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DC BIASING BJTs (Analysis & Design)

• Design Procedure……………………………………………….…….(3)
• Limits of operation…………………………………………….……....(3)
• BJT modes of operation……………………………………….……..(4)
• The Beta(hFE)...………………………………………………………..(5)
• Experiment – Determining the beta where it is stable…………….(6)
• Analysis and design of dc-biased transistor configurations………(9)
• Fixed-Bias configuration……………………………………………...(9)
• Effect of elements…………………………………………………..…(10)
• Design Example 1 with electronics workbench...……………….….(12)
• Design Example 2 with ewb…………………….……………………(15)
• Transistor Inverter , design example(3) with ewb ………….….…..(18)
• Fixed-Bias circuit with RE….…………………………………………...(20)
•
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Effect of RE……………………………………………………………..(20)
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Design Example 4 with electronics workbench...…………………..(21)

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• Observation of stability between fixed-biased configuration and

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fixed-biased with RE configuration…………………………………..(28)

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• Voltage Divider Bias…………………………………………………..(32)

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Design Example 5 with electronics workbench...…………………..(33)

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• Summary of voltage – divider bias design…………………………..(36)

1
[Link]
 Even if you are designing a transistor circuit as a switch or as an amplifier , transistor
has to be biased in desired region. a.c purpose circuits are also designed according to DC
conditions. So DC biasing is very important in both ac purpose(amplifier) circuits and DC
purpose(switch) circuits.

There are some biasing configurations and in this tutorial these configuration will
introduced to you.

Question:

Why we dont use a typical bias configuration instead of many configurations?

Answer:

There are many biasing configurations , each one has advantageous and
[Link] the main problem is [Link] configurations are
more stable when environment conditions are changed.

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[Link]
 DESIGN PROCEDURE

Biasing a BJT means establishing the desired values of VCE and IC so that the
amplifier will have the proper gain, input impedance, undistorted output voltage swing, etc.
These values of VCE and IC are known as the quiescent operating point or Q-point. The
values of VCE and IC required are determined from inspection of the BJT's data sheet and
load line analysis.

What’s the first step?

Firstly limits of operations have to be known otherwise design procedure may be

more [Link] limits of operations are obtained from the manufacturer’s
[Link] datasheets can be found in manufacturers [Link] general purpose
transistor datasheets can be obtained from [Link]

Limits of Operation

The figure below illustrates a typical output characteristic of a [Link] limits are
often taken from the datasheet of the transistor

Again , the maximum power dissipation is obtained from the datasheet and it is
300mW in this [Link] that , PCmax = VCE . IC .We can not use our transistor out of the
PCmax [Link] point can be choosen at the points A,B & [Link] points are at the
active region of [Link] amplification is intended , transistor have to work in active
region and when switching operations are intended , the cut-off and saturation region is
chosen for operating point of transistor.
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Figure 1.1

After determining the limits ( PC max , VCE max , IC max ) , at least we will have an idea
and know about the maximum values which must not be exceeded.

Comments on point A,B and C:

A : At lower IB levels spacing between IB curves is rapidly changing:Beta,hFE, is not

[Link] negative swing is limited
B : Best point for small signal amplification(Best symmetric swing occurs)
C : Positive swing is limited

3
[Link]
 BJT MODES OF OPERATION

Mode BE JUNCTION CB JUNCTION

Cut-Off Reverse biased Reverse biased
Active Mode Forward biased Reverse biased
Saturation Mode Forward biased Forward biased

*Forward biased ! VP > VN

*Reverse biased ! VN > VP

*For NPN transistors:

Collector(n) , Base(p) , Emitter(n)
* For PNP transistors:
Collector(p) , Base(n) , Emitter(p)

Active Region Condition:

For NPN transistors:

1-Base-Collector junction must be reversed biased ( n>p ) , ( VC > VB )
2-Base-Emitter junction must be forward biased ( p > n) , ( VB > VE )

VC > VB > VE
VBE =0.7V

For PNP transistors:

1-Base-Collector junction must be reversed biased ( n>p ) , ( VB > VC )
2-Emitter-Base junction must be forward biased ( p > n) , ( VE > VB )
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VE > VB > VC
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VEB =0.7V
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Cut-off region condition:

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For NPN transistors: For PNP transistors:

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VE > VB VB > VE
VC > VB VB > VC

Saturation region condition:

For NPN transistors: For PNP transistors:

VB > VE VE > VB
VB > VC VC > VB
VCE = 0.2V , VBE =0.8V VEC = 0.2V , VEB =0.8V

For NPN Transistors :

VBC

Inverse-Active Saturation

VBE
Cuttoff
Forward-Active

4
[Link]
The Beta (β or hFE)

Beta (hFE) is the D.C current gain. It’s the ratio of the collector current to base current
! hFE = IC / IB ( IC = hFE. IB )

hFE is not a constant value it changes in different operating [Link] IC increases or

decreases ( As well as IB ) hFE will change , but in somewhere it will be constant or more
[Link] some special purpose circuits intented to design , we will bias our transistor in
this beta stabilized region.

Figure 1.2 – P2N2222 MOTOROLA – DC CURRENT GAIN

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Figure 1.3 – BC546 – DC CURRENT GAIN

-2
As seen in the figure1.3 , the beta is fairly constant when IC is between 10 mA and
[Link] we have an idea about collector current in which interval it must [Link]
the collector current (IC) is one of the most important step.

5
[Link]
 EXPERIMENT

DETERMINING THE REGION WHERE THE BETA ( hFE ) IS STABLE

Our first experiment will be finding the region where the beta is more [Link] other
words we will search where the beta is constant.

It’s better for you to practice these experiments in your home or [Link] can learn
many things when doing an [Link] you may query yourself and try to make
different configurations and see the [Link] helps you to understand more clearly how
things work.
Even if you do not practice these exercises , read the theoritical informations
and compare the measured results with the calculated ones.

In this experiment the value of hFE ( βdc ) is examined and found where it is most
[Link] transistor is used to show you different results.(BC546 & 2N2222)

VCC = 9V
RC = 2.2KΩ ( Measured as 2.17KΩ its real value )
RB is changed from 470Ω to 20.5MΩ for obtaining different base
currents IB and the response of the IC to the base current IB
IC Q1:BC546
IB After using BC546 use 2N222 instead of BC546
Q1:2N2222
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Figure 2.3
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Q- What’s the saturation current?

A- From equation (4) IC sat = VCC / RC

IC = 9V / 2.17KΩ ! IC sat = 4.14mA 2.2KΩ is measured as 2.17KΩ in this

experiment.

Q- What’s the IB when RB is 470Ω

A- From equaiton ( 2) IB = ( VCC – 0.7V ) / RB

IB = ( 9V – 0.7V ) / 470Ω ! IB = 17.65mA

Check the results with measured values in the next page

Q- What’s the IC when IB is 5.55uA uA !microamper

A- In order to answer this question we

have to know the Beta (β) and if the
the transistor works in active region.
Lets give the answer of this question
after the experiment results.

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[Link]
Experiment Results (RC = 2.2KΩ and ICsat ≅ 4.14mA from equation (4) )

BC546 Q2N222
RB IB IC β ( hFE) # RB IB IC β ( hFE)
470Ω 17.66mA 4.13mA 0.233 1 470Ω 17.61mA 4.13mA 0.233
1K 8.3mA 4.16mA 0.5 2 1K 8.3mA 4.16mA 0.5
4.7K 1.76mA 4.16mA 2.36 3 4.7K 1.76mA 4.16mA 2.36
10K 0.836mA 4.16mA 4.97 4 10K 0.836mA 4.16mA 4.97
33K 0.258mA 4.16mA 16.1 5 33K 0.258mA 4.16mA 16.1
68K 0.122mA 4.15mA 33.7 6 68K 0.122mA 4.13mA 33.8
100K 83.7uA 4.15mA 49.5 7 100K 83.7uA 4.12mA 49.2
200K 41.95uA 4.14mA 98.7 8 200K 41.95uA 4.11mA 97.9
300K 28.03uA 4.14mA 147 9 300K 28.03uA 4.09mA 146
400K 21.02uA 4.13mA 196 10 400K 21.02uA 3.70mA 176
470K 17.9uA 4.13mA 230 11 470K 18uA 3.14mA 174
570K 14.5uA 4.11mA 283 12 570K 14.5uA 2.53mA 175
670K 12.35uA 4.09mA 331.7 13 670K 12.35uA 2.24mA 181
770K 10.81uA 4.08mA 378 14 770K 10.81uA 1.90mA 176
870K 9.64uA 4.04mA 420 15 870K 9.64uA 1.77mA 184
1M 8.11uA 3.51mA 433 16 1M 8.11uA 1.43mA 177
1.24M 6.78uA 2.97mA 438 17 1.24M 6.78uA 1.25mA 184
1.52M 5.55uA 2.46mA 443 18 1.52M 5.55uA 986uA 177
2M 4.21uA 1.83mA 435 19 2M 4.21uA 746uA 177
2.52M 3.35uA 1.5mA 449 20 2.52M 3.35uA 589uA 176
3.1M 2.72uA 1.22mA 448 21 3.1M 2.72uA 488uA 179
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3.57M 2.37uA 1.07mA 453 22 3.57M 2.37uA 414uA 175

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4.17M 2.03uA 912uA 449 23 4.17M 2.03uA 368uA 181

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9.2M 0.923uA 391uA 424 24 9.2M 0.923uA 147uA 159

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20.5M 0.413uA 193uA 468 25 20.5M 0.413uA 78.3uA 189

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Table 1
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When VC > VB > VE transistor is active [Link] the measurements BC546 entered
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active mode at row # 15 , before # 15 it was in saturation [Link] 2N2222 has entered
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active mode at row # 10.

BC546

The β is fairly stable betwwen row # 15 and row # 24 , and so it’s β is determined as
approximately 440

2N2222

The β is fairly stable betwwen row # 10 and row # 24 , and so it’s β is determined as
approximately 180

Note that the saturation current is measured as approximately 4.16mA in both BC546 and
[Link] does not differ from transistor to transistor, saturation current is obtained from the
equation (4) IC sat = VCC / RC

IC sat = 9V / 2.17KΩ ! IC = 4.14mA The calculated value is nearly same as measured

value that is ≅4.16mA

As you see the answer of questions are very near to results that measured in the
experiment.

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[Link]
Now turning back to our last question ;

Q- What’s the IC when IB is 5.55uA (row #18) uA !microamper

A- From equation (3) IC = β . IB

BC546 IC = β . IB , IC = 440 . 5.55uA ! IC =2.44mA ( Nearly same as measured

value , look row # 18 )
2N222 IC = β . IB , IC = 180 . 5.55uA ! IC =999uA ( Nearly same as measured
value , look row # 18 )

Q- What’s the IC when IB is 1.76mA (row #3)

A- From equation (3) IC = β . IB

BC546 IC = β . IB , IC = 440 . 1.76mA ! IC =774mA ( ERROR! )

2N222 IC = β . IB , IC = 180 . 1.76mA ! IC =316.8mA ( ERROR! )

The maximum current calculated and measured as ≅ 4.16mA , any value higher
than ICsat =4.16mA can not exist!

Equation (3) IC = β . IB is only applicable when transistor in active mode and where β
is at its stable region

Use this way , if equation (3) IC = β . IB satisfies or not :

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If IC (IC = β . IB ) is calculated higher than the saturation current IC sat ( IC sat = VCC / RC )
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then the equation IC = β . IB is not [Link] it is applicable but the β is lower than its
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stable value.
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Q – Isn’t it a problem , beta is not stable always?

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A – Yes , it is a big [Link] there are some beta-independent configurations which will
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introduce to you later.

So we give the name of the problem , Beta Problem!This problem will be removed in
more improved configurations.

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[Link]
 ANALYSIS & DESIGN
OF
DC-BIASED TRANSISTOR CONFIGURATIONS

In this section some transistor configurations( DC-Biased) , thier designs & analysis ,
their advantages and disadvantages will be introduced to you.

1-FIXED-BIAS CIRCUIT

Fixed-Bias is the simplest DC-biased transistor

congfiguration.

Figure 2.1
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IC
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IB
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Loop - 2
Loop - 1 Output Loop
Input Loop

Figure 2.2 Fixed-Bias Configuration – Kirchoff’s Voltage Loops at input & output

To get the neccessary equations we will use Kirchoff’s voltage loops ( KVL ) at input & output

From Loop-1

-VCC + IB .RB + VBE = 0 (1) VBE is 0.7 V

IB = ( VCC – 0.7V ) / RB (2)

We have one more formula that is:

IC = β . IB (3) (Active Region Equation)

The equaiton (3) does not always satisfies IC = β . IB . It differs in saturation region.
At Saturation:
At saturation Vce ≅ 0.2V therefore KVL yields at output:

IC = (VCC – 0.2V) / RC (4)

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 Use this formula when transistor works in saturation region and keep the value of IB
high enough to prevent your transistor work in active region , or in other words high value of
IB keeps transistor in saturation region
IBmax ≅ ICsat / β (The Level of IB in the active region just before the saturation)

IB > ICsat / βmin (For the saturation level we must ensure this equation)

Three important equations for fixed-bias configuration:

IB = ( VCC – 0.7V ) / RB (2)

IC = β . IB (at active region) (3)

At Saturation VCE=0.2V ;

IC sat = ( VCC – 0.2V )/ RC (4)

EFFECT OF ELEMENTS

EFFECT OF RB and IB :

From equation (2) , IB is determined by RB : IB = ( VCC – 0.7V ) / RB (2)

As RB decreases IB increases , As IB increases Q point shift up-left as seen in the figure2.3.

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Higher the value

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RB IB Q-point shifts up-left of IB , more

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Vcc possible the

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IB5
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Rc Q-point transistor to be
RB IB Q-point shift down-right
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in saturation
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Q-point mode.
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Higher value of
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Q-point IB3 IB is obtained if

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lower value of RB
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Q-point IB2 is used

Q-point
IB1
Best Q point for small signal
[Link] it is at the
middle of the [Link]
best symmetric swing occurs VCC
at this [Link] ac analysis.
Figure 2.3 st
Adjusting RB for active mode and saturation mode operation , 1 Way

Vcc – [Link] = VCE (6).(at next page)

IC = β.IB
IBmax = 12V – 0.8V(VCE) / β.RC (Maximum IB current when transistor works in acitve mode.)

Why 0.8V?
VBE = 0.7V , VE = 0V ! VB = 0.7V
VC > VB >VE .0.8V > 0.7V > 0V , VCE =VC = 0.8V border between active region and saturation region)

IB = ( VCC – 0.7V ) / RB (2)

From Equation 2:
RBmin = 12V – 0.7V(VBE) / IBmax (Minimum RB , transistor to be work in active mode.)

If RB > RBmin or IB < IBmax then transistor will work in active mode.
If RB < RBmin or IB > IBmax then transistor will work in saturation mode

10
[Link]
 nd
Adjusting RB for active mode and saturation mode operation , 2 Way

Active mode criteria : VC > VB > VE

VC = VCC - ICRC
VB = VCC – IBRB
VE = IERE

VC > VB ! VCC – ICRC > VCC – IBRB ! βIBRC < IBRB

! RB > β.RC ( For RB > β.RC transistor works in active mode)

RBmin = β.RC

(Note that For RB < β.RC transistor work in saturation mode)

VB > VE ! VCC – IBRB > IERE ! VCC > IERE + IBRB

! VCC >IB [β+1)RE + RB] (Transistor works in active mode)

(Note that For VCC < IB [β+1)RE + RB] transistor work in saturation mode)

EFFECT OF Rc:

From loop-2 at page 5;

IC = (VCC –VCE ) / RC (6) This equation gives the DC load-line.

Note that in active mode of operation IC is not determined by RC , IC is determined by equation

(3) IC = β . IB.
RC determines VCE=[Link] the example 1.
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For bigger Rc values , slope of the load line increases and Q-point shifts to left , this may limit
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the transistor operation in a smaller region.

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Changing Rc and keeping other

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Vcc RC1 > RC2 > Rc3

variables constant shifts the Q IB5
Rc1
point to the right or left on the same
IB [Link] remains constant if RC < IB4
Vcc
RCmax IB3
Rc 2
Higher values of Rc may limit the Vcc Q3 Q2 Q1 IB2
transistor operation in a smaller Rc3
IB1
region.

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Adjusting RC for active mode and saturation mode operation , 1 Way
Max RC in active mode:

In active region VC > VB > VE

In fixed-biased configuration VE = 0V VBE = 0.7V therefore VB = 0.7V and VCE = VC
IC = (VCC –VCE ) / RC (6)
RC = (VCC – VCE) / IC (7)

In active mode for max RC , VCE must be minimum and greater than 0.7V :
VCE = VC > 0.7 V ( VC > VB ) ( VC > 0.7V )
Assume VCE = 0.8V

RC = (VCC – 0.8V) / β .IB (8) Maximum value of RC in active region

11
[Link]
 nd
Adjusting RC for active mode and saturation mode operation , 2 Way

The equation RB > β.RC can be used for adjusting the value of RC

RC < R B / β ( For Rc < (RB / β) transistor works in active mode)

(Note that For Rc >( RB / β ) transistor work in saturation mode)

RC max = RB / β

Minimum RC :

VCC / RC = ICmax (9)

RC = VCC / ICmax (10) Minimum vaue of RC

ICmax can be found in the datasheet of the [Link] is illustrated in figure1.1

EFFECT OF Vcc

Lower values of Vcc limit the

transistor operation in a smaller Vcc1
region. VCC1 > VCC2 > VCC3
Rc IB5
Note that , as Vcc decreases IB Vcc2 IB4
also [Link] Q2 and Rcc
IB3
Q3 points are in a lower IB
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Vcc3
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level(not IB2 level , below IB2 level) Rcc Q2 Q1 IB2

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Q3
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This phenomenon is not illustared

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in the graph. IB1

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Vcc3 Vcc2 Vcc1

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EXAMPLE 1:

Vcc=12V , (βDC )hFE = 100

a) Determine IC , IB and VCE if RB=240K and RC=2.2K
Determine the mode of operation

b) Determine the maximum and minumum value of RC

in active mode if RB=240K and ICmax=100mA
c) Repeat a) for RB=240K and RC = 5K comment on the
result of a)
d) Repeat a) for RB=240K and Rc =1K comment on the
result of a) and c)

Solution:

a) Assuming transistor in active mode:

VBE = 0.7V , VE = 0V ! VB =0.7V
IB = (12V – 0.7V) / 240K ! IB = 47uA
IC = β .IB IC = 100x47uA ! IC = 4.7mA

IC = (VCC –VCE ) / RC (6)

From equation (6) : VCE = VCC – [Link]

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 VCE = 12V – (4.7mA).(2.2 K) ! VCE = 1.66V
VE = 0V VCE = 1.66V ! VC = 1.66V

VC = 1.66V VB = 0.7V VE = 0V
VC > VB > VE Transistor is in active mode, our assumption is true.

Electronics Workbench Results for Example 1-a)

b) From equation (8) RC = (VCC – 0.8V) / β .IB ( Maximum value of RC in active region )
RC = (12V – 0.8V) / (100x47uA) ! RC max = 2.38K (Max value of RC in act.
mode)
or
RC < R B / β
RC max = RB / β
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RC max = 240K / 100

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RC max = 2.4K
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From equation (10) RC = VCC / ICmax ( Minimum value of RC)

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RC = (12V ) / (100mA) ! RC = 120Ω (Min value of RC)

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IMPORTANT When RC smaller than 2.38K , transistor is in active mode and therefore IC is
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constant and it is determined by equation (3) IC = β . IB. 120Ω < RC < 2.38K
When RC greater than 2.38K , transistor will not be in active mode therefore IC
is determined by equation (6) IC = (VCC –VCE ) / RC RC > 2.38K

c) For RC = 5KΩ :We know transistor is not in active mode when RC > 2.38KΩ from b).
But for practicing we will again assume transistor in active mode(you will see now , it
is not in active mode)
Assuming transistor in active mode :
VBE = 0.7 V VB = 0.7V IB = 47uA IC=4.7mA
VC=VCE = VCC - [Link] VCE = 12V – (4.7mA).(5KΩ) !VCE=VC= -11.5 V

VC < VB therefore our assumption is wrong!( transistor is not in active mode)

Cut-off criteria:
VE > VB
VC > VB
We know that VE = 0 and VB has a positive value VE < [Link] transistor is not
in cut-off [Link] have only one choice that is : Transistor is in saturation mode.
Saturation Criteria:
VB > VE
VB > VC
VCE = 0.2V , VBE =0.8V

IB = (12V – 0.8V) / 240K ! IB = 46.6uA

IC = (VCC –VCE ) / RC (6)
IC = (12V – 0.2V ) / 5KΩ ! IC = 2.36mA

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[Link]
 Electronics Workbench Results for Example 1-c)

IC is determined by RC only in saturation mode

d) For RC = 1KΩ :We know transistor is in active mode when 120 <RC < 2.38KΩ from b).
But for practicing we will again assume transistor in active mode(you will see now , it
is in active mode)
Assuming transistor in active mode :
VBE = 0.7 V VB = 0.7V IB = 47uA IC=4.7mA
VC=VCE = VCC - [Link] VCE = 12V – (4.7mA).(1KΩ) !VCE=VC= 7.3 V

VC > VB > VE therefore our assumption is true( transistor is in active mode)

As seen in part a) IC is same in both art a) and d) where RC < 2.38KΩ

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Remark:IC is not determined by RC in active [Link] is determined by IC = β.IB

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RC determines VCE , IC is determined by RC only in saturation [Link] RC high enough

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transistor works in saturation mode.

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Electronics Workbench Results for Example 1-d)

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[Link]
EXAMPLE 2:

Vcc=12V , (βDC )hFE = 300

Consider the same circuit in example 1 , this time use
β=300 in your solutions

a) Determine IC , IB and VCE if RB=240K and

RC=[Link] the mode of operation and max
RC and min RC.( take ICmax = 100mA)
b) Adjust RB so that transistor with Beta=300 and
RC=2.2K will work in active [Link] IBmax
and RBmin when RC is constant (2.2KΩ)

Solution:

a) Assuming transistor in active mode:

VBE = 0.7V , VE = 0V ! VB =0.7V
IB = (12V – 0.7V) / 240K ! IB = 47uA

IC = β.IB IC = 300.47uA ! IC = 14.100mA

VCE = VC = VCC – [Link]

VC = 12V – (14.100mA).(2.2K) ! VC = VCE = -19.02V
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VC < VB Therefore , transistor is not in active [Link] asumption is

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[Link] can determine whether transistor is in active mode or saturation mode by

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finding max RC as follows:

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max RC = (VCC – 0.8V) / β .IB ( Equation 8 , max RC in active [Link] that 0.8 V
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comes from VC > VB , VB = 0.7 V , see notes)

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RC = (12V – 0.8V) / (300x47uA) ! RCmax = 794Ω Ω (Max value of RC in active

mode)
or

RC max = RB / β
RC max = 240K / 300
RC max = 800Ω

min RC :
RCmin = VCC / ICmax (Equation 10 , min RC)
RC = (12V ) / (100mA) ! RC = 120Ω (Min value of RC)
RC = 2.2K RC > RCmax 2.2K > 794Ω (Transistor in sat. Mode)

if RC > RCmax then transistor works in saturation mode.

Assuming transistor in saturation mode:

Saturation Criteria:
VB > VE
VB > VC
VCE = 0.2V , VBE =0.8V
IC = (VCC – VCE) / RC (Equation 4 , Saturation current , ICsat. IC≠β.IB )

IC = (12V – 0.2V) / 2.2K ! Icsat = IC = 5.36mA

15
[Link]
 Comment:Beta(β) affect the system if example 2 compared to example [Link] beta
is 100 transistor works in active mode , when beta is 300 transistor works in
saturation [Link] avoid saturation mode we have to use smaller RC (RC < 794Ω ),
or smaller IB ( higher RB ).Note that smaller RC means higher VC and higher RB
means lower [Link] settings adjust transistor’s mode of [Link] active mode
and saturation mode criteria)

Electronics Workbench Results for Example 2-a)

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b) Vcc – [Link] = VCE (6)

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From Equation 6:
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IC = β.IB
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IBmax = 12V – 0.8V(VCE) / β.RC (Maximum IB current transistor to be work in

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acitve mode)
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IB = ( VCC – 0.7V ) / RB (2)

From Equation 2:

RBmin = 12V – 0.7V(VBE) / IBmax (Minimum RB , transistor to be work in active

mode

IBmax = 12V – 0.8V / 300.(2.2K) ! IBmax = 16.97uA

RBmin = 12V – 0.7V / IBmax
RBmin = 12V – 0.7V / 16.97uA ! RBmin = 665K

or

RBmin = β.RC
RBmin = 300.(2.2K)
RBmin = 660K

if we use RB > 665K transistor will work in active mode

if we use RB < 665K transistor will work in saturation mode

Use factor of safety and do not choose the values near the limits

16
[Link]
For RB > RBmin , transistor will work in active mode

RB = 700K ( 700 K > 665K ),

IB = (12V – 0.7V) / 700K ! IB = 16.14uA ( Note that IBmax = 16.97uA )

IC = β.IB IC=(300).(16.14uA) ! IC = 4.842mA ( Note that ICsat = 5.36mA )

Electronics Workbench Results for Example 2-b) for RB > RBmin

HW

For RB < RBmin , transistor will work in saturation mode

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RB = 600K ( 600 K < 665K ),

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FO
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IB = (12V – 0.7V) / 600K ! IB = 18.83uA ( Note that IBmax = 16.97uA )

QL

IC ≠ β.IB
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HF

IC = (VCC – VCE) / RC (4)

HO

IC = (12V – 0.2V) / 2.2K ! Icsat = IC = 5.36mA

Electronics Workbench Results for Example 2-b) for RB < RBmin

17
[Link]
EXAMPLE 3: TRANSISTOR INVERTER

Vi
10V

0V 0V
t
VC
10V 10V

0V
t
a) Determine RB and RC for the transistor inverter of figure above if ICsat = 10mA , β=300
b) Determine maximum value of RC for transistor to be work in active mode if RB=155K .
SOLUTION:
a)
At saturation IC sat = VCC – VCE / RC (VCE =0.2V at saturation)

IC sat = (Vcc – 0.2V ) / RC

10mA = (10V – 0.2V ) / RC ! RC = 980Ω

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At saturation :
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IB ≥ IC sat / βmin
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Assume β = βmin = 300

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HF

IB ≥ 10mA / 300 ! IB ≥ 33.3uA

HO

Choosing IB = 60uA to ensure that saturation.

IB = (Vi – 0.7V) / RB

RB =(10V -0.7V) / 60uA

RB = 155K

Electronics Workbench Results for Example 3-a)

18
[Link]
b)
IB = (Vi – 0.7V ) / 155K !IB = 60uA

RC max = (VCC – 0.8V) / β .IB (8) Maximum value of RC in active region

RC max = (10V – 0.8V)/18mA !RC max = 511Ω

For RC < RC max , transistor work in active mode

For RC > RC max , transistor work in saturation mode

another way for max RC:

RC max = RB / β
RC max = 155K / 300
RC max = 516Ω

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19
[Link]
 FIXED-BIAS CIRCUIT with RE
From input Loop:
Vcc = [Link] + VBE + [Link]
Vcc = [Link] + VBE + (β+1)[Link]

At Active Region:
Vcc − V BE
IB = (at active region) (2.1)
R B + ( β + 1) R E
IC = β . IB (at active region) (2.2)

From output Loop:

Vcc = ICRC + VCE + IERE

At Saturation Region: (VCE=0.2V )

IC sat = ( VCC – 0.2V )/ RC + RE (2.3)

Additional Eqns: Vcc − V BE − Icsat.R E
IB = (2.4)
VC = VCC - ICRC RB
VB = VCC – IBRB
VE = IERE

Note that RE is reflected back to the input by a factor ( β +1 ) in active region.

Effect of elements are same with fixed bias circuit.

Effect of RE
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RE improves stability.
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RE determines VE
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RE affect base current much more than RB.

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As RE increases IB will decrease

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As RE increases slope of dc load line will increase(same effect as RC in fixed-bias

HF

configuration)Q point shifts down and left on the dc load line.

HO

RC and RE don’t determines the IC in active [Link] =β. IB

At saturation mode IC sat = ( VCC – 0.2V )/ RC + RE (2.3)

Adjusting RB for active mode and saturation mode operation

Active mode criteria : VC > VB > VE
VC = VCC - ICRC
VB = VCC – IBRB
VE = IERE

VC > VB ! VCC – ICRC > VCC – IBRB ! βIBRC < IBRB

! RB > β.RC ( For RB > β.RC transistor works in active mode)

RBmin = β.RC

(Note that For RB < β.RC transistor work in saturation mode)

VB > VE ! VCC – IBRB > IERE ! VCC > IERE + IBRB

! VCC >IB [β+1)RE + RB] (Transistor works in active mode)

(Note that For VCC < IB [β+1)RE + RB] transistor work in saturation mode)

20
[Link]
Adjusting RC for active mode and saturation mode operation
Active mode criteria : VC > VB > VE
VBE = 0.7V

IC = (VCC –VCE ) / RC + RE (This equation gives the DC load-line.)

VC > VB : VCE > VBE VBE =0.7V

In active mode for max RC , VCE must be minimum and greater than 0.7V :
VCE > 0.7 V Assume VCE = 0.8V
Vcc − 0.8V
RC max = − RE (Equation for determining max value of RC)
βI B
Note that aim of adjusting RC is changing the voltage VC

The equation RB > β.RC can also be used for adjusting RC

RC < ( RB / β ) ( For Rc < (RB / β) transistor works in active mode)

RC max = RB / β (Another equation for determining max value of RC)

(Note that For Rc >( RB / β ) transistor work in saturation mode)

The equation RB > β.RC can be used in either adjusting RB(keep RC constant) or adjusting RC
( keep RB constant) for determining the mode of operation.

Minimum RC :

VCC / RC = ICmax
RC = VCC / ICmax (Minimum vaue of RC)
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ICmax can be found in the datasheet of the [Link] is illustrated in figure1.1 at page 3
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EXAMPLE 4:
FV

β = 300 , RB = 470K , RC =2.2K , RE =1.2K , VCC=12V

QL
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HF

a) Determine mode of operation , IC and IB

HO

b) Adjust RB so that transistor works in active

[Link]’s the minumum value of RB if transistor
wanted to be work in active mode?
c) Adjust RC so that transistor works in active
[Link]’s the maximum value of RC if transistor
wanted to be work in active mode?

a) Assuming transistor works in active mode :

Active Region Criteria:

VC > VB > VE
VBE =0.7V
IC = β.IB

Vcc − V BE
IB = (2.1)
R B + ( β + 1) R E

IB = [ 12V – 0.7V ] / [ 470K + (301).(1.2K) ] ! IB = 13.59uA

IC = β.IB IC = 300.(13.59uA) ! IC = 4.077mA

21
[Link]
 VC = VCC – [Link] VC =12V – (4.077mA).(2.2K) ! VC =3.03V
VB = VCC – [Link] VB =12V – (13.59uA).(470K) ! VB =5.61V

VB > VC therefore transistor does not work in active region , our assumption is wrong

Assuming transistor works in saturation mode :

Saturation Mode Criteria:

VB > VE
VB > VC
VCE = 0.2V , VBE =0.8V

IC sat = ( VCC – 0.2V ) / RC + RE (2.3)

ICsat = ( 12V – 0.2V ) / (2.2K + 1.2K )
ICsat = 3.47mA

Vcc − V BE − Icsat.R E
IB = (2.4)
RB
IB = [12V – 0.7V – (3.47mA)(1.2K)] / 470K !IB =15.18uA

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Electronics Workbench Results for Example 4-a)

st
b) Adjusting RB for active mode operation , 1 Way:
ICsat = 3.47mA
IBmax =ICsat / β
IBmax = 3.5mA / 300 !IBmax = 11.56uA

Assumption:
IB have to be smaller than IBmax for transistor to be work in active [Link] at the
end if this assumption is true.
IB < IBmax IB < 11.56uA

Vcc − V BE
IB = (2.1)
R B + ( β + 1) R E

22
[Link]
 Finding RB min:

11.56uA = [ 12V – 0.7V ] / [ RB + (301).(1.2K) ] ! RB min = 616.3K

Any value of RB greater than RB min will cause transistor to work in active mode(You
must check if this assumption is true)

Taking the value of IB = 11.00uA

11uA = [ 12V – 0.7V ] / [ RB + (301).(1.2K) ] ! RB = 666K

RB > RB min 666K > 616.3K

Checking the assumption:

IB = 11uA for RB = 666K

IC = β.IB
IC = 300.(11uA) ! IC =3.3mA

VC = VCC – [Link] VC =12V – (3.3mA).(2.2K) ! VC =4.74V

VB = VCC – [Link] VB =12V – (11uA).(666K) ! VB =4.67V

VC > VB therefore our assumption is [Link] can use RB=666K for active mode
operation of transistor.

Note that VC = 4.74V and VB = 4.67V are very close to each [Link] small
difference in the system may cause the transistor to work in saturation [Link] avoid
from this situation keep RB high enough as compared to [Link] example if we use RB
= 800K , the difference between VC and VB will be more distinct then small changes will
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not change the mode of operation.

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Electronics Workbench Results for Example 4-b) for RB = 666K

Now we will investigate the truth of our assumption if we choose RB more close to RBmin .
Taking the value of RB = 620K which is more close to RB min = 616.3K

IB = [ 12V – 0.7V ] / [ 620K + (301).(1.2K) ] ! IB = 11.51uA

IC = β . IB IC = (300)(11.51uA) ! IC = 3.45mA

VC = VCC – [Link] VC =12V – (3.45mA).(2.2K) ! VC =4.41V

VB = VCC – [Link] VB =12V – (11.51uA).(620K) ! VB =4.863V

VC < VB therefore our assumption is wrong!

This way is not reliable when choosing values close to limits( For example RBmin =
616K RB=620K , the values are very close)
Use this way if you choose the value of RB distinct away from RBmin ( For example
RB=800K)

23
[Link]
 nd
Adjusting RB for active mode operation , 2 Way:

Active mode criteria : VC > VB > VE

VC = VCC - ICRC
VB = VCC – IBRB
VE = IERE

VC > VB ! VCC – ICRC > VCC – IBRB ! βIBRC < IBRB

! RB > β.RC

VB > VE ! VCC – IBRB > IERE ! VCC > IERE + IBRB

! VCC >IB [β+1)RE + RB]

RB min = (300)(2.2K)
RB min = 660K ( Actual result for minimum value of RB )

RB > RB min for active mode of operation

Choosing RB = 670 K

IB = [ 12V – 0.7V ] / [ 670K + (301).(1.2K) ] ! IB = 10.95uA

IC = β . IB IC = (300)(10.95uA) ! IC = 3.28mA

VC = VCC – [Link] VC =12V – (3.28mA).(2.2K) ! VC =4.784V

VB = VCC – [Link] VB =12V – (10.95uA).(670K) ! VB =4.66V
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VC > VB
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VE ≅ [Link] VE ≅ (3.28mA)(1.2K) ! VE = 3.936 V

FO
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QL

VB > VE
WUR
HF

VC > VB > VE : Transistor works in active mode

HO

It is an expected result because when RB = 666K transistor works in active mode as it is done
in the previous [Link] transistor works in active mode when RB = 666K , it will work in active
mode for higher RB

Electronics Workbench Results for Example 4-b) for RB = 670K

24
[Link]
 c) Which IB will be used in the equation below?We can not use the IB which was was found
IB =15.18uA in part a).Because IB=15.18uA is the base current when transistor is in
saturation [Link] need IB current when it is in active [Link], if the equaiton below
is investigated β.IB is written for [Link] know that β.IB is true for only in active region.

Vcc − V BE
IB = (2.1) ( IB at active region)
R B + ( β + 1) R E

IB = [ 12V – 0.7V ] / [ 470K + (301).(1.2K) ] ! IB = 13.59uA

Vcc − 0.8V
RC max = − RE
βI B
(Any value of RC smaller than RCmax will not affect IC and transistor will work in active region )

RCmax = [(12V – 0.8V) / 300.(13.59uA)] – 1.2K

RCmax = 1.547K

For RC smaller than 1.547K make transistor to work in active region

nd
or 2 way ( more easy)

RC max = RB / β
RC max = 470K / 300
HW

RC max = 1.567K
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Choosing RC = 1K ( RC < RCmax ) and investigating the system:

FO
FV

Assuming transistor works in active mode :

QL
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HF

Active Region Criteria:

HO

VC > VB > VE
VBE =0.7V
IC = β.IB
Vcc − V BE
IB = (2.1)
R B + ( β + 1) R E

IB = [ 12V – 0.7V ] / [ 470K + (301).(1.2K) ] ! IB = 13.59uA

IC = β.IB IC = 300.(13.59uA) ! IC = 4.077mA

VC = VCC – [Link] VC =12V – (4.077mA).(1K) ! VC =7.92V

VB = VCC – [Link] VB =12V – (13.59uA).(470K) ! VB =5.61V
VE ≅ [Link] VE =(4.077mA).(1.2K) ! VE =4.89V

VC > VB > VE therefore transistor works in active region

25
[Link]
 Electronics Workbench Results for Example 4-c) for RC < RC max RC=1K , RC max = 1.547K

Choosing RC = 2K ( RC > RCmax ) and investigating the system:

We know transistor works in saturation mode because RC > RC [Link] we will try to solve the
problem assuming it is in active [Link] will be seen that our assumption will be wrong.

Assuming transistor works in active mode :

HW
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Active Region Criteria:

F
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VC > VB > VE
FO

VBE =0.7V
FV
QL

IC = β.IB
WUR

Vcc − V BE
HF

IB = (2.1)
HO

R B + ( β + 1) R E

IB = [ 12V – 0.7V ] / [ 470K + (301).(2K) ] ! IB = 10.54uA

IC = β.IB IC = 300.(10.54uA) ! IC = 3.162mA

VC = VCC – [Link] VC =12V – (3.162mA).(2K) ! VC =5.676V

VB = VCC – [Link] VB =12V – (10.54uA).(470K) ! VB =7.04V

VC < VB therefore transistor does not work in active [Link] assumption is wrong
as it was foreseen

Assuming transistor works in saturation mode:

Saturation Mode Criteria:
VB > VE
VB > VC
VCE = 0.2V , VBE =0.8V

IC sat = ( VCC – 0.2V ) / RC + RE (2.3)

ICsat = ( 12V – 0.2V ) / (2K + 1.2K )
ICsat = 3.68mA
Vcc − V BE − Icsat.R E
IB = (2.4)
RB
IB = [12V – 0.7V – (3.68mA)(1.2K)] / 470K !IB =14.64uA

26
[Link]
VC = VCC – [Link] VC =12V – (3.68mA).(2K) ! VC =4.64V
VB = VCC – [Link] VB =12V – (14.64uA).(470K) ! VB =5.12V

Electronics Workbench Results for Example 4-c) for RC > RC max RC=2K , RC max = 1.547K
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27
[Link]
 OBSERVATION OF STABILITY BETWEEN
FIXED-BIASED CONFIGURATION
AND
FIXED-BIASED WITH RE CONFIGURATION

Outside conditions such as change in temparature , beta and age of the device will affect the
[Link] two fixed-biased configuration with RE and without RE are compared when β=50
and β=100(100% change in beta)

Fixed-Biased Configurations without RE:

For β = 50

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For β = 100
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β µA)
IB(µ IC(mA) VCE(V)
50 20.43 1.026 6.865
100 20.54 2.049 1.64

β = 50 ! β = 100 ! 100% increase in IC

28
[Link]
Fixed-Biased Configurations with RE = 2K , VE = 553.5mV :

For β = 50

For β = 100
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β µA)
IB(µ IC(mA) VCE(V)
50 5.320 0.270 10.09
100 5.107 0.527 8.293

β = 50 ! β = 100 ! 4% decrease in IB
! 95% increase in IC (improved stability)

29
[Link]
Fixed-Biased Configurations with RE = 2K , VE = 1.790 :

For β = 50

For β = 100
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β µA)
IB(µ IC(mA) VCE(V)
50 17.76 0.878 5.821
100 15.10 1.547 1.137

β = 50 ! β = 100 ! 15% decrease in IB

! 76% increase in IC (The higher VE the more stable system)

As seen in the results, emitter resistor RE improves the [Link] the stability is affected
from [Link] VE increases the stability also [Link] that VE can not exist if RE does not
[Link] a diode for RE for increasing VE will not make the system stable. We can
generalize the subject and we can say that stability increases as VE increases and there must
be a resistor RE for stability. We can adjust VE by changing the RE.(RB can also change the VE
in active mode.)

30
[Link]
Stability is determined directly by VE and RE and indirectly by [Link] the results.

RE = 2K VE = 553.5mV ! 95% increase in IC when 100% increase in beta (less stable

system)
RE = 2K VE = 1.790mV ! 76% increase in IC when 100% increase in beta (more stable
system)

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31
[Link]
 VOLTAGE DIVIDER BIAS

This configuration is more stable then fixed-biased with RE

[Link] and VCE will not affected by the change of beta
if proper design is done. So we can call this configuration as
“Beta independent” configuration.

This configuration can be used for all BJT amplifiers (common

emitter, common base, and common collector),
although in the common-collector configuration we usually set
RC = 0.

Thevenin Equivalent :
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The only purpose of RE is to provide DC feedback to stabilize the Q-point against

variations in the β (also known as hFE) of the BJT. Since β can vary by as much as five to one
from one BJT to another (even if the BJTs have the same 2N number), large unit-to-unit
variations in Q-point could result unless this DC feedback is present. When the resistor values
in the above figure are selected properly, β variations will have a negligibly small effect on the
Q-point.

To provide sufficient feedback, VE is usually chosen to be one-quarter to one-third of

VCC.

Because VBE =0.7 V (silicon devices), VE is set by the voltage divider formed by R1 and R2.
However, reader will note from the above figure that R1 and R2 are not in series, and hence
do not form a voltage divider. Only if the maximum value of IB is much less than I1(Current on
R1) , so that IB can be neglected, will R1 and R2 act like a voltage divider.

The circuit designer must establish this condition by the appropriate choice of values
for R1 and R2.

32
[Link]
 The effect of elements are again same as explained in past sections (Fixed-biased
and fixed-biased with RE configuration).This time R1 and R2 will be explained in the solution of
example 1.

The design procedure is explained in the example [Link] a summary of design

procedure will be found at the end of this tutorial.

EXAMPLE 5:

VCC=12V β = 300
At IC=3 to 10mA maximum dc current gain [Link]
IC = 5mA

a) Determine the value of the resistors for best

symmetric swing at IC = 5mA

b) Instead of R2 ≤ (β[Link]) / 10 (R2<< β[Link] )

use R2 ≤ (β[Link]) / 60 ( R2<<< β[Link])

HW
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SOLUTION:
F
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How we choose ICQ?

FV
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IC is generally choosen by observing the datasheet of the [Link] choosen at

WUR

where β is maximum and stable.

HF

Note that in the datasheets IC - hfe graph depends on the voltage level of [Link] choosen
HO

VCEQ have to be suitable for desired ICQ

a)

1-Determinig the Q point:

Vcc - 0.2V
For symmetric swing , VCEQ = (Check the datasheet if choosen ICQ is
2
suitable for
calculated VCEQ )

VCEQ = (12V – 0.2V) / 2 !VCEQ = 5.9V

ICQ = 5mA , VCEQ = 5.9V gives the Q point on the load line.

2-Determine VE for stability:

For stable systems: ( VCC / 10 ) ≤ VE ≤ ( VCC / 3 ) ( As VE increases , stability also

increases )

Choosing VE = VCC / 4
VE = 12V / 4 ! VE = 3V

3-Determine RE:

RE = VE / IC ( if IC≅IE )
RE = 3V / 5mA ! RE = 600Ω

33
[Link]
4-Determine RC:

RC=VRC / IC
VRC = VCC – VCEQ – VE

VRC = 12V – 5.9V – 3V ! VRC = 3.1V

RC = 3.1V / 5mA ! RC = 620Ω

5-Determine VB:

VB = VE + 0.7V
VB = 3V + 0.7V ! VB = 3.7V

6-Determine R2:

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Ri = Equivalent resistance between base and ground looking into the base
Ri = ( β +1 )RE ≅ βRE

If Ri is much larger than the resistance R2 , the current IB will be much smaller than I2
and I2 will be approximately equal to [Link] we accept the approximation that IB is essentially
zero amperes compared to I1 or I2 , then I1 = I2 and R1 and R2 can be considered series
elements.

Ri >> R2
βminRE ≥ 10R2

R2 ≤ (β[Link]) / 10

Assuming β = βmin = 300

R2 = (300).600Ω / 10 ! R2 = 18K

7-Determine R1:

The voltage across R2 , which is actually the base voltage , can be determined using
the voltage-divider rule.
R Vcc
VB = 2
R1 + R 2
3.7V = (18K).(12V) / (R1 + 18K)
R1 =40.3K

34
[Link]
 Electronics Workbench results for example 1-a)
b) Same results are found until step 6 .
RE = 600Ω , RC = 620Ω , VE =3V , VB = 3.7V , IC = 5mA , VCEQ = 5.9V

6-Determine R2:

R2 ≤ (β[Link]) / 60 (this time denominator is higher(10!60) that is R2 is

more
smaller)
HW
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Assuming β = βmin = 300

F
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R2 = (300).600Ω / 60 ! R2 = 3K
FV
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7-Determine R1:
HF
HO

The voltage across R2 , which is actually the base voltage , can be determined using
the voltage-divider rule.
R Vcc
VB = 2
R1 + R 2
3.7V = (3K).(12V) / (R1 + 3K) ! R1 =6.72K

Electronics Workbench results for example 1-b)

35
[Link]
As R2 and R1 gets smaller(I1 and I2 gets higher then IB has less effect on the system. ) the values for
ICQ and VCEQ are more approximate to desired ICQ and VCEQ

SUMMARY OF VOLTAGE-DIVIDER BIAS DESIGN

1-Determinig the Q point:

Vcc - 0.2V
Choose VCEQ as VCEQ = if symmetric swing desired.
2

Choose ICQ at the beta-stable region in the datasheet

2-Determine VE for stability:

For stable systems: ( VCC / 10 ) ≤ VE ≤ ( VCC / 3 ) ( As VE increases , stability also

increases )

3-Determine RE:

RE = VE / IC ( if IC≅IE )

4-Determine RC:

RC=VRC / IC
VRC = VCC – VCEQ – VE

5-Determine VB:
HW
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VB = VE + 0.7V
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6-Determine R2:
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R2 ≤ (β[Link]) / 10
HF
HO

for more accurate design choose R2 smaller like:

R2 ≤ (β[Link]) / 30

7-Determine R1:

R 2 Vcc
VB =
R1 + R 2

36
[Link]