Meaning, Scope and iyoncnteay d Nielakia (ey CHAPTER LEARNING OBJECTIVES 2.1 Introduction 24 Importance of Statistics 2.2 Meaning of Statistics 2.5 Limitations of Statistics 2.3 Functions of Statistics 2.1 INTRODUCTION The word Statistics seems to have been derived from the Latin word ‘Status’ or the Italian word ‘Statista’ or the German word ‘Statistic’ or the Greek word ‘Statistique’, each of which means a political state. The word ‘Statistics’ conveys different meanings to different people. Some people regard statistics as data, facts or measurements, while others believe it to be the study of figures. The views commonly held about statistics are numerous, but often incomplete. For example: 1. For a cricket fan; Statistics refers to numerical information or data relating to the runs scored by a cricketer; 2. For an Environmentalist: Statistics refers to information on the quantity of pollution or other harmful gases in the atmosphere; 3. For the weather department: Statistics consists of information about minimum and maximum temperature, timings of sunrise, etc 4. For a share broker: Statistics is the information on changes in share prices over a period of time; and so on. The average person perceives statistics as a column of figures, various types of graphs, tables and charts showing the changes in different types of data. * In the early years, scope of statistics was primarily limited to collection of data for determining the economic and social conditions of the people living in different parts of the country. * But with the passage of time, the scope of statistics widened. For some time, statistics was regarded as a branch of economics, butnow, ithas become a full-fledged independent subject. 2.1statistics for Economics includes, all * In the present times, Statistics is not only a science of the state, but it also types of quantitative analysis, Creek ceed which can bet in numerical terms are known as quantitative \ fermen meamnetece one emepmoe soa Becerra reser saree lation oat ee Rare For earl, honest beauty Iatigence, eb. Quatetve variables cannot be meses {figures as they are vague terms and we cannot make statistical analysis = Qualitative expressions are not statistics uniess they are assigned numerical equivalents. thoy can be ranked accorcing tote qualty ofthat atibts, For example, wo may assion Rank No.1 to the most intelligent, Rank 2 o the second best, and so on. The ranks may be used as numerical measurements for purposes of statistical analysis. 2.2 MEANING OF STATISTICS es Its not easy to define statistics in a precise manner, Statistics has been defined differen y by different authors from time to time, emphasizing precisely the meaning, scope ae limitations of the subject. Some authorities have defined Statistics as statistical data (Plural Sense), whereas others as statistical ; methods (Singular Sense) * In Plural Sense, it means a collection of numerical facts. ular ‘+ In Singular Sense, statistics deal ‘Stoguier Sense a eas areas Satie Meo analysis and interpretation of __Statisteal Data Sats Methods the quantitative information. “w"*"éalinformation). (Methods of dealing with information) Statistics as Numerical Set of Data (Plural Sense) Inits plural sense, Statistics is defined by different authors: irinemert ofA. Bowe,tatistis are numerical statements offactsnany department of enquiry placed in relation to each other" Jn the words of Yule and Kendall multiplicity of causes” The most comprehensive and exhaustive definition of statistics h, Horace Secrist. According to him, In the plural sense, Statistice refers to aggregates of facts, affected to a marked extent by multiplicity of causes, numerically expressed, enumerated or estimated according to reasonable standards of accuracy, collected in a systematic manner Jor predetermined purpose and placed in relation to ench other. For example, data relating to S88r°gate percentage of 5 Toppers of XI" class of a school Siti 6 used plural sense, must possess the oll ‘ ing characteristic: 1. Aggregates of Facts: Statis following characteristics “By statistics we mean quantitative data affected to a marked extent by as been given by Prof. tics are a number of facts. Single and Assre isolated figures are not Sstcs as such figures cannot be compared and no conclusions can be aera them.Chapter2 © Meaning. Scope and Importance of Statistics 3 5. For example, a single age of 30 years is not a statistics, but a series relating to ‘CHARACTERISTICS OF STATISTICS IN PLURAL SENSE the ages of a group of persons will be ‘Agaregates of Facts called statistics. ‘Affected by Multiply of Causes Notes: + A single figure, of course, can be Statistics are Numerically Expressed called statistics when it is represented as an average or as a sum of various ‘observations. For example, average marks (say, 75) ina class, will be called statistics. + It must be noted that all Statistics are ‘expressed in numbers, but all numbers are not Statistics tis only the aggregate number of facts that is called Statistics. Statistics are collected in a Systematic Manner ‘Statistics should be placed in relation to each other Affected by multiplicity of causes: Numerical figures (data) are influenced by a variety of factors. It is not an easy job to study the effects of any one factor separately by ignoring other factors. For example, Statistics of production of acrop, say riceis affected by the rainfall fertilizer, seeds, method of cultivation, etc. Itis not possible to study separately the effect of each of these forces on the production of ice, Statistics are numerically expressed: The statistical approach to a subject is numerical So, any facts, to be called statistics, must be numerically or quantitatively expressed. * For example, Isha is taller than Mollie and Ananya, will not be called statistics. However, if the same facts are expressed in numbers (like, Isha: 162 cm, Mollie: 157 cm; Ananya: 145 cm), we will call them statistics. + Qualitative characteristics like intelligence, beauty, honesty, ete, cannot be included. in statistics unless they are quantified by assigning certain score as a quantitative measure of assessment. Statistics should be collected with reasonable standard of accuracy: In statistics, data is collected with reasonable standard of accuracy. + Ahigh degree of accuracy, as observed in accountancy or mathematics, isnot insisted upon in statistics, because mass of data is involved. + The process of generalisation can be achieved with a reasonable standard of accuracy only. Statistics should be enumerated or estimated according toa reasonable standard of accuracy. Enumeration involves actual counting of the heads, whereas estimation is not the actual counting, butan observation. For example, when we say that 60 students were present in the class, we are enumerating the number of students present in the class. But when a news channel says that there are 5,000 people in a rally, then the news channel is simply estimating the number of people. Statistics are collected for a pre-determined purpose: The purpose of collecting statistical data must be decided in advance, otherwise usefulness of the data collected would be negligible, Data collected in an unsystematic manner and without complete awareness of the purpose will be confusing and cannot be made on the basis of valid conclusions.Statistics for te orem anner: For accuracy of reliability of dag, the ic Mi ystematic Ifthe figures are collected inva ha as re collected in a SYsIO Tanner. 6, Statistics Pri ; \ ee ne ie aut will deteriorate. S0, before collecting data, suitable 5. manner, the reli aa i ould be preparec- } i for = ae placed in relation to each other: Collection of statistical day, ‘ istics s! i seat done with the motive to compare. ae generally figures collected are not comparable, then they lose a large part of thei, *T gufcance. o, they should be comparable with respec UCR sa si . $0, ymmodities, etc. * re the purpose of ‘comparison, itis necessary that data must be homogeneous (tani ‘ould be meaningless to compare the heights of men or identical). For example, it ws with heights of trees because these figures are of a heterogeneous character. Such figures do not come under the category of statistics. Statistics as a Method (Singular Sense) - Insingular sense, the term ‘statistics’ means statistical methods, i.e. it is a method of dealing with numerical facts, Statistics in singular sense may be defined as the collection, organisation, presentation, analysis and interpretation of numerical data, The given definition coves the {following important features of statistical methods: Stages of Statistical Study aia Interpretation censors Presentation of Data of bata Collection of Organisation of ata Stage-4 Stage-5 1, Collection of Data: It is the main and the first step in a statistical enquiry. The technique of collection of data depends upon the objective of the study. The data collected should be from reliable and authentic sources. 2. Organisation of Data; After collection, the d. ised ii i J \, late Se eee Ale fa is organised in a proper form which Presentation of Data: After classifica : c tion, the data is presented i in the form of text, table, diagram or graph. 5 as Analysi 8 i ‘ata, analysis is done w e f alysis of Ve As Presentation of data, analysis is d vith the help of si mathem: ‘atical techniques. These include s of cer dency, measures a ; pee measures of central tendency, Inte i i te in eee Data: tis the last step in the statistical methodology. * Itinvolves statistical thinking, ski aning from anal iB, Skill and experience, to derive me: 8 ly » = s * The interpretation i Provides the final c s e fin 2 satstical study involves use of some standart al conclusions drawn from the analysed data. ‘Statis . StaMoalsForerample Samples Census toh iy ‘ormethods. These techniques or methodsare' ues are used as statistical tools for collection of datehapter2._* Meaning, Scope and Importance of Statistics Plural Sense Vs Singular Sense 1, Statistics in plural sense deals with numerical information, whereas in singular sense statistics is a body of various methods and tools. 2, Statistics in plural sense is descriptive in nature, but in singular sense, it is basically a tool of analysis. 3, Statistics in plural sense is often in the raw state, whereas in singular sense, it helps in processing the raw data. 4, Statistics in plural sense is quantitative, but in singular sense, it is an operational technique. Gee ure Bune Empirical Analysis refers toa methodin which a subjects studied on the basis of observations ‘or experiments. In empirical analysis, knowledge is acquired as a result of actual experience. Under natural sciences such as physics, chemistry and biology this method is commonly used ‘and relevant laws and statements can be tested and experimented in laboratories. ‘As against this, economics is a social science, wherein human behaviour is the subject ‘of study and empirical analysis cannot be used to study economics and other social ‘sciences. The problem of social sciences can be effectively studied through the technique ‘of quantitative analysis. ‘Quantitative Analysis is an attempt to level precision to the facts, so that they can be easily ‘compared. Under frst of all facts are expressed in he form of quantities (ike 25, 30,5) and then such numerical detais classified, tabulated and analysed to draw reasonable conclusions, 2.3 FUNCTIONS OF STATISTICS Statistics performs many functions useful to human beings. The broad functions performed by statistics are discussed as under: 1. To simplify complex facts: Itis very difficult foran individual to understand and conclude from huge numerical data. Statistical methods try to present the great mass of complex data into simple and understandable form. For example, statistical techniques like mean, median, correlation, graphs, ete. make complex data intelligible and understandable in short period and in better way. 2. To present facts in definite form: Quantitative facts can easily be believed and trusted in comparison to abstract and qualitative facts. Statistics summarizes the generalized facts and presents them in a definite form. For example, statement like annual rate of inflation in a country is 10%, is more convincing than statement like prices are rising. ‘To make comparison of facts: Comparison is one of the main functions of statistics as the absolute figures convey a less concrete meaning. For example, per capita income of developing countries may not be of much use unless we know the per capita income of developed countries, * Statistics facilitates Inter-sectoral and Inter-temporal comparison.Statistics for Economy across diferent sectors ofthe economy. For er sectoral means com Pano ent across rural and urban sectors find the size of unemploy™ Serer sreans comparison across different time periods al statistical methods like average, rates, percentages, «For comparison of data, various: are used. ‘ 7 ee sre policy formulation: Statistics help in analysis of causes ofan ee te i a facials formalation of policies for solving them. On the baa c is of Pe data and their analysis, businessmen and administrators can plan future activities and shape their policies. ere 1 5, To help in forecasting: As business is full of risks and uncertainties, correct forecasting is secon t reduce the uncertainties of business. Statistical tools (like interpolation, time series analysis, etc.) help in making projections for future. 6. Formulation and Testing of Hypothesis: Statistics methods are extremely useful in formulating and testing hypothesis. For example, with the help of statistical techniques, we can test the hypothesis, whether a risen the aay fares wil affect passenger trafic or not. 7. To enlarge individual knowledge and experience: Statistics enable people to enlarge their horizon. Itsharpens the faculty of rational thinking and reasoning, and is helpfulin ‘Propounding new theories and concepts. Tomake Tofacilitate | Comparison || lanring || Toheipin || Formulation | andpokty || Ferecming_ | andTesingof |Yormuiation Hypothesis | as employed by the Government tls use was extended to all fields: We ing major areas:hapter2 + Meaning. Scope and Importance of Statistics importance of Statistics tothe Government ‘The subject of statistics was initially used by the ancient rulers in assessmen! of their military ni economic strength. Gradually, its scope was enlarged to tackle other problems relating to political activities of the economy. + In the present scenario, Government collects the largest amount of statistics for various purposes «The role of government has increased and requires much greater information ip the form Taumerical figures, to fulfill the welfare objcties in addition to the efficient running of their administration. + Popular statistical methods such as time-series analysis index numbers, forecasting and demand analysis are extensively used in formulating economic policies. For example, statistical investigations provide data about paying capacity of the people, which helPs the government in deciding the rates of direct and indirect taxes. «= Ina democratic country like India, various political groups are also guided by the statistical analysis regarding their popularity in the masses. 0, it can be concluded that itis impossible to think about functioning of the modern government, in the absence of statistics. Importance of Statistics in Economics Siatistics is an indispensable tool for a proper understanding of various economic problems, «Every branch of economics takes support from statistics in order to prove various economic theories init. « Statistics provides important guidelines forthe formulation of various economic policies + Most of the economic problems are capable of being expressed in numerical figures For example, output of agriculture, volume of exports, prices of commodities, etc. In each case the data is affected by a multiplicity of factors. Further, itcan be shown that the other conditions prescribed for statistical data are also satisfied. Thus we ean say thatthe study of various economic problemsis essentially the one ofa statisti nature. Some of the uses of statistics in economics are as follows 1. Formulation of Economic Laws: The famous ‘Law of Demand’ and the concept of ‘Elasticity of Demand’ have been developed by the Inductive method of generalisation, which is also based on statistical principles. . Helps in understanding and solving an economic problem: Statistical data and statistical methods play a vital role in understanding and solving economic problems suchas poverty, ‘unemployment, disparities in the distribution of income and wealth, ete. . Study of market structures: Study of perfect competition, oligopoly, monopoly, ete. requires statistical comparison of market prices, cost and profits of individual firms. Statistics also facilitates inter-sectoral and inter-temporal comparison, Helps in establishing mathematical relation: Statistical methods can also be used to estimate mathematical relation and cause and effect relationship between various economic variables. For example, effect of change in prices on quantities demanded of a commodit shows the mathematical form of demand relationship between the two variables. >. Sa “Soo eeStatistics for Economics o ‘Trend-series analysis is used ' tion of commodities, money in jour of different economic concepts 5, Useful to study behaviour of < tostudy the behaviour of prices, production and consumP its and clearings. circulation, and bank deposits and ISAT sing the theories of prices, pricing 6, Price Analysis Saistical survey of prices help in study MET ation policy and price trends as well as their relationship to the genes=! PCE statisti is of great significance considering the various Economic Actioilifs: « Inthestudy of Consumption’:Statistics help to find coutthe ways in which different groups tf people spend theirineome on necessities, comforts and luxuries Such statistics is very helpful for determining standard of living and taxable capacity ofthe people. ‘In the study of ‘Production’: Statistics help to measure and compare productivity of different factors of production (land, labour, capital and enterprise). Statistics also helps to adjust the supply according to demand. + In the study of ‘Exchange’ In exchange, price determination through market forces of demand and supply is studied. Statistics help to study the theory of price determination + Inthestudy of ‘Distribution’ In distribution, we study how national income generated is distributed among different factors of production. Statistical data helps in solving various problems that arise due to unequal distribution of national income and wealth. Importance of Statistics in Economic Planning Economic Planning is indispensable for achieving faster rate of growth through the best use of nation’s resources. + Atevery stage of economic planning, there is a nee for figures and statistical methods, Using slat technique it is possible to assess the amounts of various resources svaibleinthe economy and accordingly determine whether the specified rateof growth + Statistical analysis of ae nee ns *egarding an economy may reveal certain crucial areas ike sing rate Which may require immediate attention Soi is rater impossible o think of of statistical teeigues Importance of Statistics in Business ‘Statistics is important in the business due to following reason: . For Establishing a Business Unit: . lablishing a Business Unit; Before staring a b feasibility. It involves detailed infor ec ‘ mation about locaton: Puts anes ie of marketshare, tumover ek sete se ‘situation where economic planning can be done without the use is necessary to know its of output, availability of 2, eve ep in making hey dein Provide guidelines, which may eng Matketing Strategy: Before a product is nunch makes tat al cist plosney a market research tam Purchasing power, habits ofthe consumers, competion, alyse data on popula 9, Repose market potential for the proc mPetitors, pricing, etc. Such studies reveal or Estimating the demand of of product: After launching to estimate the present as well asthe future deem So the business, the next step is stingchapter2 © Meaning, Scope and Importance of Statistics 4, For Production Planning: The businessman has to plan its production so that he is able to ‘meet the demand of its product and incurs minimum losses on account of over or under production. Careful production planning is essential for maintaining a balance between demand and supply. For Making Quality Control: Statistical techniques (like preparation of control charts) can also be used to control the quality of the product manufactured by a firm. 6 Accounts writing and auditing: Every business firm keeps accounts of its revenue and expenditure. + Fortaking certain decisionsin a business, these accounts are required to be summarized ina statistical way. + This may consist of the calculation of typical measures like average production per unit of labour, average production per hour, average rate of return on investment, et + Statistical methods may also be helpful in generalizing relationships between two or more of such variables. 2.5 LIMITATIONS OF STATISTICS ‘The main limitations of statistics are: 1. Statistics does not study qualitative phenomena: Statistics can be applied in studying only those problems which can be stated and expressed quantitatively. + Qualitative characteristics such as honesty, poverty, welfare, beauty, health, etc. cannot directly be measured quantitatively. + Asa result, qualitative characteristics are not suitable for statistical analysis. 2. Statistics does not deal with individuals: Statistics deals only with aggregates of facts and no importance is attached to individual items. For example, marks of one student of a class does not constitute statistics, but the average marks have statistical relevance. 5, Statistics can be Misused: Statistics can be misused by ignorant or wrongly motivated persons, Any person can misuse statistics and draw any type of conclusion he likes. PORT ee rks There is an interesting story which wil ustiy this viewpoint: Once a family of four persons (husband, wife and two children) set out to cross a river father knew the average depth of the river So, he calculated the average height of his members. Since the average height of his family members was greater than the depth of the river, he thought they could cross safely. Consequently some family (children) drowned while erossing the river Inthe given case, the fautisnotwith the statistical method of misuse of average. The Statistics has been be misused by’ conclusions. So, itis rightly said “Statistical 4. Statistical results are true only on avé results are affected by a large nt universally true. For exampli not mean that every stuStatistics for Economics 5, Statistical laws are not exact: As statistical laws are probabilistic in nature, inferences ‘based on them are only approximate and not exact like inferences based on mathematical or scientific laws. 6. Only Experts can make the Best Possible use of Statistics: The techniques of Statistics are rot o simple tobe used by any layman. These techniques can only be used by the experts as they are complicated in nature. 7, Statistical data should be uniform and homogeneous: It is essential that data must be uniform and homogeneous. Heterogeneous data are not comparable. For example, it ‘would be of no use to compare the heights of trees with the heights of men because these data are of heterogeneous nature. 8, Statistics is only one of the methods of studying a problem: Statistical methods are only. ‘a means to understand any given problem rather than a method to solve any problem. ‘There are other methods also for studying a problem. These methods should be used to supplement the conclusions derived with the help of statistics. So, itis rightly said that ‘Statistics is only a means and not the end’ Distrust of Statistics Distrust of statistics means lack of confidence in statistical methods and statements. + Inspite of the services provided by statistics, considerable distrust exists in the minds of people with regard to its reliability and usefulness. + Thereason for this distrust is improper use of statistical tools by unscrupulous, irresponsible, inexperienced and dishonest persons. Peres ‘The ‘Distrust of Statistics refers to lack of confidence in the statistical methods and statements’. Undoubtedly, statistical tools have yielded important results in almost every ‘eld of knowledge. Statistics does not prove or disprove a thing tis merely a tool. Causes of Distrust, Tre distrust of statistics occurs due to following reasons: () Incomplete Knowiedge of Siatistcal Methods; (i) Urvealistic Assumptions; (ii) Deliberate Misuso of Statist; () lgnoring Limitations of Statistics; i _ ae (¥) Wrong Application of Statistical Methods. ‘Toovercome the problems of di of slasies shoud be tapt Trina galng pretailons shouldbe taken: ()Lmtations i) Data shoul Ai) Only Experts should make use of the statistics; ace wna vane et 8 teu enquiry) Great care and caution should be statistics (¥) The user should be impartial.CChapter2. © Meaning, Scope and Importance of Statistics Pension or POwTs Statistics in Plural Sense: Statics refers to aggrogatos of facta, aflcted to a markad extort vy multiply of causes, numerically expressed, enumerated or estimated according 10 reasonable standards of accuracy, collected in a systematic manner for predetermined purpose and placed in relation to each other. Characteristics of Statistics In Plural Sense: Statistics as used in plural sonse, must possess the following characteristics (0 Aggregates of facts w Statistics are collected for a pre-determined (i), Affected by muttiplicty of causes. purpose (i), Statistics are numerically exprossed (w) Statistics are collected in a systematic (iv). Statistics should be collected with ‘manner reasonable standard of accuracy (vi) Statistics should be placed in relation to each othor Statistics in Singular Sense may be defined as he collection, organisation, presentation, analysis and itorpretation of numerical data. Features of Statistics in Singular Sense: Statistics as used in singular sense, must possess the ‘olowing features: (i) Collection of Data (Analysis of Data (i), Organisation of Data (0) Inerpretation of Data (i) Presentation of Data Funetions of Statistics: The broad functions performed by statistics are: {0 Tosimpity complex facts (\). To help in forecasting (i), To present acts in dente form (v)_ Formulation and Testing of Hypothesis (To make comparison of facts (vil) To enlarge individual knowledge and {iv) Tofaciitate planning and policy formulation experience Importance of Statistics to the Government: Government colecs largest amount of statistics to {util he welfare objectives in adation tothe efficent running oftheir administration. + Time-Seties Analysis, Index Numbers, Forecasting and Demand Analysis are extensively used in formulating economic polices, + Various poitieal groups also use statistical analysis to popularise themselves inthe masses. Importance of Statistics in Economics: Statistics is an indispensable too for proper understanding of various economic problems, Some of the Uses of statistics in economics are (0. Formulation of Economic Laws. (Ww). Helps in establishing mathematical {i)_ Helps in understanding and solving an relation economic problem. (¥) Usetl to study behaviour of diferent (i). Study of markt structures. economic concepts. (Wi) Price Analysis Importance of Statistics in Economic Planning: At every stage of economic planning, there is 4 need for figures and statistical methods. Using statistical techniques, i is possible to assess the amounts of various resources avaiable n the economy, Importance of Statistics in Business: Statistics i importantin the business due to folowing reasons: (i) For establishing a business unit. (iv) For making quality control. (3), Forestimating the demand of product. (&) For making marketing strategy. (i). For production planning (7) Accounts wring and aucting.istics: The main limitations of statistics are: es t study qualitative (vi) Only Experts can make not study qi por (@ Statisics does not deal with individuals. (vi). Statistical data should be uniform ang (ii) Statistics can be misused. homogeneous. (v) Statistical results are true only on average. (vil) Statistics is only one of the methods (¥)_ Statistical laws are not exact. studying a problem. P ‘+ Distrust of Statistics means lack of confidence in statistical methods and statements. Ba Meee ou ey 2 Q.1. Statistics is fll of advantages and does not suffer from a single limitation. Do you agree’ ‘Ans. No, | do not agree with the given statement. Statistics suffers from following limitations: i) Statistics does not study qualitative \) Statistical laws are not exact. Se facta oes w Only Experts can make the best possible (i) Statistics does not deal with individuals. use of statistics. (ii). Statistics can be misused. (vi). Statistical data should be uniform and (Ww) Statistical results are rue only on average. homogeneous. Q.2. What do you mean by ‘Distrust of Statistics"? ‘Ans. Distrust of statistics means lack of confidencein statistical methods and statements. Inspite of the services Provided by statistics, considerable distrust exists in the minds of people with regard to its reliability and Usefulness. The reason for his distrust is improper use of statistical tools by unscrupulous, irresponsible, inexperienced and dishonest persons. .3, Which of the following statements categorise Statistics in ‘Plural Sense’ and ‘Singular Sense’ (2) Statistics refers to aggregates of facts. (©) Statistics involves presentation of data (©) Statistics includes interpretation of data, 4 (@) Statistics is collected for a pre-determined purpose. (©) Statistics involves collection and organisation of data, (0) ‘Statistics should be collected with reasonable standard of accuracy. ‘Ans. Statistics in Pura Sense: (a), (d), (Statistics in Singular Sense: (b),(c), (e). Q. 4, ‘Statistics is affected by multiplicity of causes’ Explain his with the hel ‘Ans. Numerical data given in statistics is influenced by variety of factors ts efecto ey one ar Separately ylgnosing oer factor. For exam top, say rice is affected by the rainfall, fertilizer, seeds, .5. State whether the following statements are True ot False: (i) Any single numerical figure is statistics. {") Statistics makes the complicated data simple and i (ii) n singular sense, Statistics means Ans. True: (i); False: (V, (i), Ip of an example. is not an easy job to study the ple, statistics of production of a c telligible. collection of numerical facts, bee eS