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Basic Electronic Components

If you are new to electronics or starting to build electronic circuits, then the
important thing to do is to get familiar with few Basic Electronic Components and
Equipment. Without understanding these basic electronic components i.e. their
values, ratings, purpose etc. your circuit design might not function as expected.

There are many electronic components like Resistors, Capacitors, LEDs,

Transistors, etc. and there are also many equipment like a Power Supply,
Oscilloscope, Function Generator (or Signal Generator), Multimeter, etc.

In this tutorial, you can get a brief overview of few of the most common basic
electronic components. For more information about a particular component, you
can check out the link associated with individual component.

Outline
 Basic Electronic Components
o Active Electronic Components
 Diodes
 Transistors
 Integrated Circuits (ICs)
 Vacuum Tubes
 Power sources
 DC Power Supply
 Batteries
 Display Devices
 16 x 2 LCD
 7 – Segment Display
o Passive Components
 Resistors
 Capacitors
 Inductors
o Basic Test and Measurement Equipment
 Oscilloscope
 Multimeter
 Function Generator or Signal Generator
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Basic Electronic Components

There are many ways to classify different types of electronic components but the
most common way is to classify them in to three types:

1)Active Electronic Components,

2)Passive Electronic Components and

3)Electromechanical Components.

Active Electronic Components

Strictly speaking, an Active Component is a device that acts as a source of

energy, like a battery. But the definition of Active Components differs according
to a few electronic engineers who perform circuit analysis. Active components
are defined as the devices that depend on energy source and can introduce
power into a circuit.

For example consider the diode, which is an active component. When the diode
is connected to the circuit and energy source is applied, it immediately does not
conduct the electrons. It starts conducting only when its threshold value is
reached. Thus it depends on the energy source for its working. Hence it is an
active component.

Active Electronic Components can control the flow of electrons through them.
Some of the commonly used Active Components are Transistors,
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Semiconductors(Diodes), ICs (Integrated Circuits), Power Sources (Batteries, AC

and DC Power Supplies), etc.

Diodes

A diode is a non-linear semiconductor device, that allows the flow of current in

one direction. A Diode is a two – terminal device and the two terminals are
Anode and Cathode respectively. The following is the symbol of a Diode.

There are again a variety of components that come under the category of
Diodes. They are PN Junction Diode, Light Emitting Diode (LED), Zener Diode,
Schottky Diode, Photodiode, and DIAC.

Table for different types of diodes

Diode Application
GUNN Diode Used in producing microwave signals
Laser Diode Used in fiber optic communications, barcode readers ,CD/DVD drives.
Light emitting diode Using lightening applications like aviation lightening, traffic signals, camera fla
Photodiode Used as high voltage rectifier, photo detector, radio frequency switch.
Step recovery Diode Used for generation and shaping of high frequency pulses.
Tunnel Diode Used in microwave applications
Varactor diode Mostly used in radio frequency applications.
Zener Diode Mostly used as voltage reference diodes

Transistors

Transistor, the invention that changed the future of electronic circuits. It is a

semiconductor device that can be used to either switch electrical power or
amplify electronic signals.
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A Transistor is a 3 terminal device that can be either a current controlled device

or a voltage controlled device.Different types of transistors exists.Basically they
are classified as

1) Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) and

2) Field Effect Transistors (FET).

They can be further classified as shown below

More information on TRANSISTORS.

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Integrated Circuits (ICs)

An Integrated Circuit or an IC is an integration or incorporation of several

electronic components (mainly transistors) on a single device (or chip) made up
of a semiconductor material (usually Silicon).

Almost all electronic devices like TVs, Mobile Phones, Laptops, Audio Players,
Routers, etc. have Integrated Circuit in them.

ICs are again divided into Analog ICs and Digital ICs. Analog ICs work on Analog
Signals like Temperature, Audio, etc. which are continuously varying in nature.
Digital ICs on the other hand, work on Discrete Signals i.e. zero volts and a non-
zero volts (like 5V or 3.3V) that are represented as Binary 0 and 1.
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The commonly used IC in basic electronic circuits are Op – Amps (Operational

Amplifiers) like LM741, Timers like NE555, Microcontrollers like AT89S52,
Counters like CD4017 and Motor Drivers like L293D.

Vacuum Tubes

Before the invention of transistor vacuum tubes were used in place of transistors.
This is defined as an electron tube that controls the flow of electrons in vacuum.
CRT screens used in old TVs and computer monitors are best examples for
vacuum tubes.

Power sources

DC Power Supply

Bench Power Supply is an important piece of equipment when it comes to

working around electronic circuits. Electronic components majorly work on DC
Power Supply and hence having a reliable source of DC Power Supply is very
important.

There are many types of Power Supplies like AC – to – DC Power Supplies,

Linear Regulators, Switching Mode Power Supply, etc.An alternative to bench
power supply is to use a wall adapter as per the project requirement like 5V or
12V.

Batteries
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Battery is a device that converts chemical energy in to electrical energy and

provides power to devices like mobile phones, laptops, flashlights, etc. In
electronics, we often use batteries to power our circuits, either to make the circuit
portable or just to test the functionality of the circuit.

Batteries come in different sizes and voltage. Batteries are also classified as
Primary and Secondary. You can use Primary Batteries until they are drained out
and discard them later. In case of Secondary Batteries, you can use them even
after they are drained out by recharging them.In electronic circuits, we often use
1.5V AA Batteries or 9V PP3 Batteries.

Display Devices

16 x 2 LCD

The most commonly used display module in electronic circuits is an LCD Display
and in particular, a 16 x 2 LCD Display. It is an alphanumeric display with two
rows and 16 columns and can display a maximum of 32 characters.

7 – Segment Display

Another common display module is the Seven Segment Display. It can be used
to display decimal numerals in different electronic devices like clocks, meters,
calculators, public information systems, etc.

Passive Components
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Passive Components cannot control the flow of current through them i.e. they
cannot introduce energy in to the circuit but can increase or decrease voltage
and current.

These components don’t depend on the energy source for their operation.Two
terminal components like Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors and transformers are
examples of Passive Components.

Resistors

The basic of all electronic components are the Resistors. It is a passive

electronic components that introduces electrical resistance in to the circuit. Using
resistors, we can reduce the current, divide voltages, setup biasing of transistors
(or other active elements), etc.

Read about Resistors here: INTRODUCTION TO RESISTORS.

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Ohm’s Law defines the behavior of a resistor which states that the current
through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across the conductor.
The proportionality constant is called as Resistance.

The mathematical representation of Ohm’s Law is I = V/R.

Different types of resistors can be defined according to their

function,size,characteristics etc.Resistors are divided in to Fixed Resistors and
Variable Resistors.

Fixed Resistors, as the name suggests, have a fixed resistance and its
resistance doesn’t change due to external parameters.Variable Resistors, on the
other hand, have a variable resistance that can either be changed manually or
controlled by external factors like Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or Thermistor.
Below image shows different types of resistors available.
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Capacitors

The second important passive components is a capacitor, a device that stores

energy in the form of electric field. Most capacitors consists of two conducting
plates that are separated by a dielectric material.

If Q is the charge on any one of the conductor plates and V is the voltage
between them, then the Capacitance C of the Capacitor is C = Q/V.
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In electronics circuits, a capacitor is mainly used to block DC Current and allow

AC Current. The other applications of capacitors are filters, timing circuits, power
supplies and energy storing elements.

There are many types of Capacitors like Polarized, Non – Polarized, Ceramic,
Film, Electrolytic, Super Capacitors etc.

Also Read INTRODUCTION TO CAPACITORS.

Inductors
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If capacitors store energy in the form of electric field, then inductors are devices
that store energy in the form of Magnetic Field. Inductor is nothing but a wire that
is wound in the form of a coil.

Inductor is widely used in AC equipment like filters, chokes, tuned circuits etc.

The core around which the coil is wound i.e. air, iron, ferrite etc. will determine
the strength of the magnetic field. Inductors opposes the change in electric
current through them and the changes in current will result in induction of
voltage.

More information on INDUCTORS.

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Basic Test and Measurement Equipment

When it comes to designing electronic circuits, testing and measuring various

parameters like current, voltage, frequency, resistance, capacitance, etc. is very
important. Hence, the Test and Measurement Equipment like Oscilloscopes,
Multimeters, Logic Analyzers, Function Generators (or Signal Generators) are
often used regularly.

Oscilloscope

The most reliable Test Equipment for observing continuously varying signals is
an Oscilloscope. With the help of an Oscilloscope, we can observe the changes
in an electrical signal like voltage, over time.

Oscilloscopes are used in a wide range of field like Medical, Electronic,

Automobile, Industrial and Telecommunication Applications.
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Originally, Oscilloscopes are made up of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) displays but
nowadays, almost all Oscilloscopes are Digital Oscilloscopes with advanced
features like storage and memory.

Multimeter

A multimeter is a combination of Voltmeter, Ammeter and Ohmmeter. They

provide an easy way to measure different parameters of an electronic circuit like
current, voltage etc.

Multimeters can measure values in both AC and DC. Earlies Multimeters are
Analog and consists of a pointing needle. Modern Multimeters are Digital and are
often called as Digital Multimeters or DMMs.
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DMMs are available as handheld devices as well as bench devices. A Multimeter

can be very handy in finding basic faults in a circuit.

Function Generator or Signal Generator

A Signal Generator, as the name suggests, generates a variety of signals for

testing and troubleshooting electronic circuits. The most common types of signals
are Triangular Wave, Sine Wave, Square Wave and Sawtooth Wave.
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Along with a bench power supply and oscilloscope, a function generator is also
an important piece of equipment when designing electronic circuits.

In this article, we have seen few Basic Electronic Components and Test
Equipment that we come across very frequently when designing or testing
electronic circuits.

There are a lot more components like Transformers, Buttons, Switches,

Connectors, etc. which we can explore as we move forward with a projec

SEMICONDUCTOR THEORY
What Is a Semiconductor? Semiconductors are used

extensively in electronic circuits. As its name implies, a semiconductor is a material that conducts

current, but only partly. The conductivity of a semiconductor is somewhere between that of an

insulator, which has almost no conductivity, and a conductor, which has almost full conductivity.

Most semiconductors are crystals made of certain materials, most commonly silicon.

To understand how semiconductors work, you must first understand a little about how electrons are
organized in an atom. The electrons in an atom are organized in layers. These layers are
called shells. The outermost shell is called the valence shell.

The electrons in this shell are the ones that form bonds with neighboring atoms. Such bonds are
called covalent bonds. Most conductors have just one electron in the valence shell. Semiconductors,
on the other hand, typically have four electrons in their valence shell.
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If all the neighboring atoms are of the same type, it’s possible for all the valence electrons to bind
with valence electrons from other atoms. When that happens, the atoms arrange themselves into
structures called crystals. Semiconductors are made out of such crystals, usually silicon crystals.

Here, each circle represents a silicon atom, and the lines between the atoms represent the shared
electrons. Each of the four valence electrons in each silicon atom is shared with one neighboring
silicon atom. Thus, each silicon atom is bonded with four other silicon atoms.

Pure silicon crystals are not all that useful electronically. But if you introduce small amounts of other
elements into a crystal, the crystal starts to conduct in an interesting way.

The process of deliberately introducing other elements into a crystal is called doping. The element
introduced by doping is called a dopant. By carefully controlling the doping process and the dopants
that are used, silicon crystals can transform into one of two distinct types of conductors:

 N-type semiconductor: Created when the dopant is an element that has five electrons in its
valence layer. Phosphorus is commonly used for this purpose.

The phosphorus atoms join right in the crystal structure of the silicon, each one bonding with four
adjacent silicon atoms just like a silicon atom would. Because the phosphorus atom has five
electrons in its valence shell, but only four of them are bonded to adjacent atoms, the fifth valence
electron is left hanging out with nothing to bond to.
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The extra valence electrons in the phosphorous atoms start to behave like the single valence
electrons in a regular conductor such as copper. They are free to move about. Because this type of
semiconductor has extra electrons, it’s called an N-type semiconductor.

 P-type semiconductor: Happens when the dopant (such as boron) has only three electrons in the
valence shell. When a small amount is incorporated into the crystal, the atom is able to bond with
four silicon atoms, but since it has only three electrons to offer, a hole is created. The hole behaves
like a positive charge, so semiconductors doped in this way are called P-type semiconductors.

Like a positive charge, holes attract electrons. But when an electron moves into a hole, the electron
leaves a new hole at its previous location. Thus, in a P-type semiconductor, holes are constantly
moving around within the crystal as electrons constantly try to fill them up.
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When voltage is applied to either an N-type or a P-type semiconductor, current flows, for the same
reason that it flows in a regular conductor: The negative side of the voltage pushes electrons, and
the positive side pulls them. The result is that the random electron and hole movement that’s always
present in a semiconductor becomes organized in one direction, creating measurable electric current

Basics of Semiconductor Diodes

In this tutorial, we will learn about an introduction to semiconductors as they are
an essential part of Electronics. Before understanding several devices like
Semiconductor Diodes, Transistors, etc. it is important to know a little bit about
the electrical conductivity, energy gap and basic types of semiconductors.

This part of the tutorial will lay out a key foundation in easily learning the PN
Junction, which is next in line.
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AREAS OF DISCUSSION!

 Introduction
 Resistivity
 Conductors
 Insulators
 Semiconductors
 Structure of Pure Silicon Atom
 N-Type Semiconductor
o N-type Semiconductor Doping
 P-Type Semiconductor
o P-Type Semiconductor Doping
 Semiconductor Basics Summary
o In N-type Semiconductors
o In P-type Semiconductors

Introduction

There are two types of semiconductor components in electronic and electrical

circuits. They are active and passive components. Diodes are the foremost active
components and resistors are the foremost passive components in electronic
design circuits. Diodes are essentially unidirectional devices having exponential
relationship for the current-voltage characteristics are made from semiconductor
materials.

The three necessary materials that are utilized in electronics are insulators,
semiconductors and conductors. These materials are classified in terms of
electrical phenomenon. Electrical resistivity conjointly known as electrical
resistance is a measure of how efficiently a material refuses the electrical current
to flow through it.
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The quality unit of the electrical resistivity is the ohm meter [Ω m]. A material with
low electrical resistivity indicates the effective movement of electrical charge
throughout the semiconductor.

Semiconductors are the materials whose resistivity values are in between

insulators and conductors. These materials are neither smart insulators nor smart
conductors. They have only a few free electrons because their atoms are tightly
bonded in an exceedingly crystalline form are referred to as a “crystal lattice”.
Samples of semiconductors are silicon and germanium.

Semiconductors have high importance in the manufacture of electronic circuits

and integrated devices. The conductivity of semiconductors can be altered easily
by varying the temperature and concentration of doping in the fabrication
process. The capability to conduct electricity in semiconductor materials is
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considerably increased by a adding definite quantity of impurities to the

crystalline lattice producing additional free electrons than holes.

The properties of semiconductor materials change considerably by adding small

amounts of impurities to it. The process of shifting the balance between electrons
and holes by incorporating impurity atoms in the silicon crystal lattice is called as
doping. These impurity atoms are known as dopants. Based on the type of
doping material incorporated, semiconductor crystals are classified into two types
particularly n-type semiconductors and p-type semiconductors.

Group –V elements such as phosphorus, antimony and arsenic are usually

classified as N-type impurities. These elements have five valence electrons.
When N-type impurities are doped into silicon crystal, four of the five valence
electrons form four strong covalent bonds with adjacent crystal atoms leaving
one free electron.
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Likewise, every N-type impurity atom produces a free electron in the conduction
band which will drift to conduct electric current if a potential is applied to the
material. N-type semiconductors can also be referred as Donors.

Group–III elements such as boron, aluminium, gallium and indium are usually
classified as P-type impurities. These elements have three valence electrons.
When P-type impurities are doped into silicon crystal, all the three valence
electrons form three strong covalent bonds with adjacent crystal atoms.

There is a deficit of electrons to form the fourth covalent bond and this deficiency
is termed as holes. Likewise, every P-type impurity atom produces a hole in the
valence band which will drift to conduct electric current if a potential is applied to
the material. P-type semiconductors can also be referred as Acceptors.
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Resistivity

A characteristic property of every material that is helpful in comparing different

materials on the basis of their ability to conduct electric current is known as
electrical resistivity. Resistivity can be approximated by multiplying the resistance
R of an electrical wire and the cross sectional area A, divided by the length of the
wire L.

Conductivity, that is reciprocal of the electrical resistivity conjointly characterizes

the materials how well they permit the electrical current to pass through them.
Sensible conductors have lowest electrical resistivity and high conductivity.
Electrical resistivity depends strongly on the presence of impurity atoms within
the material and on the temperature of the material, i.e., at room temperature
(20ºC).

For various conductors, semiconductors and insulators, the resistivity values vary
linearly with variations in temperature. The change in electrical resistance per
degree Celsius of temperature change is called the temperature coefficient of
resistance. This factor is represented by the letter “alpha” (α).

A positive temperature coefficient for a material means that its resistance

increases with an increase in temperature. Pure conductors will typically have a
positive temperature coefficient of resistance. A negative coefficient for a material
means that its resistance decreases with an increase in temperature.
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Semiconductor materials (carbon, silicon, and germanium) typically have a

negative temperature coefficient of resistance. Different materials with their
resistivity values and temperature coefficients are given in the table below.

Conductors

Conductors are built with low resistive materials having resistivity values in the
order of micro-ohms per meter (µΩ/m). Metals with terribly low electrical
resistivity of the order of 1 x ohm meters are called as conductors. These metals
have a large number of free electrons.
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These free electrons leave the valence layer of their parental atom and form a
drift of electrons known as an electric current. Therefore, metals are superb
conductors of electricity.

Metals like copper, aluminium, gold and silver and other non metals such as
carbon are ancient conducting materials. Most of the metallic conductors are
good conductors of electricity, having smaller resistance values and high
conduction values.

Throughout the process of conduction, heat flows throughout the body. During
conduction this heat flow may be considered as a loss of energy and the loss
increases with increase in temperature after it reaches the room temperature i.e.,
25°C.

Insulators

In distinction to conductors, insulators are made up of non-metals having

resistivity values in the order of 1 x ohm meters. Non-metals have only a few or
no free electrons flowing through it or within the parental atomic structure as the
outermost electrons are tightly bonded in covalent bonds between a pair of
atoms. Since the electrons are negatively charged, the free electrons within the
valence layer are easily attracted by the positively charged particles within the
nucleus.

Since there are no free electrons, when a positive potential is applied, there will
be no electrical current to flow through the material giving insulating properties.
Therefore insulators (non-metals) are very poor conductors of electricity.
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Non-metals like glass, plastic, rubber, wood, sand, quartz and Teflon are
sensible examples of insulators. Glass insulators are used for prime voltage
power transmission. Insulators are used as protectors of warmth, sound and
electricity.

Semiconductors

Semiconductors have the electrical properties in between insulators and

conductors. Smart examples of perfect semiconductors are silicon (Si),
germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs). These elements have only a few
electrons within the parental atomic structure that form a crystal lattice.

Silicon, the basic semiconductor material, contains four valence electrons within
the outer shell forming four strong covalent bonds with four adjacent silicon
atoms, such that each atom shares an electron with the neighbouring atom
creating a strong covalent bond. The silicon atoms are organized in a lattice
form, creating them a crystalline structure.

Conducting electric current is feasible with silicon semiconductor crystal by

supplying external potential to the semiconductor and incorporating the impurity
dopants into the semiconductor crystal thereby creating positive and negative
charged holes.

Structure of Pure Silicon Atom

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The silicon atom has 14 electrons; however the orbital arrangement has solely 4
valence electrons to be shared by alternative atoms. These valence electrons
play a crucial role in photo voltaic effect. Large number of silicon atoms bond
together to make a crystalline structure.

In this structure, each silicon atom shares one of its four valence electrons with
their neighboring silicon atoms. The solid silicon crystal composed of a regular
series of units of five silicon atoms. This regular and fixed arrangement of silicon
atoms are unit is referred to as a crystal lattice.
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N-Type Semiconductor

Impurities like phosphorous, arsenic and antimony are added to the silicon
crystalline structure, to transform intrinsic semiconductor into extrinsic
semiconductor. These impurity atoms are known as pentavalent impurities as a
result of the five valence electrons in the outermost shell to share the free
electrons with the neighbouring atoms.

Pentavalent impurity atoms are also known as donors because the five valence
electrons in the impurity atom bond with the four valence electrons of silicon
forming four covalent bonds, leaving one free electron. Each impurity atom
produces a free electron within the conduction band. Once a positive potential is
applied to the N-type semiconductor, the remaining free electrons form a drift to
produce an electrical current.
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An N-type semiconductor is a better conductor than the intrinsic semiconductor

material. The majority charge carriers in N-type semiconductors are electrons
and minority charge carriers are holes. The N-type semiconductors are not
negatively charged, because the negative charge of donor impurity atoms is
balanced by the positive charge within the nucleus.

The major contribution to the electric current flow is negatively charged electrons
though there is some amount of contribution by the positively charged holes due
to electron-hole pair.

N-type Semiconductor Doping

If group 5 element, such as Antimony impurity is added to the silicon crystal, the
Antimony atom builds four covalent bonds with four silicon atoms by bonding the
valence electrons of antimony with the valence electrons within the silicon
outermost shell, leaving one free electron. Therefore the impurity atom has
donated a free electron to the structure so these impurities are referred to as
donor atoms.
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P-Type Semiconductor

The group 3 elements such as boron, aluminium and indium are supplementary
to the silicon crystalline structure having solely three electrons within the
outermost shell, form three closed covalent bonds, leaving the hole in the
covalent bond structure and therefore a hole in the valence band of the energy
level diagram.

This action leaves an abundant number of positively charged carriers referred to

as holes in the crystalline structure when there is electron deficiency. These
group 3 elements are called as trivalent impurity atoms.

The presence of abundant holes attracts the neighboring electrons to sit in it. As
long as the electron fills the holes in the silicon crystal there will be new holes
behind the electron as it goes far from it. The newly created holes successfully
attract the electrons, creating other new holes leads to the movement of holes,
creating a standard electric current flow in the semiconductor.
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The movement of holes in the silicon crystal seems the silicon crystal as a
positive pole. As long as the impurity atoms invariably generate holes, group 3
elements are referred to as acceptors as a result of the impurity atoms are
continually accepting the free electrons.

The doping of group 3 elements in silicon crystal leads to P-type semiconductor.

In this P-type semiconductor holes are the majority charge carriers and electrons
are the minority charge carriers.

P-Type Semiconductor Doping

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If group 3 elements such as such as boron, gallium and indium are added to the
semiconductor crystal, the impurity atoms having three valence electrons form
three strong covalent bonds with the silicon crystal valence electrons leaving one
vacancy. This vacancy is called as a hole and it is diagrammatically represented
by a small circle or positive sign due to the absence of a negative charge.
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Semiconductor Basics Summary

N-type materials are type of materials formed by adding group 5 elements

(pentavalent impurity atoms) to the semiconductor crystals and conduct the
electric current by movement of electrons.

In N-type Semiconductors

 The impurity atoms are pentavalent elements.

 Impurity elements with solid crystal give a large number of free electrons.
 Pentavalent impurities are also called as donors.
 Doping gives the less number of holes in relation to the number of free
electrons.
 Doping with group 5 elements results in positively charged donors and
negatively charged free electrons.
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P-type materials are a type of materials formed when group 3 elements (trivalent
impurity atoms) are added to the solid crystal. In these semiconductors the
current flow is mainly due to the holes.

In P-type Semiconductors

1. The impurity atoms are trivalent elements.

2. Trivalent elements results in excess number of holes which always accepts
electrons. Hence trivalent impurities are called as acceptors.
3. Doping gives the less number of free electrons in relation to the number of
holes.
4. Doping results in negatively charged acceptors and positively charged
holes
Both p-type and N-type are electrically neural on their own because the
contribution of electrons and holes required for conducting electrical current are
equal due to electron-hole pair. Both boron (B) and antimony (Sb) are called
metalloids because they are the most commonly used doping agents for the
intrinsic semiconductor to improve the properties of conductivity.
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The PN Junction
In this tutorial, we will learn about one of the most important concepts in the
semiconductor electronics i.e. the PN Junction. Although it is not discussed
majorly outside the concept of PN Junction Diode and sometimes the Transistor,
a PN Junction is an essential topic in semiconductor electronics.

So, in this PN Junction tutorial, we will discuss some of the basics of a PN

Junction, how a PN Junction is formed, characteristics of PN Junction and many
other aspects.

Outline
 Introduction
 Semiconductor Electronics Basics
 How is a PN Junction Formed?
 PN Junction when Potential is Applied
 PN Junction
 Built in Potential of PN Junction

Introduction

When talking about semiconductor devices like diodes, transistors and others,
PN Junction forms the basis of it. Few semiconductor devices like
Photoconductors, for example, are usually formed by doping a single type of
impurity. But this is a limited case scenario and most of the semiconductor
devices need both types of doping.

A PN Junction is basically formed by introducing (called as Doping) acceptor

impurities on one side of a semiconductor crystal while the other side is doped
with donor impurities.
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The interface between these two regions is called a PN Junction.

Semiconductor Electronics Basics

The electrical conductivity of a semiconductor for instance silicon or germanium

depends on the concentration of electrical carriers within the conduction band.
The properties of conductivity rely upon the number of dopants present in the
doping process.

The conductivity of Silicon is accumulated by a factor 10 3 at room temperature by

the addition of 1 Boron atom per 105 Silicon atoms.

An N-type semiconductor is created by doping the silicon crystal with pentavalent

impurity like Antimony and a P-type semiconductor is formed by doping the
silicon crystal with trivalent impurity like Boron in tiny concentration.

Both antimony and boron are the essential semiconductor impurities utilized in
the process of doping; hence they are referred to as “metalloids”. Individually
both the N-type and P-type semiconductors are electrically neutral.

How is a PN Junction Formed?

PN junction is created in a single semiconductor crystal by doping one side of the

crystal with acceptor impurity atoms building it as P-type and doping the opposite
side with donor impurity atoms building it as N-type. The region where the P-type
and N-type converge is referred to as PN junction.
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In the region of PN junction, the electrons in the N-type material scatter the
junction and combines with the holes in the P-type material. The region of P-type
material which is close to the junction in the semiconductor takes on the negative
charge for the rationale that the electrons are get attracted by the holes.

As the electrons are departed from the N-type region, it takes on the positive
charge. Therefore, at the junction there is an inclination for the free electrons to
diffuse into the P-type region and holes to the N-type region and this process is
named as diffusion.

The skinny layer sandwiched between these two regions is depleted of majority
carriers are referred to as the depletion region. The state of equilibrium of PN
junction is defined as the state wherever the PN junction is left without any
external electrical potential applied to it.

This can be also be additionally defined as the state of zero voltage bias
condition. The width of the depletion region is incredibly thin, typically a few
thousands of millimetres, current may not flow through the diode.
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PN Junction when Potential is Applied

Different properties are noticed, depending on the width of the depletion region. If
the positive potential is applied in such away the P type area becomes positive
and therefore the N type becomes negative, holes travel towards the negative
voltage.

Equally electrons move towards the positive voltage and jump the depletion
layer. The charge density of P-type in the depletion region is staffed with
negatively charged acceptor ions as a result the charge density of N-type
becomes positive.

Potential barrier constitutes the partition of charge carriers in the middle of the
PN junction. This potential barrier should overcome by an external electric
potential resource to make the PN junction to conduct electric current.

The formation of the junction and potential barrier in the semiconductor diode
happens throughout the manufacturing process of the PN junction semiconductor
diode. The degree of the potential barrier may be a function of the materials used
in manufacturing of PN junction diodes.

Silicon PN junction semiconductor diode has excellent potential barrier

magnitude than germanium PN junction diodes.

PN Junction
 40

A PN junction is fabricated by sticking both the P-type and N-type within the
same semiconductor crystal itself. The majority charge carriers in P-type is
positively charged holes and in N-type is negatively charged electrons.

The overall charge on both sides of a PN Junction must be equal and opposite to
keep up a neutral charge condition around the junction owing to electron-hole
pair. The layer between the P-type and N-type where the charge carriers are
replicated multiple times is noted as depletion region.

In the equilibrium state no conduction takes place at the PN junction. The

conduction of PN junction involves the majority charge carriers diffusion and
minority charge carriers drift. Conduction of electrical current in PN junction
physically involves in both conduction band and valence band.
 41

Once the external battery is provided the flow of electrons takes place in the
conduction band, whereas the flow of holes takes place in the valence band.

At zero voltage bias equilibrium condition, the minority concentration of holes and
electrons will drift simply under the influence of incorporating electric field E. The
diffusion of majority charge carriers have to cross the potential barrier VB of the
PN junction formed as the effect of the depletion region.

This shall mean that majority charge carriers of the N-type and P-type should at
least attain energy of qVB electron volts (eV) before it will surmount the barrier
and diffuse into either P-type or N-type region.

The shift of electrons from N side of the PN junction to holes annihilated on the P
side of the PN junction produces a potential barrier voltage. The value of barrier
voltage is close to 0.6 to 0.7 V in silicon, 0.3 V in germanium and varies with the
levels of doping in different semiconductors.

The blocks of P-type and N-type semiconductors in contact with each other have
no exploitable properties. Potential barrier must be crossed by the external
voltage source to make the PN junction to conduct electricity. If a source of
potential is connected in such a way that positive terminal is connected to P side
and the negative terminal is connected to the N side.

The negative terminal provides the electrons to the N-type to diffuse towards the
depletion layer. Equally the positive terminal removes the electrons in the P-type
creating holes that diffuse towards the depletion region.
 42

If the battery supply is big enough to overcome the barrier voltage, then the
majority charge carriers from N-type and P-type combine and deplete the
junction. As a result more number of charge carriers is replicated and flows
towards the depletion region as long as the applied potential is greater than the
potential barrier.

Therefore majority charge current is conducted and flows towards the junction.
During this approach once the current is conducted owing to majority charge
carriers, the PN junction is said to be forward biased.

If the battery terminals are reversed, then the majority charge carriers of N-type
are attracted by the positive terminal from the PN junction and the holes are
attracted by the negative terminal far from the PN junction.

The width of the depletion layer increases with the applied potential, as a result
the recombination of charge carriers at the depletion layer do not takes place.
Therefore, no conduction of electric current takes place. During this approach the
PN junction is said to be reverse biased.

Built in Potential of PN Junction

The majority charge carriers in the N-type region, i.e., electrons can cross the
junction so as to recombine with majority charge carriers in the P-type region i.e.
holes. As a result, a negative static space charge builds up in the P-type region
as a result of the trivalent impurity boron atoms have a static negative charge as
they unleash a positively-charged hole in the valence band.
 43

Whereas a positive space charge is formed in the N-type region for the similar
reasons. The small volume where this space charge is created is referred to as
the space charge zone or depletion zone. As there is a powerful electric field in
this small volume, the density of free charge carriers is negligible at thermal
equilibrium state.

If the P-type and N-type semiconductors are bringing nearer, a possible potential
barrier is developed at the depletion layer. In fact, the static space charges are
accumulated at the borders of the PN junction, positive charges in the N-type
region and negative charges in the P-type region creates an electrical field
ranging from N-type to P-type, that prevents diffusion and added recombination
of electrons and holes.

Diffusion is stopped by the formation of the internal electric field. As a result of

the existence of this double layer of charges on either side of the PN junction,
potential barrier varies sharply within the depletion zone and the potential
difference Vd, called the diffusion potential or built-in potential reach non-
negligible values.

Electrostatic potential is constant all over the crystal together with the space
charge zone, because this potential takes into consideration not only the electric
field but also the concentration of charge carriers. The built in potential due to the
concentration of charge carriers compensates accurately for the electrostatic
potential.

The built-in potential or diffusion potential is proportional to the difference of the

Fermi energies of the two unbounded semiconductors:
 44

E = (1/q)*{EFp – EFn} = (kT/q)ln{[NAND]/ni2}

Where

 E is the zero bias junction voltage

 (kT/q) the thermal voltage of 26mV at room temperature.
 NA and NB are the impurity concentrations of acceptor atoms and donor
atoms
 n is the intrinsic concentration.

The built-in potential or junction potential of a semiconductor equals the potential

across the depletion region in thermal equilibrium state. As the thermal
equilibrium implies that the Fermi energy is constant throughout the PN diode
device.

The Fermi energies of the conduction band and valence band are therefore
shifted up or down, and exhibit a sleek deviation across the region of depletion
layer. As a result, there is an electrostatic potential energy difference showing
between the P-type and N-type regions, equal to qV d.
 45

The external potential needed to overcome the junction potential relies on the
operating temperature and also the kind of semiconductor. Even if the external
potential is not applied to the semiconductor, there exists some barrier potential
due to electron-hole pair.

PN junction is formed on the single semiconductor and electrical contacts are laid
around the semiconductor surface to enable the electrical connection for the
external power supply. As a result of it the final device is termed as a PN
junction diode or signal diode

The Characteristics and Working of

PN Junction Diode
In this tutorial, we will learn about PN Junction Diodes and in particular the
characteristics and working of PN Junction Diode. This understanding will lay a
better foundation for exploring further into different aspects of semiconductor
electronics.

Outline
 Introduction
 Working of PN Junction Diode
 PN Junction Diode When No External Voltage is Applied
 Forward Biased Pn Junction Diode
o Forward Biased Diode Characteristics
 Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode
o Reverse Biased Diode Characteristics
 V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode
 PN Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics
 Summary

Introduction
 46

PN junction is a significant building block and it is one among the indispensable

structures offered by the semiconductor technology in electronics. Electronic
components such as bipolar junction transistors, junction FETs and MOSFETs,
or diodes such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs), and analog or digital integrated
circuits (ICs) are all supported in semiconductor technology.

The exciting property of semiconductor diode is facilitating the electrons to flow

exclusively in one direction across it; as a result it acts as a rectifier of Alternating
Current. The indispensable operation in semiconductor diode is the basis for
understanding of all the semiconductor diodes.

The diode can be observed as a straightforward bipolar semiconductor device.

The characteristics of diode look to be a graph of current that a diode produces
when the voltage applied to it. A perfect diode can be absolutely distinguished by
its current and voltage curve.

It permits the current to flow solely in forward direction and effectively blocks the
current in the reverse direction. It is vital to recognize that the semiconductor is
 47

entirely a single-crystal material, made from two separate blocks of

semiconductor opposite kind.

One block is doped with trivalent impurity atoms to create the P region that acts
as acceptors with holes as majority charge carriers and the adjacent block is
doped with pentavalent impurity atoms to create the N region that acts as donors
with electrons as majority charge carriers.

The boundary splitting the n and p region is referred to as the metaphysical

junction. The concentration of doping is same all over in every block and there
will be an abrupt modification in doping at the junction. When the two blocks are
placed nearer to each other, the electrons and holes diffuse towards the region of
lower concentration from the region of higher concentration.

In the process of diffusion, electrons from N region diffuse towards the P region
whereas holes from P region diffuse towards the N region. Once holes enter the
N region, they will recombine with donor atoms. At the same time, donor atoms
admit additional holes and become positively charged stationary donor atoms.

The electrons spreading from N region to P region recombine with the acceptor
atoms in P region. At the same time, acceptor atoms admit additional electrons
and become negatively charged immobile acceptor atoms.

As a result, a large number of positively charged ions are produced at the

junction on the N side and a large number of negatively charged ions are
produced at the junction on P side.
 48

The net positively and negatively charged ions within the N and P regions induce
an electric field in the space near to the metaphysical junction. Merging these two
regions wherever the electric field is small and wherever the free carrier density
is equivalent to the net doping density can be named as the space charge region.

It can also be referred as a quasi neutral region. Fundamentally, all electrons and
holes are swept out of the free space charge region by the electric field. The
tapered region in which depletion of free mobile charge carriers takes place is
called as Depletion Region.

It is assumed that the depletion region around the metallurgical junction has well-
defined edges. It conjointly assumes that the transition between the depletion
region and the free space charge region is abrupt.

Depletion region contains preset positive ions on the N-side and preset negative
ions on the P-side. The width of the depletion layer is inversely proportional to
the concentration of dopants present in each region.
 49

The electric field within the depletion region creates an opposing force that
opposes the electrons and holes from diffusing attributable to the impact of
charged ions within the depletion region. This opposing force can be often cited
as potential barrier voltage. The typical value of potential barrier for silicon is
0.72V and for germanium is 0.3V.

When the electric field and barrier potential are balanced with one another, then
the state of equilibrium is reached that result in potential difference Vo
connecting the two sides of the depletion layer. The net contact potential
difference depends on the type of material and it is high for n-type than the p-
type.

In the state of thermal equilibrium, barrier potential provides low potential energy
for the electrons on N-side than P-side. Energy bands bend in the free space
charge region, since conduction and valence band positions with respect to the
Fermi energy levels changes between P and N regions.

No conduction of current takes place in this equilibrium state and the current due
to diffusion and drift current cancel for both the electrons and holes. The built-in
barrier potential maintains balance between majority charge carriers in the N
region and minority charge carriers in the P region as well as between majority
charge carriers in the P region and minority charge carriers in the N region.

The built-in potential barrier can also be estimated as the distinction between the
intrinsic Fermi energy levels in P and N regions.
 50

PN junction diode is a diode which can be used as a rectifier, logic gate, voltage
stabiliser, switching device, voltage dependent capacitor and in optoelectronics
as a photodiode, light-emitting diode (LED), laser diode, photo detector, or solar
cell in electronics.

Working of PN Junction Diode

 51

If an external potential is applied to the terminals of PN junction, it will alter the

potential between the P and N-regions. This potential difference can alter the
flow of majority carriers, so that the PN junction can be used as an opportunity
for the diffusion of electrons and holes.

If the voltage applied decreases the width of the depletion layer, then the diode is
assumed to be in forward bias and if the applied voltage increases the depletion
layer width then the diode is assumed to be in reverse bias. If the width of
depletion layer do not alters then it is in the zero bias state.
 52

 Forward Bias: External voltage decreases the built-in potential barrier.

 Reverse Bias: External voltage increases the built-in potential barrier.
 Zero Bias: No external voltage is applied.

PN Junction Diode When No External Voltage is Applied

In zero bias or thermal equilibrium state junction potential provides higher

potential energy to the holes on the P-side than the N-side. If the terminals of
junction diode are shorted, few majority charge carriers (holes) in the P side with
sufficient energy to surmount the potential barrier travel across the depletion
region.

Therefore, with the help of holes, current starts to flow in the diode and it is
referred to as forward current. In the similar manner, holes in the N side move
across the depletion region in reverse direction and the current generated in this
fashion is referred to as reverse current.

Potential barrier opposes the migration of electrons and holes across the junction
and allow the minority charge carriers to drift across the PN junction. As a result
of it, a state of equilibrium is established when the majority charge carriers are
equal in concentration on either side of the junction and when minority charge
carriers are moving in opposite directions.

A net zero current flows in the circuit and the junction is said to be in dynamic
equilibrium. By increasing the temperature of semiconductors, minority charge
carriers have been continuously generated and thereby leakage current starts to
 53

rise. In general no conduction of electric current takes place because no external

source is connected to the PN junction.

Forward Biased Pn Junction Diode

With the externally applied voltage, a potential difference is altered between the
P and N regions.When positive terminal of the source is connected to the P side
and the negative terminal is connected to N side then the junction diode is said to
be connected in forward bias condition. Forward bias lowers the potential across
the PN junction.

The majority charge carriers in N and P regions are attracted towards the PN
junction and the width of the depletion layer decreases with diffusion of the
majority charge carriers. The external biasing causes a departure from the state
of equilibrium and a misalignment of Fermi levels in the P and N regions, and
also in the depletion layer.
 54

So an electric field is induced in a direction converse to that of the incorporated

field. The presence of two different Fermi levels in the depletion layer represents
a state of quasi-equilibrium. The amount of charge Q stored in the diode is
proportional to the current I flowing in the diode.

With the increase in forward bias greater than the built in potential, at a particular
value the depletion region becomes very much thinner so that a large number of
majority charge carriers can cross the PN junction and conducts an electric
current. The current flowing up to built in potential is called as ZERO current or
KNEE current.

Forward Biased Diode Characteristics

With the increase in applied external forward bias, the width of the depletion layer
becomes thin and forward current in a PN junction diode starts to increase
abruptly after the KNEE point of forward I-V characteristic curve.

Firstly, a small amount of current called as reverse saturation current exists due
to the presence of the contact potential and the related electric field. While the
electrons and holes are freely crossing the junction and causes diffusion current
that flows in the opposite direction to the reverse saturation current.

The net result of applying forward bias is to reduce the height of the potential
barrier by an amount of eV. The majority carrier current in the PN junction diode
increases by an exponential factor of eV/kT. As result the total amount of current
becomes I = Is * exp(eV/kT), where Is is constant.
 55

The excess free majority charge carrier holes and electrons that enter the N and
P regions respectively, acts as a minority carriers and recombine with the local
majority carriers in N and P regions. This concentration consequently decreases
with the distance from the PN junction and this process is named as minority
carrier injection.

The forward characteristic of a PN junction diode is non linear, i.e., not a straight
line. This type of forward characteristic shows that resistance is not constant
during the operation of the PN junction. The slope of the forward characteristic of
a PN junction diode will become very steep quickly.

This shows that resistance is very low in forward bias of the junction diode. The
value of forward current is directly proportional to the external power supply and
inversely proportional to the internal resistance of the junction diode.

Applying forward bias to the PN junction diode causes a low impedance path for
the junction diode, allows for conducting a large amount of current known as
 56

infinite current. This large amount current starts to flow above the KNEE point in
the forward characteristic with the application of a small amount of external
potential.

The potential difference across the junction or at the two N and P regions is
maintained constant by the action of depletion layer. The maximum amount of
current to be conducted is kept limited by the load resistor, because when the
diode conducts more current than the usual specifications of the diode, the
excess current results in the dissipation of heat and also leads to severe damage
of the device.
 57

Reverse Biased PN Junction Diode

When positive terminal of the source is connected to the N side and the negative
terminal is connected to P side, then the junction diode is said to be connected in
reverse bias condition. In this type of connection majority charge carriers are
attracted away from the depletion layer by their respective battery terminals
connected to PN junction.

The Fermi level on N side is lower than the Fermi level on P side. Positive
terminal attracts the electrons away from the junction in N side and negative
 58

terminal attracts the holes away from the junction in P side. As a result of it, the
width of the potential barrier increases that impedes the flow of majority carriers
in N side and P side.

The width of the free space charge layer increases, thereby electric field at the
PN junction increases and the PN junction diode acts as a resistor. But the time
of diode acting as a resistor is very low. There will be no recombination of
majority carriers taken place at the PN junction; thus, no conduction of electric
current.

The current that flows in a PN junction diode is the small leakage current, due to
minority carriers generated at the depletion layer or minority carriers which drift
across the PN junction. Finally, the result is that the growth in the width of the
depletion layer presents a high impedance path which acts as an insulator.

In reverse bias condition, no current flows through the PN junction diode with
increase in the amount of applied external voltage. However, leakage current due
to minority charge carriers flows in the PN junction diode that can be measured in
micro amperes.

As the reverse bias potential to the PN junction diode increases ultimately leads
to PN junction reverse voltage breakdown and the diode current is controlled by
external circuit. Reverse breakdown depends on the doping levels of the P and N
regions.
 59

With the increase in reverse bias further, PN junction diode become short
circuited due to overheat in the circuit and maximum circuit current flows in the
PN junction diode.

Reverse Biased Diode Characteristics

 60

V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode

In the current–voltage characteristics of junction diode, from the first quadrant in

the figure current in the forward bias is incredibly low if the input voltage applied
 61

to the diode is lower than the threshold voltage (Vr). The threshold voltage is
additionally referred to as cut-in voltage.

Once the forward bias input voltage surpasses the cut-in voltage (0.3 V for
germanium diode, 0.6-0.7 V for silicon diode), the current spectacularly
increases, as a result the diode functions as short-circuit.

The reverse bias characteristic curve of diode is shown in the fourth quadrant of
the figure above. The current in the reverse bias is low till breakdown is reached
and therefore the diode looks like as open circuit. When the reverse bias input
voltage has reached the breakdown voltage, reverse current increases
spectacularly.

PN Diode Ideal and Real Characteristics

For ideal characteristics, the total current in the PN junction diode is constant
throughout the entire junction diode. The individual electron and hole currents are
continuous functions and are constant throughout the junction diode.

The real characteristics of PN Junction diode varies with the applied external
potential to the junction that changes the properties of junction diode. The
junction diode acts as short circuit in forward bias and acts as open circuit in
reverse bias.
 62

Summary

 Semiconductors contain the properties in middle of conductors and

insulators.
 Commonly used material for semiconductor is silicon.
 Semiconductors contain electrons and holes as charge carriers.
 The charge carriers in semiconductors are free to move throughout the
device, so they are called as mobile charge carriers.
 Holes are positively charged particles and electrons are negatively
charged particles.
 Charge carriers are responsible for conducting electric current.
 Semiconductors are of two types namely intrinsic and extrinsic
semiconductors.
 63

 Intrinsic semiconductors are purest semiconductors as they don’t have any

impurities in it.
 Extrinsic semiconductors contain impurities called as dopants that change
the electrical properties of semiconductors.
 Extrinsic semiconductors are classified into two types. They are N-type
and P-type.
 N-type impurities are called as donors because they contain electrons as
majority chare carriers.
 P-type impurities are called as acceptors because they contain holes as
majority charge carriers.
 PN junction is formed in a single crystal by joining two N-type and P-type
semiconductors.
 PN junction diode is a two terminal device, the characteristics of diode
depends on the polarity of the external potential applied to the PN junction
diode.
 The junction of N and P semiconductors is free of charge carriers; hence
the region is called as depletion region.
 The width of depletion region alters with the external applied potential.
 When no external potential is applied to PN junction, the condition is called
as zero bias. The junction potential for silicon diodes is 0.6V – 0.7V and for
germanium diodes is 0.3V.
 When the junction is biased in the forward direction, the majority carriers
are attracted towards the junction and get replenished at the junction. In
this condition, width of the depletion region decreases and with the
increase in external potential diode acts as short circuit that allows the
maximum amount of current to flow through it.
 64

 When the junction diode is biased in the reverse direction, the majority
charge carriers are attracted by the respective terminals away from the PN
junction, thus avoiding the diffusion of electrons and holes at the junction.
There will be a small amount of current called as leakage current due to
minority charge carriers at the junction. This small current is called as drift
current. When the reverse bias potential is increased further the diode acts
as open circuit, thereby blocking the current to flow through it.

Diode Characteristics | DC, AC,

Current, Transition Time
 April 29, 2019
 By Administrator

In this tutorial, we will learn about some of the important Diode Characteristics.
By examining these Diode Characteristics, you will have a better understanding
of the working of a Diode in general.

Outline
 Commonly used Diode Characteristics
 Diode Current Equation
 DC or Static Resistance
 AC or Dynamic Resistance
 Average AC Resistance
 Transition Capacitance
 Diffusion Capacitance
 Storage Time
 Transition Time
 Reverse Recovery Time
 Summary

Commonly used Diode Characteristics

 65

Some of the frequently used diode characteristics are given below.

 Current Equation
 DC Resistance
 AC Resistance
 Transition Capacitance
 Diffusion Capacitance
 Storage Time
 Transition Time
 Recovery Time
Now, we will see a little bit more about these diode characteristics in brief.

Diode Current Equation

PN junction diode is widely known for passing the electric current solely in one
direction. The amount of current flowing through the PN junction diode greatly
depends on the type of material used and also depends on the concentration of
doping in the fabrication of PN diode.

The main reason for the flow of current is due to the generation or recombination
of majority charge carriers in the structure of the PN junction diode.

We will have three regions responsible for the flow of majority charge carrier
current. These regions are namely quasi neutral P – region, depletion region,
quasi neutral N – region. The region of the quasi neutral P – type is the
separation between the edge of the depletion region and the edge of the diode
on the P – side.
 66

The region of the quasi neutral N – type is the separation between the edge of
the depletion region and the edge of the diode on the N – side. For assumption,
this separation distance is infinity. There will be no variation in the concentration
of charge carriers as we move towards the boundaries of the diode. The electric
field will not present in the quasi neutral region.

Δnp(x → -∞) = 0

Δpn(x → +∞) = 0

The diode current in the forward bias is due to the recombination of majority
charge carriers. The charge carrier recombination takes place either in the P –
type or N – type quasi neutral regions, in the depletion region or at the ohmic
contacts i.e., at the contact of metal and semiconductor.

The current flow in the reverse bias is due to generation of charge carriers. This
type of charge carrier generation process further increases the current flow in
forward and also in reverse bias condition.

The flow of current in the PN junction diode is determined by the charge carrier
density, the electric field throughout the structure of PN junction diode and the
quasi Fermi level energies of the P – type and N – type. The carrier density and
the electric field are used for determining the drift current and diffusion current of
the PN diode.
 67

The quasi Fermi level energies of the electrons and holes within the depletion
region and that of in the N – type and P – type quasi neutral regions are
assumed to be approximately equal in obtaining an analytical solution.

If the Fermi energy levels are assumed to be constant in the depletion region, the
minority charge carrier density at the boundary of the depletion region would be
as follows,

When there is no external voltage applied, thermal equilibrium state is reached at

the above stated equations. The separation between the Fermi levels increases
with the external applied voltage. This external voltage is multiplied by the charge
of the electron.

The excess charge carriers present in either of the quasi region recombines
straight away when they reach the metal – semiconductor contact. The process
of recombination takes place rapidly at the ohmic contact and it further increases
by the presence of metal. Therefore valid boundary conditions can be stated as
follows,

pn (x = wn) = pn0
 68

np (x = -wp) = np0

Consider the diffusion current equation for both the quasi neutral regions of N –
type and P – type, the expression for the current of the ideal diode will be
obtained by the using the boundary conditions to the considered diffusion
current equation.

Converting the above equations in terms of hyperbolic functions, rewriting the

above equations as

pn (x≥xn) = pn0 + A cosh {(x-xn)/Lp} + B sinh {(x-xn)/Lp}

np (x ≤ -xp) = np0 + C cosh {(x+xp)/Ln} + D sinh {(x+xp)/Ln}

Here A, B, C and D are the constant values to be determined. If the boundary

conditions are applied to the above hyperbolic equations, then we will have
 69

Where the widths of the quasi neutral region of N – type and P – type are given
as

w´n = wn – xn

w´p = wp – xp

The charge carrier current density in each of the quasi neutral region is
calculated from the diffusion current equation as

The amount of electric current flowing throughout the entire structure of the PN
junction diode always should be constant, because no charge can disappear or
accumulate in entire structure of diode.

Hence, total current through the diode is equal to the sum of the maximum hole
current in the n-region, the maximum electron current in the p-region and the
current because of the recombination of charge carriers in depletion region. The
 70

maximum currents in the quasi neutral regions occur at the sides of the depletion
region.

DC or Static Resistance

Static resistance or DC resistance of a PN junction diode defines the diode’s

resistive nature when a DC source is connected to it. If an external DC voltage is
given to the circuit in which the semiconductor diode is a part of it, results in a Q-
point or operating point on the PN junction diode characteristic curve that does
not alter with time.

The static resistance at the knee of the curve and below of it will be much greater
than the resistance values of the vertical rise section of the characteristic curve.
Minimum is the current passing through a diode maximum is the level of DC
resistance.

RDC = VDC / IDC

 71

AC or Dynamic Resistance

Dynamic resistance is derived from Shockley’s Diode Equation. It defines the

diode resistive nature when an AC source which depends on the DC polarisation
of the PN junction diode is connected to it.

If an external sinusoidal signal is given to the circuit consisting of a diode, the

altering input will shift the instantaneous Q – point slightly from the current
position in the characteristics and therefore it defines a definite change in voltage
and current.

When no external alternating signal is applied, the operating point will be the Q –
point (or quiescent point) which is determined by the applied DC signal levels.
 72

The AC resistance of the diode is increased by lowering the Q-point of operation.

In short, it is equivalent to slope of voltage – current of the PN diode.

rd = ΔVd / ΔId

Average AC Resistance

If the input signal is sufficient enough to produce a large swing, then the
resistance related to the diode for this region is called as AC average resistance.
It is determined by the straight line that is drawn linking the intersection of the
minimum and maximum values of external input voltage.

Ravg = ( ΔVd / ΔId ) pt to pt

 73

Transition Capacitance

Transition capacitance can also be termed as depletion layer capacitance or

space charge capacitance. It is mainly observed in a reverse biased
configuration where the P – type and N – type regions have lower resistances
and the depletion layer may act like a dielectric medium.

This type of capacitance is due to the variations in the external voltage where the
immobile charges get vary at the edges of the layer of the depletion region. It
depends upon the dielectric constant and the width of the depletion layer. If the
depletion layer width increases the transition capacitance decreases.

CT = εs / w = √{[qεs / 2(ϕi – VD)][NaNd / (Na + Nd)]}

 74

Diffusion Capacitance

Diffusion capacitance can also be termed as storage capacitance mainly

observed in forward biased configuration. It is the capacitance caused by the
transport of charge carriers between the two terminals of a diode i.e., from anode
to cathode in the forward biased configuration of a PN junction diode.

If the electric current is allowed to pass through the semiconductor device, there
will be some charge created across the device at some point of time. In case if
the applied external voltage and current changes to a different value, there will
be a different amount of charge created in the transit.

The ratio of transiting charge created to the differential change in voltage will be
the diffusion capacitance. If the level of current is increased then the diffusion
capacitance levels automatically increases.

The increased levels in current will result in reduced levels of associated

resistance and also the time constant, that is important in very high-speed
applications. The diffusion capacitance value is much greater than the value of
transition capacitance and it is directly proportional to the value of direct current.

Cdiff = dQ/dV = [dI(V)/dV]ΓF

Storage Time

The PN junction diode acts like a perfect conductor in forward biased

configuration and acts like a perfect insulator in reverse biased configuration.
 75

During the switching time from forward to reverse biased condition the current
flow switches and remains constant at the same level. This time duration over
which the current reverses and maintains constant level is called as storage
time (Ts).

The time taken by the electrons to move from P – type back to N- type and holes
to move from N – type back to P – type is the storage time. This value can be
determined by the geometry of the PN junction. During this storage time the
diode behaves as a short circuit.

Transition Time

The time for the current to decrease to a reverse leakage current value after it
remains at a constant level is called as a transition time. It is denoted as the
transition time value is determined by the geometry of the PN junction and
concentration of doping levels of the P – type and N – type materials.
 76

Reverse Recovery Time

The sum of the storage time and transition time is termed as reverse recovery
time. It is the time taken by the diode to raise the applied current signal to 10% of
the constant state value from the reverse leakage current. The reverse recovery
time value for PN junction diode is usually of the order of microseconds.

Its value for a widely used small signal diode rectifier 1N4148 is usually 4 ns and
for general purpose rectifier diode it is 2 μs. The fast switching speeds can be
achieved by the high value of reverse leakage currents and high forward voltage
drops. It is denoted by Trr.
 77

Types of Diodes | Small Signal, LED,

Schottky, Zener
In this tutorial, we will learn about Different Types of Diodes. These include Small

Signal Diodes, Zener Diodes, Light Emitting Diodes, Schottky Diodes, Tunnel

Diodes, Avalanche Diodes, etc. This will be a brief note on different types of

diodes with their basic functionality and corresponding circuit symbols.

Outline
 Introduction
 Different Types of Diodes
o 1. Small Signal Diode
o 2. Large Signal Diode
o 3. Zener Diode
o 4. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
o 5. Constant Current Diodes
o 6. Schottky Diode
o 7. Shockley Diode
o 8. Step Recovery Diodes
o 9. Tunnel Diode
o 10. Varactor Diode
o 11. Laser Diode
o 12. Transient Voltage Suppression Diode
o 13. Gold Doped Diodes
o 14. Super Barrier Diodes
o 15. Peltier Diode
o 16. Crystal Diode
o 17. Avalanche Diode
o 18. Silicon Controlled Rectifier
o 19. Vacuum Diodes
o 20. PIN Diode
o 21. Point Contact Devices
o 22. Gunn Diode
 78

Introduction
Diodes are two-terminal electronic devices / components that functions as a one-
way switch i.e., they allow current to flow only in one direction. These diodes are
manufactured using semiconductor materials like Silicon, Germanium and
Gallium Arsenide.

The two terminals of the diode are known as Anode and Cathode. Based on the
potential difference between these two terminals, the operation of diode can be
classified in two ways:

 If anode has higher potential than cathode, then the diode is said to be in
Forward Bias and it allows current to flow.
 If cathode has higher potential than anode, then the diode is said to be in
Reverse Bias and it doesn’t allow current to flow.
Different types of diodes have different voltage requirements. For Silicon Diodes,
the forward voltage is 0.7V and for Germanium diodes, it is 0.3V. Usually, in
Silicon Diodes, the dark band on one end of the diode indicates the Cathode
terminal and the other terminal is anode.

One of the main application of Diodes is Rectification i.e., to convert AC to DC.

Since diodes allow current to flow only in one direction and blocks current flow in
the other direction, diodes are used in reverse polarity protector and transient
protector applications.

There are many Different Types of diodes and some of them are listed below.
 79

Different Types of Diodes

Let us now briefly see about few common types of diodes.

1. Small Signal Diode

It is a small device with disproportional characteristics whose applications are

mainly involved at high frequency and very low current applications such as
radios and televisions etc. To protect the diode from contamination it is
enveloped with a glass so it is also named as Glass Passivated Diode. One of
the popular diodes of this type is the 1N4148.

Appearance wise, signal diodes are very small when compared with power
diodes. To indicate the cathode terminal, one edge is marked with black or red
color. For applications at high frequencies, the performance of the small signal
diode is very effective.

With respect to the other functionalities, the signal diodes usually have a small
current carrying capability and power dissipation. Usually, these are in the range
of 150mA and 500mW respectively.

The Small Signal Diode can be made of either Silicon or Germanium type
semiconductor material, but the characteristics of the diode varies depending up
on the doping material.
 80

Small Signal Diodes are used in general purpose diode applications, high speed
switching, parametric amplifiers and many other applications. Some important
characteristics of Small Signal Diode are:

 Peak Reverse Voltage (VPR) – It is the maximum reverse voltage that can
be applied to the diode before it breaks down.
 Reverse Current (IR) – The current (very small value) that flows when it is
reverse biased.
 Maximum Forward Voltage at Peak Forward Current (VF at IF)
 Reverse Recovery Time – The time required for reverse current to fall
down from forward current to IR.

2. Large Signal Diode

These diodes have large PN junction layer. Thus, they are usually used in
rectification i.e., converting AC to DC. The large PN Junction also increases the
forward current carrying capacity and reverse blocking voltage of the diode. The
large signal diodes are not suitable for high frequency applications.

The main applications of these diodes are in Power Supplies (rectifiers,

converter, inverters, battery charging devices, etc.). In these diodes, the value of
forward resistance is few Ohms and the value of reverse blocking resistance is in
Mega Ohms.

Since it has high current and voltage performance, these can be used in
electrical devices which are used to suppress high peak voltages.
 81

3. Zener Diode

It is a passive element which works under the principle of ‘Zener Breakdown’.

First produced by Clarence Zener in 1934, it is similar to normal diode in forward
bias condition i.e., it allows current to flow.

But in reverse bias condition, the diode conducts only when the applied voltage
reaches the breakdown voltage, known as Zener Breakdown. It is designed to
prevent the other semiconductor devices from momentary voltage pulses. It acts
as voltage regulator.

4. Light Emitting Diode (LED)

These diodes convert the electrical energy in to light energy. First production
started in 1968. It undergoes electroluminescence process in which holes and
electrons are recombined to produce energy in the form of light in forward bias
condition.
 82

In the early days, LEDs are very costly and used only in special application. But
over the years, the cost of the LEDs has comedown significantly. This and the
fact they are extremely power efficient, makes LEDs as the main source of
lighting in homes, offices, streets (for street lighting as well as traffic lights),
automobiles, mobile phones.

5. Constant Current Diodes

It is also known as Current-Regulating Diode or Current-Limiting Diode or Diode-

Connected Transistor. The function of the diode is to regulate the voltage at a
particular current.

It functions as a two terminal current limiter. In this, JFET acts as current limiter
to achieve high output impedance. The constant current diode symbol is shown
below.
 83

6. Schottky Diode

In this type of diode, the junction is formed by contacting the semiconductor

material with metal. Due to this, the forward voltage drop is decreased to a
minimum. The semiconductor material is N-type silicon, which acts as an anode
and metals such as Chromium, Platinum, Tungsten etc. acts as cathode.

Due to the metal junction, these diodes have high current conducting capability
and hence the switching time is reduced. So, Schottky Diode has greater use in
switching applications. Mainly because of the metal – semiconductor junction, the
voltage drop is low, which in turn increases the diode performance and reduces
power loss. So, these are used in high frequency rectifier applications. The
symbol of Schottky diode is as shown below.

7. Shockley Diode
 84

It was one of the first semiconductor devices to be invented. Shockley Diode has
four layers. It is also called as PNPN diode. It is equal to a thyristor without a
gate terminal, which means the gate terminal is disconnected. As there is no
trigger input, the only way the diode can conduct is by providing forward voltage.

It stays ON once it turned “ON” and stays OFF once it turned “OFF”. The diode
has two operating states conducting and non-conducting. In non-conducting state
the diode conducts with less voltage.

The symbol of the Shockley diode is as follows:

 85

Shockley Diode Applications

 Trigger switches for SCR.

 Acts as relaxation oscillator.

8. Step Recovery Diodes

It is also called as snap-off diode or charge-storage diode. These are the special
type of diodes which stores the charge from positive pulse and uses in the
negative pulse of the sinusoidal signals. The rise time of the current pulse is
equal to the snap time. Due to this phenomenon, it has speed recovery pulses.

The applications of these diodes are in higher order multipliers and in pulse
shaper circuits. The cut-off frequency of these diodes is very high which are
nearly at Giga hertz order.

As multiplier, this diode has the cut-off frequency range of 200 to 300 GHz. In the
operations which are performing at 10 GHz range, these diodes play a vital role.
The efficiency is high for lower order multipliers. The symbol for this diode is as
shown below.
 86

9. Tunnel Diode

It is used as high-speed switch, with switching speed in the order of few nano-
seconds. Due to tunneling effect it has very fast operation in microwave
frequency region. It is a two-terminal device in which concentration of dopants is
too high.

The transient response is being limited by junction capacitance plus stray wiring
capacitance. Mostly used in microwave oscillators and amplifiers. It acts as most
negative conductance device. Tunnel diodes can be tuned both mechanically
and electrically. The symbol of tunnel diode is as shown below.

Tunnel Diode Applications

 87

 Oscillatory circuits.
 Microwave circuits.
 Resistant to nuclear radiation.

10. Varactor Diode

These are also known as Varicap diodes. It acts like the variable capacitor.
Operations are performed mainly at reverse bias state only. These diodes are
very famous due to its capability of changing the capacitance ranges within the
circuit in the presence of constant voltage flow.

They can be able to vary capacitance up to high values. In varactor diode, we

can decrease or increase the depletion layer by changing the reverse bias
voltage. These diodes have many applications as voltage-controlled oscillator for
cell phones, satellite pre-filters etc. The symbol of varactor diode is given below.

Varactor Diode Applications

 Voltage-controlled capacitors
 Voltage-controlled oscillators
 Parametric amplifiers
 Frequency multipliers
 88

 FM transmitters and Phase locked loops in radio, television sets and

cellular phone

11. Laser Diode

Similar to LED in which active region is formed by p-n junction. Electrically laser
diode is P-I-N diode in which the active region is in intrinsic region. Used in fiber
optic communications, barcode readers, laser pointers, CD/DVD/Blu-ray reading
and recording, Laser printing.

Laser Diode Types:

 Double Heterostructure Laser: Free electrons and holes available

simultaneously in the region.
 Quantum Well Lasers: lasers having more than one quantum well are
called multi quantum well lasers.
 Quantum Cascade Lasers: These are heterojunction lasers which enables
laser action at relatively long wavelengths.
 Separate Confinement Heterostructure Lasers: To compensate the thin
layer problem in quantum lasers we go for separate confinement
heterostructure lasers.
 Distributed Bragg Reflector Lasers: It can be edge emitting lasers or
VCSELS.
The symbol of the Laser Diode is as shown:
 89

12. Transient Voltage Suppression Diode

In semiconductor devices, transients will occur due to the sudden change in the
state voltage. They will damage the device’s output response. To overcome this
problem, Voltage Suppression Diodes are used. The operation of voltage
suppression diode is similar to Zener diode operation.

The operation of these diodes is normal as p-n junction diodes but at the time of
transient voltage its operation changes. In normal condition, the impedance of
the diode is high. When any transient voltage occurs in the circuit, the diode
enters in to the avalanche breakdown region in which a low impedance is
provided.
 90

It is very spontaneously because the avalanche breakdown duration ranges in

Pico seconds. Transient voltage suppression diode will clamp the voltage to the
fixed levels, mostly its clamping voltage is in minimum range.

These are having applications in the telecommunication fields, medical,

microprocessors and signal processing. It responds to over voltages faster than
Varistors or gas discharge tubes.

The symbol for Transient voltage suppression diode is as shown below.

The diode is characterized by:

 Leakage current
 Maximum reverse stand-off voltage
 Breakdown voltage
 Clamping voltage
 91

 Parasitic capacitance
 Parasitic inductance
 Amount of energy it can absorb

13. Gold Doped Diodes

In these diodes, Gold is used as a dopant. These diodes are faster than other
diodes. In these diodes, the leakage current in reverse bias condition is also less.
Even at the higher voltage drop it allows the diode to operate in signal
frequencies. In these diodes, Gold helps for the faster recombination of minority
carriers.

14. Super Barrier Diodes

It is a rectifier diode having low forward voltage drop as Schottky diode with
surge handling capability and low reverse leakage current as P – N junction
diode. It was designed for high power, fast switching and low-loss applications.
Super barrier rectifiers are the next generation rectifiers with low forward voltage
than Schottky diode.

15. Peltier Diode

In this type of diode, it generates heat at the two-material junction of a

semiconductor, which flows from one terminal to another terminal. This flow is
done in only single direction which is same as the direction of current flow.
 92

This heat is produced due to electric charge produced by the recombination of

minority charge carriers. This is mainly used in cooling and heating applications.
This type of diodes used as sensor and heat engine for thermo electric cooling.

16. Crystal Diode

This is also known as Cat’s whisker, which is a type of point contact diode. Its
operation depends on the pressure of contact between semiconductor crystal
and the point.

In this, a metal wire is present, which is pressed against the semiconductor

crystal. In this, the semiconductor crystal acts as cathode and metal wire acts as
anode. These diodes are obsolete in nature. Mainly used in microwave receivers
and detectors.

Crystal Diode Applications

 Crystal diode rectifier

 Crystal diode detector
 Crystal radio receiver

17. Avalanche Diode

This is passive element works under principle of Avalanche Breakdown. It works

in reverse bias condition. It results in a large current due to the ionization
produced by P – N junction during reverse bias condition.
 93

These diodes are specially designed to undergo breakdown at specific reverse

voltage to prevent the damage. The symbol of the avalanche diode is as shown
below:

Avalanche Diode Uses

 RF Noise Generation: It acts as source of RF for antenna analyzer bridges

and also as white noise generators.
 Used in radio equipment and also in hardware random number generators.
 Microwave Frequency Generation: In this the diode acts as negative
resistance device.
 Single Photon Avalanche Detector: These are high gain photon detectors
used in light level applications.

18. Silicon Controlled Rectifier

It consists of three terminals they are anode, cathode and a gate. It is nearly
equal to the Shockley diode. As its name indicates it is mainly used for the
control purpose when small voltages are applied in the circuit. The symbol of the
Silicon Controlled Rectifier is as shown below:
 94

Modes of Operation:

1. Forward blocking mode (off state): In this J1 and J3 forward biased and J2
is reverse biased. It offers high resistance below breakover voltage and
hence it is said to be off state.
2. Forward conduction mode (on state): By increasing the voltage at anode
and cathode or by applying positive pulse at the gate we can turn ON. To
turn off the only way is to decrease the current flowing through it.
3. Reverse blocking mode (off state): SCR blocking the reverse voltage is
named as asymmetrical SCR. Mostly used in current source inverters.
 95

19. Vacuum Diodes

Vacuum diodes consist of two electrodes which will acts as an anode and the
cathode. Cathode is made up of Tungsten, which emits the electrons in the
direction of anode. Always electron flow will be from cathode to anode only. So, it
acts like a switch.

If the cathode is coated with oxide material, then the electrons emission
capability is high. Anode is a bit long in size and in some cases their surface is
rough to reduce the temperatures developing in the diode. The diode will conduct
only in one case that is when the anode is positive with respect to cathode
terminal. The symbol is as shown in figure:

20. PIN Diode

The improved version of the normal P-N junction diode gives the PIN diode. In
PIN diode doping is not necessary. The intrinsic material i.e., the material which
 96

has no charge carriers, is inserted between the P and N regions, which increase
the area of depletion layer.

When we apply forward bias voltage, the holes and electrons will be pushed into
the intrinsic layer. At some point due to this high injection level, the electric field
will conduct through the intrinsic material also. This field makes the carriers to
flow from two regions. The symbol of PIN diode is as shown below:

PIN Diode Applications:

 RF Switches: PIN diode is used for both signal and component selection.
For example, PIN diodes acts as range-switch inductors in low phase
noise oscillators.
 Attenuators: it is used as bridge and shunt resistance in bridge-T
attenuator.
 Photo Detectors: it detects x-ray and gamma ray photons.

21. Point Contact Devices

A gold or tungsten wire is used to act as the point contact to produce a PN

junction region by passing a high electric current through it. A small region of PN
 97

junction is produced around the edge of the wire which is connected to the metal
plate which is as shown in the figure.

In forward direction, its operation is quite similar but in reverse bias condition the
wire acts like an insulator. Since this insulator is between the plates, the diode
acts as a capacitor. In general, the capacitor blocks the DC currents but the AC
currents can flow in the circuit at high frequencies. So, these are used to detect
the high frequency signals.

22. Gunn Diode

Gunn diode is fabricated with n-type semiconductor material only. The depletion
region of two N-type materials is very thin. When voltage increases in the circuit,
the current also increases. After certain level of voltage, the current will
exponentially decrease, thus this exhibits the negative differential resistance.
 98

It has two electrodes with Gallium Arsenide and Indium Phosphide. Due to this, it
has negative differential resistance. It is also termed as transferred electron
device. It produces micro wave RF signals so it is mainly used in Microwave RF
devices. It can also use as an amplifier. The symbol of Gunn diode is shown
below:

Applications of Diodes | Rectifier,

Clipper, Reverse Current Protection
 May 14, 2021
 By Ravi Teja (Embedded Engineer)

In this diodes tutorial, we will see some of the common applications of diodes. As
a simplest semiconductor component, diode has a wide variety of applications in
modern electronic systems. Various electronic and electrical circuits use this
component as an essential device to produce the required outcome.

Outline
 Introduction
 Some Common Applications of Diodes
 Diode as a Rectifier
 Diodes in Clipping Circuits
 Diodes in Clamping Circuits
 Diodes in Logic Gates
 Diodes in Voltage Multiplier Circuits
 99

 Diodes in Reverse Polarity Protection

 Diodes in Voltage Spike Suppression
 Diodes in Solar Panels
 Conclusion

Introduction
We know that a Diode allows the current flow only in one direction and hence it
acts as a one-way switch. Diode is made of P and N type materials and has two
terminals namely anode and cathode. This device can be operated by controlling
the voltage applied to these terminals.

When the voltage applied to the anode is positive with respect to the cathode, the
diode is said to be in Forward Bias. If the voltage applied to the diode is greater
than the threshold level (generally, it is of ≈0.6V for Silicon Diodes), then diode
acts as a short circuit and allows the current flow.

If the polarity of the voltage is changed i.e., the cathode is made positive with
respect to anode, then it is said to be in Reverse Bias and acts as open circuit.
As a result, no current flows through it.
 100

The application areas of diodes include communication systems as limiters,

clippers, gates; computer systems as logic gates, clampers; power supply
systems as rectifiers and inverters; television systems as phase detectors,
limiters, clampers; radar circuits as gain control circuits, parameter amplifiers,
etc. The following description describes the various applications of diodes briefly.

Some Common Applications of Diodes

Before taking a look at various applications of diodes, let us quickly take a peek
at a small list of common applications of diodes.

 Rectifiers
 Clipper Circuits
 Clamping Circuits
 Reverse Current Protection Circuits
 In Logic Gates
 Voltage Multipliers
 101

and many more. Now let us understand each of these applications of diodes in
more detail.

Diode as a Rectifier
The most common and important application of a diode is the rectification of AC
power to DC power. Using diodes, we can construct different types of rectifier
circuits. The basic types of these rectifier circuits are half wave, full wave center
tapped and full bridge rectifiers. A single or combination of four diodes is used in
most of the power conversion applications. Below figure shows diode operation
in a rectifier.

 During the positive half cycle of the input supply, anode is made positive
with respect to cathode. So, the diode gets forward biased. This results in
the current to flow to the load. Since the load is resistive, the voltage
across the load resistor will be same as the supply voltage i.e., the input
sinusoidal voltage will appear at the load (only the positive cycle). And the
load current flow is proportional to the voltage applied.
 During the negative half-cycle of the input sinusoidal wave, anode is made
negative with respect to cathode. So, the diode gets reverse biased.
 102

Hence, no current flows to the load. The circuit becomes open circuit and
no voltage appears across the load.
 Both voltage and current at the load side are of one polarity means the
output voltage is pulsating DC. Often, this rectification circuit has a
capacitor that is connected across the load to produce steady and
continuous DC currents without any ripples.

Diodes in Clipping Circuits

Clipping Circuits are used in FM transmitters, where noise peaks are limited to a
particular value so that excessive peaks are removed from them. The clipper
circuit is used to put off the voltage beyond the preset value without disturbing
the remaining part of the input waveform.

Based on the diode configuration in the circuit, these clippers are divided into two
types:

 Series Clipper
 Shunt Clipper
Further, these are again classified into different types.
 103

The above figure shows the positive series and shunt clippers. And using these
clipper circuits, positive half cycles of the input voltage waveform will be
removed. In positive series clipper, during the positive cycle of the input, the
diode is reverse-biased so the voltage at the output is zero.

Hence, the positive half-cycle is clipped off at the output. During the negative half
cycle of the input, the diode is forward-biased and the negative half cycle
appears across the output.

In positive shunt clipper, the diode is forward-biased during the positive half cycle
so the output voltage is zero as diode acts as a closed switch. And during the
 104

negative half cycle, the diode is reverse-biased and acts as open switch so the
full input voltage appears across the output. With the above two diode clippers
positive half-cycle of the input is clipped at the output.

Diodes in Clamping Circuits

A clamper circuit is used to shift or alter either positive or negative peak of an
input signal to a desired level. This circuit is also called as Level Shifter or DC
restorer. These clamping circuits can be positive or negative depending on the
diode configuration.

In positive clamping circuit, negative peaks are raised upwards so the negative
peaks fall on the zero level. In case of the negative clamping circuit, positive
peaks are clamped so that it pushes downwards such that the positive peaks fall
on the zero level.

Look at the below diagram for understanding the diode application in clamping
circuits. During the positive half-cycle of the input, diode is reverse-biased so the
output voltage is equal to the sum of input voltage and capacitor voltage
(considering the capacitor is initially charged). During the negative half-cycle of
the input, diode is forward-biased and behaves as a closed switch so the
capacitor charges to a peak value of the input signal.
 105

Diodes in Logic Gates

Diodes can also perform digital logic operations. Low and high impedance states
of logic switch are analogous to the forward and reverse-biased conditions of the
diode respectively. Thus, the diode can perform logic operations such as AND,
OR, etc. Although diode logic is an earlier method with some limitations, these
are used in some applications. Most of the modern logic gates are MOSFET
based.

The below figure shows the OR gate logic implemented using a pair of diodes
and a resistor.
 106

In the above circuit, input voltage is applied at V and by controlling the switches
we get the OR logic at the output. Here logic 1 means high voltage and logic 0
means zero voltage. When both switches are in open state, both the diodes are
in reverse-biased condition and hence the voltage at the output Y is zero. When
any one of the switches is closed, the diode becomes forward-bias and as a
result the output is high.

Diodes in Voltage Multiplier Circuits

Voltage multiplier consist of two or more diode rectifier circuits, which are
cascaded to produce a DC output voltage equal to the multiple of the applied
input voltage. These multiplier circuits are of different types like voltage doubler,
tripler, quadrupler, etc. By the usage of diodes in combination with capacitors, we
get the odd or even multiple of the input peak voltage at the output.

Above figure shows a half-wave voltage doubler circuit whose DC output voltage
is twice that of peak input AC voltage. During the positive half-cycle of the AC
input, diode D1 is forward-biased and D2 is reverse-biased. So, the capacitor C1
charges up to peak voltage Vm of the input through the diode D1. During the
 107

negative half-cycle of the AC input, D1 is reverse-biased and D2 is forward-

biased. So, capacitor C2 starts charging thorough D2 and C1. Thus, the total
voltage across the C2 is equal to the 2Vm.

During next positive half-cycle, the diode D2 is reverse-biased so the capacitor

C2 will discharge through the load. Likewise, by cascading the rectifier circuits
we will get the multiple values of input voltage at the output.

Diodes in Reverse Polarity Protection

The reverse polarity or current protection is necessary to avoid the damage that
occurs due to connecting the battery in a wrong way or reversing the polarities of
the DC supply. This accidental connection of supply causes to flow a large
amount current thorough the circuit components, which might result in their
failure or in a worst case, their explosion.

Therefore, a protective or blocking diode is connected in series with the positive

side of the input to avoid the reverse connection problem.
 108

Above figure shows the reverse current protection circuit, where diode is
connected in series with the load at the positive side of the battery supply. In
case of the correct polarity connection, diode gets forward-biased and load
current flows through it. But, in case of wrong connection, the diode is reverse-
biased and that doesn’t allow any current to flow to the load. Hence, the load is
protected against the reverse polarity.

Diodes in Voltage Spike Suppression

In case of an inductor or inductive loads, sudden removal of supply source
produces a higher voltage due to its stored magnetic field energy. These
unexpected spikes in the voltage can cause the considerable damage to the rest
of the circuit components.

Hence, a diode is connected across the inductor or inductive loads to limit the
large voltage spikes. These diodes are also called by different names in different
circuits such as Snubber diode, Flyback diode, Suppression diode, Freewheeling
diode and so on.
 109

In the above figure, the freewheeling diode is connected across the inductive
load for suppressing of voltage spikes in the inductor. When the switch is
suddenly opened, a voltage spike is created in the inductor. Therefore, the
freewheeling diode makes a safe path for the flow of current to discharge the
voltage offered by the spike.

Diodes in Solar Panels

The diodes which are used for protection of solar panels are called as bypass
diodes. If the solar panel is faulty or damaged or shaded by fallen leaves, snow
and other obstructions, the overall output power decreases and arise hot spot
damage because the current of the rest of the cells must flow through this faulty
or shaded cell and causes overheating. The main function of the bypass diode is
to protect the solar cells against this hot spot heating problem.
 110

The above figure shows the connection of bypass diodes in solar cells. These
diodes are connected in parallel with the solar cells thereby, limiting the voltage
across the bad solar cell and allows the current from good solar cells to the
external circuit. Thus, reduces the overheating problem by limiting the current
flow through the bad solar cell.

Conclusion
We have some of the important Applications of Diodes. These include Rectifiers,
Clippers, Clampers, Voltage Multipliers, Logic Gates, Solar Panels, Reverse
Polarity Protection and Voltage Spike Suppression.

How to Test a Diode? Using Analog

and Digital Multimeter (DMM)
In this tutorial, we will learn how to test a diode. Diodes are one of the basic and
important components in electronic circuits that are used for protection,
rectification, switching, and many other applications. They are one of the first
 111

components to be damaged in case of a fault and hence, it is necessary to know

how to check whether a diode is properly working or not.

Outline
 Introduction
 How to Test a Diode?
 How to Test a Diode using a Digital Multimeter?
o Diode Mode Testing Procedure
o Ohmmeter (Resistance) Mode Testing Procedure
 How to Test a Diode using Analog Multimeter?
 How to Test LED (Light Emitting Diode)?
 How to Test a Zener Diode?
 Conclusion

Introduction

If you are starting to develop your own electronics project or if you want to
troubleshoot any electronic circuit or project, then you must have a sound
knowledge on basic electronic components and their working. You don’t have to
understand its construction and internal working but at least some basic
knowledge on how a component works, how to test a component and see
whether the component is working properly or not.

Learn more about the basics of Semiconductor Diodes.

Having knowledge on how to test a component and assessing whether it is good

or not is a very good electronic circuits troubleshooting skill.

To avoid getting undesired results, it is advisable to test all the basic components
like a resistors, diode, LED etc., for their normal working or operation before
assembling the components in a circuit (PCB). In the worst case scenario, if we
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do not perform any tests before assembly and if the output is not as expected,
then it is very difficult to identify the source of the problem and we have test all
the components (which is very difficult after assembling).

Let us focus on Testing Diodes in this tutorial. As mentioned earlier, diodes are
one of the important components in electronic circuits, especially in Power
Supplies (and there are many other applications of diodes).

How to Test a Diode?

Diode Terminal Identification

The diode is a two terminal semiconductor device that allows current to flow only
in one direction. These are found in different applications like rectifiers, clampers,
clippers and so on.

When the anode terminal of the diode is made positive with respect to cathode,
the diode is said to be forward-biased. The forward-biased diode voltage drop is
typically 0.7V for Silicon diodes. This is the minimum potential difference
between Anode and Cathode of the Diode to become forward biased.
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Before testing a diode, we have to first identify the terminals of the diode i.e., its
Anode and Cathode. Most of the PN Junction diodes have a white band on its
body and the terminal near this white band is the cathode. And the remaining one
is anode. Both through-hole and surface mount Diodes have this marking.

Some diodes may have a different color band (for example, some Zener
Diodes have a Black marking on its Red / Orange body), but the terminal near
this colored mark is almost always the cathode.

The testing of a diode can be carried in different ways, however here we have
given some basic testing procedures of the diode.

NOTE: The below mentioned testing procedures are only for normal PN diode.

NOTE: If the diode you want to test is already in a circuit (on the PCB), then you
can perform the following mentioned tests by removing / de-soldering only one
lead of the diode.

How to Test a Diode using a Digital Multimeter?

The diode testing using a Digital Multimeter (DMM) can be carried in two ways
because there are two modes available in DMM to check the diode. These
modes are:

 Diode Mode
 Ohmmeter Mode (or Resistance Mode)
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The Diode Test Mode is the best way to test a diode as it relies on the
characteristics of the Diode. In this method, the diode is put in forward bias and
the voltage drop across the diode is measured, using a Multimeter. A normally
working diode will allow current to flow in forward bias and must have voltage
drop.

In the Resistance Mode Test of the diode, both the forward and reverse bias
resistances of the diode are measured. For a good diode, the forward bias
resistance should be few hundreds of Ohms to few Kilo Ohms and the reverse
bias resistance should be very high (usually indicated as OL – open loop in a
multimeter).

Diode Mode Testing Procedure

Diode Mode Testing using DMM

 Identify the anode and cathode terminals of the diode.
 Keep the Digital Multimeter (DMM) in diode checking mode by rotating the
central knob to the position where the diode symbol is indicated. In this
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mode, the multimeter is capable to supply a current of approximately 2mA

between the test leads.
 Connect the red probe of the multimeter to the anode and black probe to
the cathode. This means the diode is forward-biased.
 Observe the reading on multimeter’s display. If the displayed voltage value
is in between 0.6 to 0.7 (for a Silicon Diode), then the diode is healthy and
perfect. For Germanium Diodes, this value is in between 0.25 to 0.3.
 Now, reverse the terminals of the meter i.e., connect the red probe to
cathode and black to anode. This is the reverse biased condition of the
diode where no current flows through it. Hence, the meter should read OL
or 1 (which is equivalent to open circuit) if the diode is healthy.
If the meter shows irrelevant values to the above two conditions, then the diode
is defective. The defect in the diode can be either open or short.

Open diode means the diode behaves as an open switch in both reverse and
forward biased conditions. So, no current flows through the diode in either bias
condition. Therefore, the meter will indicate OL (or 1) in both reverse and
forward-biased conditions.

Shorted diode means diode behaves as a closed switch, so the current flows
through it irrespective of the bias and the voltage drop across the diode will be
between 0V to 0.4V. Therefore, the multimeter will indicate zero voltage value,
but in some cases it will display a very little voltage as the voltage drop across
the diode.

Ohmmeter (Resistance) Mode Testing Procedure

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Similar to the Diode Test method, the Resistance Mode is also a simple method
to check the diode whether it is good, short or open.

 Identify the terminals of the diode i.e., anode and cathode.

 Keep the Digital multimeter (DMM) in resistance or ohmmeter mode by
rotating the central knob or selector to the place where ohm symbol or
resistor values are indicated. Keep the selector in low resistance (may be
1K ohm) mode for forward-bias and keep it in high resistance mode (100K
ohm) for the reverse bias testing procedure.
 Connect the red probe to the anode and black probe to the cathode. This
means diode is forward-biased. When the diode is forward-biased, the
resistance of the diode is so small.
If the meter displays a moderately low value on the meter display i.e., a few tens
of ohms, then the diode is not good. But if the resistance reading is few hundred
ohms to few kilo ohms, then the diode is good and working properly.
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 Now reverse the terminals of the multimeter such that anode is connected
to black probe and cathode to red probe. So the diode is reverse biased.
 If the meter shows a very high resistance value or OL on meter display,
then the diode is good and functions properly. Since in reverse biased
condition diode offers a very high resistance.
From the above it is clear that for proper working of the diode, DMM should read
some low resistance in the forward-biased condition and a very high resistance
or OL in reverse-biased condition.

If the meter indicates a very high resistance or OL in both forward and reverse-
biased conditions, then the diode is said to be opened. In other hand, if the meter
reads a very low resistance in both directions, then the diode is said to be
shorted.

How to Test a Diode using Analog Multimeter?

Most analog multimeters usually do not have a dedicated Diode Test Mode. So,
we will be using the Resistance Mode in Analog Multimeter, which is similar to
the testing of diode using DMM ohmmeter mode.
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Diode Testing using

Analog Multimeter
 Keep the multimeter selector switch in low resistance value
 Connect the diode in the forward-biased condition by connecting the
positive terminal to anode and negative to the cathode.
 If the meter indicates a low resistance value, then it says that the diode is
healthy.
 Now put the selector in high resistance position and reverse the terminals
of the meter by connecting positive to the cathode and negative to anode.
In this case, the diode is said to be in reverse bias.
 If the meter indicates OL or a very high resistance, then it refers to the
perfect condition of the diode.
 If the meter fails to show above readings, then the diode is said to be
defective or bad.
This is about simple PN diode-testing using digital and analog multimeters.
These testing procedure may not be applicable for all types of diodes. So, now
let us see how to test an LED and a Zener diode.
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How to Test LED (Light Emitting Diode)?

As discussed above, before testing any diode we must know its pins (terminals).
The terminals of the LED can be identified by the length of the leads. Longer one
is anode and the shorter one is the cathode. Also, another method is using the
surface structure wherein a flat surface indicates the cathode and other one is
the anode.

LED Terminal Identification

Let us now see how to test an LED using a digital multimeter.

 Identify the anode and cathode terminals of the LED.

 Place the multimeter selector / knob in diode mode.
 Connect the probes of the meter to LED such that it is forward-biased.
 If the LED is working properly, then it glows otherwise the LED is defective.
 Reverse-biased testing cannot be possible with LED since it doesn’t work
in reverse-biased condition.

How to Test a Zener Diode?

When compared to the testing a normal diode, testing a Zener diode needs some
extra circuitry. Because, the Zener diode conducts in reverse-biased condition
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and only if the applied reverse voltage is more than the Zener breakdown
voltage.

 Identify the terminals anode and cathode of the Zener diode and its
identification process is similar to the normal PN diode (using a mark).
 Connect the test circuit as shown in the above figure.
 Place the multimeter knob in voltage mode.
 Connect the meter probes across the Zener diode as shown in figure.
 Gradually increase the input supply to the diode, and observe the voltage
on the meter display. This reading on the meter must be such that as we
increase the variable supply, meter output should increase until the
breakdown voltage of the diode. And beyond this point meter should show
a constant value of voltage irrespective of any increase of the input
variable supply. If it so, then Zener diode is healthy, otherwise defective.
Suppose, if we apply a 12V to the Zener diode (with a breakdown voltage is 6V)
from the battery through a resistor, then multimeter must show a reading which is
approximately equal to the 6V, if the Zener diode is healthy.
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Conclusion

A complete beginner’s guide on how to test a diode. Learn how to identify the
terminals of a Diode, test a diode with Digital Multimeter (DMM), Analog
Multimeter, test LEDs and Zener Diodes.