Cooling of warm water is done by direct contact of air in cooling towers.

There is
four major application of air water contacting.
1. Water cooling: Air­water contacting is done mostly for the purpose of
cooling the warm water before it can be reused.
2. Humidification: Air having a specified moisture content is necessary for
some process applications – for example, in the drying of a solid under
controlled condition.
The process of increasing the moisture content of air is called
‘humidification’. A humidifier is also used at the inlet of an air­ ventilating
system.
3. Dehumidification: Moist warm air may be relieved of a part of its moisture by
contacting with water at a lower temperature. Dehumidification has use in
air conditioning.
4. Gas cooling: A hot air stream can be cooled conveniently in contact with
water. However, its content changes in the process.
Each of the above operation involves ‘simultaneous transfer of heat and mass’.

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UCH 1201 Principles of Chemical Engineering
Humidification

Dr. M. Subramanian

Department of Chemical Engineering

SSN College of Engineering

May 27, 2021

Humidity & Saturation

When a gas is in contact with a liquid, the gas receives vapor from
the liquid until the partial pressure of the vapor in the gas mixture
equals the vapor pressure of the liquid at the existing temperature.
When the concentration of the vapor in the gas mixture reaches
this equilibrium value, the gas is said to be saturated with the
vapor.
If the partial pressure of the vapor in the gas mixture exceeds the
vapor pressure of the liquid, condensation of the vapor takes place.
Formation of Rain

Vaporization of water from the surface of water-bodies is to

saturate the surrounding air with water. As and when, the
surrounding air is saturated with water vapor, the water tends
condense in the form of rain.
Cooing of Water in Mud-clay Pot

Water in the mud-pot is colder than that in steel-pot. This is

because of vaporization of water from the pores on the surface of
mud-pot. This vaporization is happening so as to saturate the
surrounding air with water-vapor.
Relative Saturation (Relative Humidity)

If the partial pressure of a vapor in the gas mixture is less than the
vapor pressure of the liquid at the existing pressure, the gas mixture
is partially saturated. The ratio of the partial pressure of the vapor
to the vapor pressure of the liquid at the liquid at the existing
temperature, expressed in percentage, is termed relative saturation.
The term ‘humidity’ is used if the vapor is water and the gas is air.

PA
Relative saturation = × 100
PAsat
where
PA = partial pressure of the vapor (A) in the gas mixture
PAsat = vapor pressure of component A.
Humidity and Temperature

The capacity of a gas to hold water depends on its temperature.

The higher the temperature, the more water vapor it can contain.
I normal room temperature - air typically holds about 1% of
water vapor
I hot-atmosphere has greater capacity to hold water vapor
When the air holds the maximum amount of water vapor at a
particular temperature it is said to be saturated.
Humidity and Temperature (contd..)

I Relative humidity is strongly governed by temperature.

I Interaction of water-vapor with materials is often in
proportion to relative humidity.
I Lowering the relative humidity of surrounding air increases
evaporation and drying of materials.
Humidity and Temperature (contd..)

For the same amount of air and water-vapor, relative humidity

decreases with increase in temperature of the gas mixture.
e.g.:
Temperature (◦ C) 15 20 25 30 35 40
Relative humidity 100 71 50 36 27 19
Humidification

I Humidification operations involve simultaneous transfer of

heat and mass between a gas and a liquid when the gas is
brought into contact with the liquid in which it is insoluble.
I When the partial pressure of the vapor in the vapor-gas
mixture is equal to the vapor pressure of the liquid at that
temperature, the mixture is said to be saturated.
I When the partial pressure of the vapor in the vapor-gas
mixture is less than the equilibrium vapor pressure of the
liquid at that temperature, the mixture is said to be
unsaturated and there is scope for further vaporisation.
Humidification
I Molal Absolute Humidity:
Moles of vapor per mole of vapor-free gas is called molal
absolute humidity (Hm ).
moles of vapor nW PW PW mol vapor
Hm = = = =
moles of dry air nA PA P − PW mol dry air
I Absolute Humidity:
The mass of vapor per unit mass of vapor free gas is called
absolute humidity (Ha )
nW MW PW MW kg vapor
Ha = =
nA MA P − PW M A kg dry air
I Percentage Humidity:
Percentage humidity is the ratio of actual absolute humidity
to the absolute saturation humidity.
Ha
%H = × 100
Hasat
I Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT):
The temperature of a vapor-gas mixture as recorded by
immersing the bulb of a thermometer in the mixture is called
dry-bulb temperature.
I Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT):
Wet bulb temperature is the steady-state temperature of the
vapor-gas mixture measured by a thermometer whose bulb is
covered with a wet wick or saturated completely by the same
fluid.
The bulb of the thermometer is covered by a liquid. This
when contacted with the vapor-gas mixture the liquid is
evaporated by losing its latent heat of vaporization. This
latent heat of vaporization is transferred from the vapor-gas
mixture and loses its sensible heat. Hence, the temperature is
less when the wet bulb temperature is measured.

WBT < DBT(except at 100% saturation)

The difference between DBT and WBT is called wet bulb

depression.
I Dew Point (DP):
It is the temperature at which a vapor-gas mixture becomes
saturated when cooled at constant pressure in the absence of
the liquid.
When the temperature is reduced further less than the DP,
the condensation of the saturated vapor occurs.
At dew point, partial pressure of the vapor in the mixture =
the vapor pressure of the liquid.

At dew point, DBT = WBT

Phase diagram
Cooling Tower
Cooling Tower
Cooling-water is a common utility in chemical process and energy
industries. It picks up heat from various heat exchange processes.
For circulating it back to the processes, it’s temperature has to be
brought back to it’s original temperature. This is done by a
‘cooling-tower’. Here, the cooling-water is brought in intimate
contact with ambient air.
Cooling towers are a special type of heat exchanger that allows
water and air to come in contact with each other to lower the
temperature of the water. During this process, small volumes of
water evaporate, lowering the temperature of the water that is
being circulated throughout the cooling tower.
Cooling tower nozzles are used to spray the water onto to the “fill
media”, which slows the water flow down and exposes the
maximum amount of water surface area possible for the best
air-water contact. The air is being pulled / forced by a “cooling
tower fan”.
 Vapor-Gas Mixture
A substance A relatively near its condensation temperature at the prevailing
pressure is termed as Vapor.
A substance B above the critical point or relatively superheated is termed as
Gas.

Molal Absolute Humidity

It is defined as the moles of vapor carried by a unit mole of vapor free gas.

When the quantities yA and yB are expressed in mass, then it is called mass
absolute humidity (Y’) or Grosvenor humidity.

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 Saturated Absolute Humidity (YS)
When the vapor­gas mixture is saturated, then the partial pressure becomes
equal to the vapor pressure of that substance.

When the quantities are expressed in mass

Both saturated humidities become infinite at the boiling point of the liquid at
the prevailing total pressure.

Unsaturated Vapor-Gas Mixtures

If the partial pressure of the vapor in a vapor­gas mixture is for any reason less
than the equilibrium vapor pressure of the liquid at the same temperature,
the mixture is unsaturated.
Dry bulb temperature
This is the temperature of a vapor­gas mixture as ordinarily determined by
immersion of a thermometer in the mixture.
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 Relative Humidity or Relative Saturation (% RH)
It is normally expressed in percentage. If pA is the partial pressure under a
given condition and PA is the vapor pressure at any dry bulb temperature of
the mixture then,

Percentage Saturation or Percentage Humidity

(Hp)
It is defined as the percentage of humidity
under given condition to the humidity under
the saturated condition.
Saturated values are computed at the dry bulb
temperature of the mixture.

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4/21/2021 ABHISHEK KUMAR CHANDRA 153
 Dew Point
This is the temperature at which a vapor­gas mixture becomes saturated when
cooled at constant total pressure out of contact with a liquid.
For Example: If an unsaturated mixture such as that at F is cooled at constant
pressure out of contact with liquid, the path of the cooling process follows the
line FG, the mixture becoming more nearly saturated as the temperature is
lowered, and fully saturated at tDP, the dew­point temperature.

Humid Volume
The humid volume υH of a vapor­gas mixture is the volume of unit mass of dry
gas and its accompanying vapor at the prevailing temperature and pressure.
For a mixture of absolute humidity Y’ at tG and pt, total pressure, the ideal gas
law gives the humid volume as

Where υH is in m3/kg, tg in degree Celsius, and pt in N/m2.

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 Humid Heat
The humid heat CS is the heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of
gas and its accompanying vapor one degree at constant pressure.
For a mixture of absolute humidity Y’,

Provided neither vaporization nor condensation occurs, the heat in BTU required
to raise the temperature of a mass of WB dry gas and its accompanying vapor an
amount Δt will be

Enthalpy
The (relative) enthalpy of vapor­gas mixture is the sum of the (relative)
enthalpies of the gas and of the vapor content.
For a gas at a dry bulb temperature of tG, with a humidity of Y’, the enthalpy
relative to the reference state t0 is,

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 The System Air-Water
A typical psychometric chart is shown in Figure from which the various
properties of air water system can be obtained. Alternatively, the equation given
above can be used.

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 7. COOLING TOWER

Syllabus
Cooling Tower: Types and performance evaluation, Efficient system operation, Flow
control strategies and energy saving opportunities, Assessment of cooling towers

7.1 Introduction
Cooling towers are a very important part of many chemical plants. The primary task of a cool-
ing tower is to reject heat into the atmosphere. They represent a relatively inexpensive and
dependable means of removing low-grade heat from cooling water. The make-up water source
is used to replenish water lost to evaporation. Hot water from heat exchangers is sent to the
cooling tower. The water exits the cooling tower and is sent back to the exchangers or to other
units for further cooling. Typical closed loop cooling tower system is shown in Figure 7.1.

Figure 7.1 Cooling Water System

Cooling Tower Types

Cooling towers fall into two main categories: Natural draft and Mechanical draft.
Natural draft towers use very large concrete chimneys to introduce air through the media.
Due to the large size of these towers, they are generally used for water flow rates above 45,000
m3/hr. These types of towers are used only by utility power stations.
Mechanical draft towers utilize large fans to force or suck air through circulated water. The
water falls downward over fill surfaces, which help increase the contact time between the water
and the air - this helps maximise heat transfer between the two. Cooling rates of Mechanical
draft towers depend upon their fan diameter and speed of operation. Since, the mechanical draft
cooling towers are much more widely used, the focus is on them in this chapter.

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 7. Cooling Tower

Mechanical draft towers

Mechanical draft towers are available in the following airflow arrangements:
1. Counter flows induced draft.
2. Counter flow forced draft.
3. Cross flow induced draft.
In the counter flow induced draft design, hot water enters at the top, while the air is intro-
duced at the bottom and exits at the top. Both forced and induced draft fans are used.
In cross flow induced draft towers, the water enters at the top and passes over the fill. The
air, however, is introduced at the side either on one side (single-flow tower) or opposite sides
(double-flow tower). An induced draft fan draws the air across the wetted fill and expels it
through the top of the structure.
The Figure 7.2 illustrates various cooling tower types. Mechanical draft towers are avail-
able in a large range of capacities. Normal capacities range from approximately 10 tons,
2.5 m3/hr flow to several thousand tons and m3/hr. Towers can be either factory built or field
erected - for example concrete towers are only field erected.
Many towers are constructed so that they can be grouped together to achieve the desired
capacity. Thus, many cooling towers are assemblies of two or more individual cooling
towers or "cells." The number of cells they have, e.g., an eight-cell tower, often refers to
such towers. Multiple-cell towers can be lineal, square, or round depending upon the shape
of the individual cells and whether the air inlets are located on the sides or bottoms of the
cells.

Components of Cooling Tower

The basic components of an evaporative tower are: Frame and casing, fill, cold water basin,
drift eliminators, air inlet, louvers, nozzles and fans.

Frame and casing: Most towers have structural frames that support the exterior enclosures
(casings), motors, fans, and other components. With some smaller designs, such as some glass
fiber units, the casing may essentially be the frame.

Fill: Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to facilitate heat transfer by maximis-
ing water and air contact. Fill can either be splash or film type.
With splash fill, water falls over successive layers of horizontal splash bars, continuously
breaking into smaller droplets, while also wetting the fill surface. Plastic splash fill promotes
better heat transfer than the wood splash fill.
Film fill consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over which the water spreads, form-
ing a thin film in contact with the air. These surfaces may be flat, corrugated, honeycombed, or
other patterns. The film type of fill is the more efficient and provides same heat transfer in a
smaller volume than the splash fill.

Cold water basin: The cold water basin, located at or near the bottom of the tower, receives
the cooled water that flows down through the tower and fill. The basin usually has a sump or
low point for the cold water discharge connection. In many tower designs, the cold water basin
is beneath the entire fill.

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 7. Cooling Tower

Figure 7.2 Cooling Tower Types

In some forced draft counter flow design, however, the water at the bottom of the fill is
channeled to a perimeter trough that functions as the cold water basin. Propeller fans are mount-
ed beneath the fill to blow the air up through the tower. With this design, the tower is mounted
on legs, providing easy access to the fans and their motors.

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 7. Cooling Tower

Drift eliminators: These capture water droplets entrapped in the air stream that otherwise
would be lost to the atmosphere.

Air inlet: This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower. The inlet may take up an entire
side of a tower–cross flow design– or be located low on the side or the bottom of counter flow
designs.

Louvers: Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers. The purpose of louvers is to equal-
ize air flow into the fill and retain the water within the tower. Many counter flow tower designs
do not require louvers.

Nozzles: These provide the water sprays to wet the fill. Uniform water distribution at the top of
the fill is essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill surface. Nozzles can either be
fixed in place and have either round or square spray patterns or can be part of a rotating assem-
bly as found in some circular cross-section towers.

Fans: Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans are used in towers. Generally, propeller
fans are used in induced draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal fans are found in forced
draft towers. Depending upon their size, propeller fans can either be fixed or variable pitch.
A fan having non-automatic adjustable pitch blades permits the same fan to be used over a wide
range of kW with the fan adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at the lowest power consumption.
Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air flow in response to changing load conditions.

Tower Materials
In the early days of cooling tower manufacture, towers were constructed primarily of wood.
Wooden components included the frame, casing, louvers, fill, and often the cold water basin. If
the basin was not of wood, it likely was of concrete.
Today, tower manufacturers fabricate towers and tower components from a variety of mate-
rials. Often several materials are used to enhance corrosion resistance, reduce maintenance, and
promote reliability and long service life. Galvanized steel, various grades of stainless steel,
glass fiber, and concrete are widely used in tower construction as well as aluminum and vari-
ous types of plastics for some components.
Wood towers are still available, but they have glass fiber rather than wood panels (casing)
over the wood framework. The inlet air louvers may be glass fiber, the fill may be plastic, and
the cold water basin may be steel.
Larger towers sometimes are made of concrete. Many towers–casings and basins–are con-
structed of galvanized steel or, where a corrosive atmosphere is a problem, stainless steel.
Sometimes a galvanized tower has a stainless steel basin. Glass fiber is also widely used for
cooling tower casings and basins, giving long life and protection from the harmful effects of
many chemicals.
Plastics are widely used for fill, including PVC, polypropylene, and other polymers. Treated
wood splash fill is still specified for wood towers, but plastic splash fill is also widely used
when water conditions mandate the use of splash fill. Film fill, because it offers greater heat
transfer efficiency, is the fill of choice for applications where the circulating water is generally
free of debris that could plug the fill passageways.

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 7. Cooling Tower

Plastics also find wide use as nozzle materials. Many nozzles are being made of PVC, ABS,
polypropylene, and glass-filled nylon. Aluminum, glass fiber, and hot-dipped galvanized steel are
commonly used fan materials. Centrifugal fans are often fabricated from galvanized steel.
Propeller fans are fabricated from galvanized, aluminum, or moulded glass fiber reinforced plas-
tic.

7.2 Cooling Tower Performance

Figure 7.3 Range and Approach

The important parameters, from the point of determining the performance of cooling towers, are:
i) "Range" is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet temperature.
(See Figure 7.3).
ii) "Approach" is the difference between the cooling tower outlet cold water temperature
and ambient wet bulb temperature. Although, both range and approach should be moni-
tored, the 'Approach' is a better indicator of cooling tower performance. (see Figure 7.3).
iii) Cooling tower effectiveness (in percentage) is the ratio of range, to the ideal range, i.e.,
difference between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature,
or in other words it is = Range / (Range + Approach).
iv) Cooling capacity is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product of mass flow
rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.
v) Evaporation loss is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty and, theoretically, for
every 10,00,000 kCal heat rejected, evaporation quantity works out to 1.8 m3. An empir-
ical relation used often is:
*Evaporation Loss (m3/hr) = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation rate (m3/hr) x (T1-T2)
T1-T2 = Temp. difference between inlet and outlet water.
*Source: Perry’s Chemical Engineers Handbook (Page: 12-17)

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