

d. Recommended dietary allowance

- Allowance and requirements for sodium have not been determined.

e. Effects of deficiency or excess

- Deficiency of sodium hyponatremia -
- Excess of sodium accumulates principally in the extracellular fluid and may result edema

4. Potassium

a. Distribution
- Piricipal cation present within the cells or in the intracellular fluids.
- 2.6 gm/kg fat-free weight is potassium
- It is also present in relatively small amounts in the extracellular fluid

b. Function
➢ Maintains fluid and electrolyte balance
➢ It exerts an influence upon acid-base balance and plays a significant role in the activity of the skeletal
and cardiac muscles
➢ It acts as a muscle relaxant in contrast to calcium which stimulates muscular contraction
➢ It is also important in carbohydrate and protein metabolism
 c. Food Sources
➢ Meat, legumes, milk, raw and dried fruits, fruit juice, dark green vegetable, unrefined cereals

d. Recommended dietary allowance

- The diet should contain about 2-6 gm potassium so that a deficiency is usually unlikely in a healthy
person

e. Effects of deficiency or excess

➢ Effects of deficiency
• Hypokalemia
• Apathy
• Muscular weakness
• Mental confusion
• Abdominal distention

➢ Effects of excess
Hyperkalemia

5. Phosphorus

a. Distribution
- Normal human body contains about 1% phosphorus ( 12mg/kg fat-free body weight)

b. Function
➢ Phosphorus is a component of bones and teeth
➢ Component of every cell
➢ Important in pH regulation as a principal anion in the cell
➢ It involved in a great variety of chemical reactions

c. Food Sources
➢ Cheese, milk, dairy products, meat, poultry, fish,eggs, dried beans

e. Effects of deficiency or excess

➢ Effects of excess
- Natural phosphate causes no harm
- Highly poisonous as it causes an erosion of the bone.

6. Sulfur
- Occurs in almost every protein cell and comprises about .25% of body weight
- Maintains protein structure
- Activates enzymes

7. Chlorine
- Major anion in the extracellular fluid
- Cerebrospinal fluid has the highest concentration of chloride
- Maintain fluid and electrolyte balance and acid base balance
- Contributes to the acidity
- Source table salt
- Alkalosis
B. Group II – Trace Minerals
1. Iron
a. Distribution
- Body weight contains about 75 mg/kg fat-free body weight of iron.
- 26% is found in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow.

b. Functions
➢ Carrier of the oxygen needed for cellular respiration
➢ It is necessary for hemoglobin formation
➢ Active component of tissue enzyme

c. Utilization
➢ Iron in ferrous form is better absorbed than in ferric form

Types of Iron

1. Heme iron – found only in meat and is more efficiently absorbed by the body
2. Non-heme iron – comes from other iron-containing foods like cereals, vegetables and egg

d. Food source
➢ Organ meats -14mg/100 gm
➢ Green leafy vegetables
➢ Peanuts
➢ Egg
➢ Alimango, clams, hipon, tulingan
➢ Sesame seeds

e. Effects of deficiency or excess

➢ Effect of deficiency
• Anemia – low level of hemoglobin or red blood cell
Causes – Inadequate intake of iron
- excessive excretion of iron – cause by blood loss in pregnancy, parasitism, and blood
donation (hemorrhagic anemia)
- Inadequate formation of RBC – lack of B12 deficiency
Symptoms: pallor, easy fatigue, dizziness, insomnia and lack of appetite

➢ Effects of excess
• Hemosiderosis or excessive amount of iron (Fe) in the body
Causes – Excessive iron intake through the use of supplements
- Hemochromatosis – a genetically transmitted disease

2. Copper
- All tissues in the body contain traces of copper.
- Large amount are found in the liver, brain, heart and kidney
- Essential in the formation of hemoglobin
- Promotes absorption of iron from the GIT and the transportation of such from the tissues to the plasma
- Maintain the integrity of the myelin sheath surrounding the nerve fibers
- Helps bone formation
- Deficiency – hypotonia-
Hypothermia-
CNS abnormalities
Depigmentation of skin and hair -
Wilson’s disease –
3. Iodine
- Adult body normally contains 20 to 30 mg of iodine
- 70% to 80% or about 8mg is concentrated in the thyroid gland and the rest is widely diffused throughout
all tissues, especially in the ovaries, muscles and blood.
- Iodine is needed for the production of thyroid hormone
- Source: seaweeds, seafoods and iodized salt
Effect of deficiency
- Goiter
- Cretinism
- Myxedema

4. Manganese
- 10 to 20 mg of manganese is present in the adult body
- It is concentrated in the liver and kidney and other small amount in other tissues such as retina, bones
and salivary glands
- Activator of a number of metabolic reactions
- Acts as catalyst of a number of enzymes necessary in glocuse and fat metabolism
- It increases storage of thiamine

5. Cobalt
- Found only in trace amounts in the body
- Constituent of vitamin B12
- Necessary for RBC formation
- Deficiency – pernicious anemia
Polycythemia or increase in the number of RBC and hyperplasia of bone marrow

6. Zinc
- Varying concentrations in all human cells in the eyes, the male sex glands, secretion, hair, skin and its
appendages, liver, pancreas, kidney the bones and teeth.
- Body contains 2 to 5 gms of zinc
- 80% present in RBC and 4% in WBC and platelet
- Involved in wide range of cellular functions
- It also acts as regulator of activities of certain enzymes in the body
- Present in the RNA
- Enhances wound healing and helps maintain a normal sense of taste
- Deficiency effect: slow growth, delayed sexual maturation, white cell defects and night blindness
- Effects of excess: nausea, vomiting, abdominal cramps, diarrhea, fever

7. Molybdenum
- 9mg of molybdenum is present in the body
- Important to health as the B vitamins and magnesium
- Concentrated in the liver, kidneys, adrenals glands and blood cells
- Degradation of sulfur derived from amino acids
- Source: dried peas, beans, lean meats and poultry
- Daily intake of 50 to 500 mg is considered a safe and adequate intake for adults
- Effects of deficiency: headache, irritability, night blindness, lethargic, coma

C. Group III – Other Trace Minerals

1. Fluorine
– It is found primarily in the bones and teeth and trace amounts in the thyroid gland and skin
- More stable compound in the dentine and enamel of the teeth
- Effective in the treatment of osteoporosis
- Water is the major source of fluorine
2. Selenium
- Selenium content in the diet is dependent on the soil content where the food source is grown
- Reduces or prevents the effects of vitamin E deficiency
- Food source: organ meats, muscle meat, cereals and dairy products
- Effects of deficiency or excess: Muscle pain and tenderness, pancreatic degeneration and hemolytic
anemia

3. Chromium
- fatal body content of chromium is about 6 to 10 mg
- Chromium raises abnormally fasting blood sugar levels and improves faulty uptake of sugar by tissues
- Stimulates the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol in the liver
- Source: corn oil, clams, vegetables and meat, whole grain cereals

4. Vanadium
- Constituent of human tissue
- Involved in the appetite crystal formation of tooth enamel, contribute to resistance of dental decay