Article

Design and Implementation of a Tripod Robot Control System

Using Hand Kinematics and a Sensory Glove
Jakub Krzus *, Tomasz Trawiński, Paweł Kielan and Marcin Szczygieł

Department of Mechatronics, Silesian University of Technology, 44-100 Gliwice, Poland;

[email protected] (T.T.); [email protected] (P.K.); [email protected] (M.S.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: Current technological progress in automation and robotics allows human

kinematics to be used to control any device. As part of this study, a sensory glove was
developed that allows for a delta robot to be controlled using hand movements. The
process of controlling an actuator can often be problematic due to its complexity. The
proposed system solves this problem using human–machine interactions. The sensory
glove allows for easy control of the robot by detecting the rotation of the hand and
pressing the control buttons. Conventional buttons have been replaced with SMART
materials such as conductive thread and conductive fabric. The ESP32 microcontroller
placed on the control glove collects data read from the MPU6050 sensor. It also facilitates
wireless communication with the Raspberry Pi microcontroller supporting the Modbus
TCP/IP protocol, which controls the robot’s movement. Due to the noise of the data read
from the gyroscope, the signals were subjected to a filtering process using basic recursive
filters and an advanced algorithm with Kalman filters.

Keywords: wireless communication; control; gyroscope; microcontroller; tripod;

Modbus; filters

Academic Editors: Charles Tijus,

Kuei-Shu Hsu, Cheng-Chien Kuo,
Teen-Hang Meen and Jih-Fu Tu
1. Introduction
Received: 22 January 2025
Revised: 12 March 2025
Technological progress is particularly noticeable in the field of industrial automation
Accepted: 12 March 2025 and robotics [1]. Modern factories increasingly utilize robots that are capable of performing
Published: 14 March 2025 specific tasks assigned by operators [2]. The introduction of such machines not only
Citation: Krzus, J.; Trawiński, T.;
increases work efficiency but also improves worker safety by reducing their exposure to
Kielan, P.; Szczygieł, M. Design and hazardous conditions [3]. Robotics research opens up new possibilities for precise task
Implementation of a Tripod Robot execution, especially where repeatability and error elimination are critical. However,
Control System Using Hand integrating robots into industrial processes presents challenges, including difficulties in
Kinematics and a Sensory Glove.
implementing control systems and ensuring effective collaboration with human operators
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150. https://
[2,4]. Contemporary control systems should primarily be intuitive for users. Intuitiveness
doi.org/10.3390/electronics14061150
means that an operator can easily understand and utilize all system functions without
Copyright: © 2025 by the authors.
extensive training. Therefore, more and more control systems are being designed to utilize
Submitted for possible open access
signals from the human body, such as eye or facial movement tracking [5]. These
publication under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
technologies have the potential to revolutionize human–machine interactions, making this
Attribution (CC BY) license collaboration more natural and efficient. For instance, eye-tracking can be used to control a
(https://creativecommons.org/license machine without using hands, which is particularly useful in environments requiring
s/by/4.0/). multitasking.

Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics14061150

Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 2 of 21

Another innovative approach involves utilizing human limb movements [6]. Hand
gestures, described through appropriate mathematical transformations and supported by
advanced sensors, offer an intuitive means of controlling machines, simplifying the control
process and minimizing errors [7]. The development of sensory technology, driven by the
need for the precise reading of signals from the human body, has enabled the creation of
modern sensors that are capable of rapid data processing [8]. An example of this progress is
hand motion control, which can be achieved using image processing technology [9] or
intelligent sensory gloves [10]. Such approaches are particularly important in applications
requiring precision and safety, such as work in difficult or hazardous environments [9,11].
For example, in nuclear or chemical industries, gestures can replace traditional controllers,
enabling safer operations in high-risk areas. The relationship between the development of
robotics, automation, and control theory is a frequent topic of scientific research. A proper
control system requires a comprehensive measurement system capable of tracking the
Cartesian coordinates and angular positions of individual robot components [12].
Mathematical models of robot dynamics present solutions to issues related to stability and
disturbances, while the development of neural networks has a significant impact on the
compensation of these disturbances [13]. Furthermore, the dynamic advancement of control
theory results from increasingly sophisticated systems and the need to address new
problems [14].
In the context of consumer and domestic robots, their ability to collaborate effectively
with humans will be a crucial element [15]. Such systems must not only acquire and
process information in real time but also ensure reliable and fast data transmission
without losses [16]. A control system should be open and flexible to allow for easy
adaptation and integration with other technologies. Utilizing a dual-processor
configuration enhances these qualities by providing a hierarchical and modular
architecture, where each layer has a clearly defined purpose. This approach improves the
system’s efficiency and organization [4]. At the same time, controlling executive devices
using traditional systems requires appropriate qualifications and skills [17]. Meanwhile,
research on using human gestures, particularly hand and arm movements, offers new
possibilities for creating intuitive control systems based on the analogy of machine
movements to upper-limb movements [18].
Progress in the field of robotics is at a high level. However, there are still some aspects
that are still being developed. The problem of the control process using gestures pertains to
the need to properly read the specific movements of the operator, such as the grip of various
elements, hand dynamics or force, and pressure during contact. The research shows how
important it is to design and analyze kinematics along with the appropriate testing of the
kinematic model. The obtained and verified model allows for the derivation of appropriate
formulas describing both the kinematics and dynamics of the analyzed object [19].
This study presents the development of an intuitive control system for a delta robot
based on a sensory glove. The proposed solution integrates advanced motion capture and
wireless communication technologies to enable precise and natural robot manipulation.
The main contribution of this research lies in the implementation of a real-time control
system that enhances user experience and reduces the complexity of traditional robot
operations.
Section 2 presents a classification, whereby the types of robots used in industry are
described and the choice of a delta robot as an object to control is justified. Section 3 deals
with the control glove and the specifications of the control system, describing the
construction of the control glove and the hardware layer of the project. Section 4 addresses
signal filtering, describing the methods used to filter the signal from the sensor module. The
methods are compared in this section and the most optimal filtration method is selected.
Section 5 deals with control system implementation and demonstration, showing a real
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 3 of 21

delta robot with the applied control system. Section 6 offers the conclusions from the project
implementation process and subsequent stages of project development.

2. Classification of Industrial Robots and Control Systems

The following classification of industrial robots is based on their movement capabilities
and structural design [20]. This classification (Figure 1) provides essential context for
understanding the various types of industrial robots and how their structural characteristics
influence their functionality and control. By differentiating between robot types such as
Cartesian, cylindrical, and delta robots, it becomes easier to assess their respective
advantages and limitations. This understanding aids in selecting appropriate control
strategies and kinematic approaches, ensuring optimal performance for specific tasks.
Ultimately, this classification serves as a foundation for analyzing how a robot’s structure
affects its movement precision, efficiency, and suitability for particular industrial
applications.

Figure 1. Classification of industrial robots.

Robots that are often used have a serial kinematic structure, resembling a human
hand. UR6 Universal Robots, such as the UR3e model, are one example of this type; they
are lightweight, compact, and designed for tasks requiring precision. These solutions are
used in many industries where their flexibility and ease of programming are key.
However, such industrial robots are not suitable for all types of technological processes.
Some of these processes take place very quickly and require the appropriate stiffness of
the mechanism under varying load forces [21]. In these cases, delta robots are often used;
they are primarily employed in the food, pharmaceutical, and electronics industries. Delta
robots, such as the ABB FlexPicker, are commonly used for sorting, packaging, and
assembling small components. Their design also allows them to work in environments
with high hygienic requirements, such as on food processing production lines. It is also
worth mentioning SCARA robots (Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm), such as
the Yamaha YK400, which are used for tasks requiring fast and precise movements in the
horizontal plane. SCARA robots perform well in electronic component assembly and
processes requiring high-level repeatability. Another interesting example is Cartesian
robots, such as the Bosch Cartesian Robots line, which offer simple construction and high
accuracy. They are used in applications such as machining, gluing, or 3D printing, where
stability and ease of programming motion in three axes are important. Despite their
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 4 of 21

advantages, delta robots have certain limitations, such as a relatively small working range
and limited ability to handle heavier loads. However, they are irreplaceable in
applications where precision and speed are crucial. Thanks to these features, delta robots
are often chosen where performance matters, such as in the automation of highly
repetitive processes. The comparison of the presented robots is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Comparison of industrial robots.

Robot Kinematic Type Features Advantages

Lightweight, compact
UR3e (Universal High flexibility, ease of
Serial kinematics design, precise, easy to
Robots) programming, small size
program
Lightweight design, High precision, speed,
ABB FlexPicker Delta kinematics fast movements, suitable for high hygienic
precise manipulation environments
Fast horizontal
YK400 (Yamaha Fast, precise movements,
SCARA kinematics manipulation, high
SCARA) high repeatability
precision
Simple design, high Stability, ease of
Bosch Cartesian
Cartesian kinematics accuracy, movement in programming, high
Robots
three axes accuracy

The classification of industrial robots, particularly Cartesian, cylindrical, and delta

robots, provides a foundational context for understanding the application of the proposed
control system. While anthropomorphic robots, which resemble the human upper limb,
are often considered the most intuitive in terms of design, the proposed control system is
not limited to these types. The flexibility of its signal processing and control methods
allows for adaptation across various robot types, with a particular focus on delta robots
in this study. Delta robots are especially well-suited for tasks requiring high speed and
precision, making them ideal candidates for demonstrating the effectiveness of the
proposed control system. Their unique characteristics, such as exceptional performance
in repetitive motion applications, create an optimal environment for evaluating and
implementing the intuitive control system using a sensory glove. This relationship
underscores the broad applicability of the proposed system and highlights its potential to
enhance the efficiency and interactions of various robot types beyond traditional
anthropomorphic designs.
The delta robot comprises a base, arms, and a triangular platform—presented in
figure 2. The base serves as the primary structural component, providing stability and
support for the entire mechanism. It houses the drive units responsible for controlling the
movement of the robot’s arms. Constructed from durable materials such as steel or
aluminum, the base ensures structural rigidity while minimizing vibrations during
operation.
The robot’s arms, consisting of three two-section components, play a critical role in
its functionality. Each arm features two segments connected by joints, enabling smooth
and precise motion transfer from the drive units to the work platform. The use of
lightweight materials, such as carbon fiber or light metal alloys, enhances the robot’s
speed and precision. This optimized design allows for high acceleration and short cycle
times, which are essential for efficient operations.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 5 of 21

Figure 2. Delta robot kinematics [22].

The delta robot operates based on parallel kinematics, where three independent
actuators control the movement of each arm. By adjusting the angles of the arms, the end-
effector is positioned with high accuracy. A standard Delta robot typically has three
translational degrees of freedom (X, Y, Z) and, in some cases, an additional rotational DOF
for end-effector orientation. This configuration allows the robot to move the end-effector
precisely in three-dimensional space without changing its tilt. Thanks to its parallel
structure, the delta robot achieves high-speed movement, low inertia, and excellent
precision, making it ideal for tasks requiring rapid and precise manipulation. The driving
system of the delta robot plays a crucial role in its operation, ensuring the accurate and
dynamic movement of the arms. Typically, the system consists of three high-speed servo
motors or stepper motors, each controlling one arm. These motors are mounted at the base
and drive the arms through a system of linkages and joints.
The motors receive signals from the control system, which processes input data and
translates it into precise angular displacements. This allows the delta robot to achieve fast
and smooth movements while maintaining high accuracy. Advanced motion control
algorithms, such as PID controllers or model predictive control, further enhance the
precision and responsiveness of the driving system, making it suitable for applications
requiring high-speed and high-precision operations. The relationship between the driving
system and the control system is essential for the efficient operation of the delta robot. The
control system, which is typically implemented on a microcontroller or embedded
platform, continuously processes input data from sensors, such as encoders, and
computes the necessary motor commands. The accuracy of this control system directly
affects the precision of the driving system, ensuring that the motors respond correctly to
the required position and velocity commands. Moreover, real-time feedback loops allow
the system to adjust movements dynamically, compensating for external disturbances and
ensuring stable operations. The integration of advanced algorithms, such as inverse
kinematics and trajectory planning, further optimizes the coordination between the
driving system and control logic, enabling smooth and precise motion control even in
complex tasks. Located below the arms, the triangular platform is the final element of the
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 6 of 21

delta robot. This platform serves as the attachment point for grippers, work tools, or other
devices, depending on the robot’s specific application.
Thanks to its articulated connection with the arms, the platform moves
synchronously with them, ensuring precise and coordinated motion. The triangular shape
of the platform ensures even force distribution, providing stability even during high-
speed operations or dynamic changes in movement direction. These three elements—the
base, arms, and triangular platform—work together to provide the delta robot with high
precision, speed, and stability during operation.
There are many methods of controlling a delta robot. The classical methods of
controlling a delta robot refer to traditional approaches based on established control theories
and techniques. One of the most commonly used classical methods is PID control, which
adjusts control signals based on the error, the integral of the error, and the rate of change of
the error [23]. Alternative methods of controlling delta robots are becoming more
widespread, utilizing modern technologies and computational power. Machine learning
and artificial intelligence (AI) are used to optimize the robot’s control system, enabling it to
adapt to various working conditions and improve its performance over time. One of the
alternative methods is an algorithm that has only one root. This is made possible using
analytical justification and numerical calculations [24]. Another alternative method uses
ANFIS (Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System) to solve the inverse kinematics problem.
Research [24] shows that this is possible when using a five-layer neural network to
accurately predict the final position. Using ANFIS allows for fast and acceptable solutions
to the inverse kinematics problem of a delta robot, as confirmed during simulations using
VR [25]. Traditional methods require providing specific values of the rotations of individual
drives in the case of simple kinematics, or providing a position in the Cartesian coordinate
system for inverse kinematics. The final position of the delta robot platform depends on the
construction of the robot, mainly on the length of the arms [26].
Therefore, an attempt was made to create a control system using hand movements in
space. This system allows the operator to easily control the robot. Standard robot control
methods often require the operator to know the appropriate programming languages for
industrial robots. The created control system is easy to use for every operator, regardless
of their level of technical knowledge.

3. Control Glove and Specifications of the Control System

For this purpose, it is necessary to make a control glove that allows appropriate
signals to be sent to the robot. Then, the data should be received using a microcontroller
and sent to the robot using an appropriate communication protocol. An analysis of the
quality of the filters used is carried out.
The control system concept consists of the following parts (Figure 3):

Figure 3. The concept of the control system.

Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 7 of 21

The system consists of several modules, including a glove with sensors and a
microcontroller responsible for archiving, processing, and sending data, as well as a
power system for the glove (represented in Figure 3 by the block labeled “Powerbank”),
a microcontroller that receives signals from the glove, and a tripod robot controller.
The glove’s task is to read data from the sensor module, archive, process, and filter
them, then transmit the data via wireless communication. The glove also includes a power
system placed on the operator’s arm to alleviate strain on the hand. The microcontroller
receiving signals from the glove supervises both wireless and wired communication. It
processes the received data into a format that aligns with the robot controller’s
communication protocol and sends a data frame to the robot controller. The robot
controller is responsible for receiving the control signals through the appropriate
communication protocol, processing the data into corresponding control signals for each
axis, and managing additional components.
In order to reduce losses and increase hand mobility, conductive thread and
conductive fabric were used to make electrical connections. The glove concept is shown
in Figure 4.

(a) (b)

Figure 4. The control glove: (a) inner side of the glove [27]; (b) outside of the glove [27].

The microcontroller, together with the sensor module and the display, is placed on
the upper part of the control glove.
In the first stage of component selection, it was necessary to select an appropriate
microcontroller that would allow data to be read from the sensor module and sent via
wireless communication. The microcontroller should meet the following requirements
(presented in Figure 5):
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 8 of 21

Figure 5. Microcontroller requirements.

After analyzing the available microcontrollers, the ESP32 module was chosen due to
its superior performance and integrated communication features. Compared to other
commonly used microcontrollers such as the ATmega328P or ESP8266, the ESP32 offers
significantly greater computing power and memory. While it is physically larger than
some alternatives, it has built-in Bluetooth and WiFi modules, eliminating the need for
additional communication components. Additionally, its higher processing power allows
for faster and more frequent data acquisition from the sensor module, improving
measurement accuracy. Unlike the ESP8266, the ESP32 supports multithreading, enabling
the simultaneous execution of multiple tasks, which further enhances its efficiency in
complex applications. Location and orientation can be determined using inertial systems,
which include an accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometer. These three sensors,
when combined, provide comprehensive data on the device’s movement and orientation
in three-dimensional space. This is possible because each sensor measures different
aspects of motion: the accelerometer detects linear acceleration, the gyroscope measures
angular velocity, and the magnetometer detects the device’s orientation relative to Earth’s
magnetic field. By integrating data from these sensors, advanced sensor fusion algorithms
can offer more accurate and reliable information about the device’s position, speed, and
orientation. One such algorithm is the Kalman filter, which is frequently used to combine
accelerometer, gyroscope, and magnetometer data [28]. This method improves the
precision of orientation and position measurements by correcting for sensor noise and
errors, thereby delivering a more accurate estimation of the device’s state.
A common task for robot control systems is real-time positioning. For this reason,
robots are often equipped with inertial measurement units (IMUs) using
microelectromechanical system (MEMS) technology. In these units, we find an
accelerometer and a gyroscope built in one module, which are the basis for measuring
linear and angular acceleration as well as linear and angular velocity [26]. Its general
availability and small size determined the use of the MPU6050/GY-521 microelectronic
system [28,29]. The built-in DMP (digital motion processor) hardware unit fuses data from
all sensors, which allows for the determination of a specific position relative to the Earth.
The undoubted advantage of this solution is that it significantly reduces the load on the
microcontroller. It is possible to program the DMP unit in such a way that it also uses an
external magnetometer for its calculations. Using the DMP unit, we can eliminate the
phenomenon of gyroscopic drift that appears when changes are observed slowly [30]. The
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 9 of 21

use of a 16-bit converter significantly increases the measurement accuracy when using the
MPU6050 module. Thanks to the use of the I2C protocol, the system is easy to use and
does not require additional peripheral devices.
This module has the following specifications (presented in Table 2):

Table 2. Specifications of MPU6050 [31].

Specification Value
Sensitivity +/−2 g, +/−4 g, +/−8 g, +/−16 g
Gyroscope operating ranges 250°/s, 500°/s, 1000°/s, 2500°/s
Supply voltage 3–5 V
Current consumption 350 µA
Operates in the temperature range −40 to +85 degrees Celsius
Interface I2C
Dimensions 25 mm × 13 mm

The small dimensions of the module allow it to be easily placed on the PCB.
Another issue is the selection of an appropriate microcontroller that allows it to
receive signals from the control glove, process them appropriately, and send them to the
robot controller. Given the presence of the built-in robot controller, the microcontroller
should primarily support Wi-Fi communication, be compatible with the Modbus TCP/IP
protocol, and include an Ethernet port. The Modbus TCP/IP protocol is based on the
ETHERNET TCP/IP communication standard. This is a version of the Modbus protocol
that uses TCP for communication, operating on port 502. Unlike the Modbus RTU version,
it does not include checksum calculations because this function is already performed by
the higher TCP layer. The ID field is not always used because the IP address, used in the
TCP/IP protocol, already serves as the device identifier [32]. In transmission in a Modbus
TCP network, it is necessary to distinguish between master and slave devices, and
communication takes place using TCP/IP packets. The transmit ID field is used to identify
which host query corresponds to a given response. The message size field allows the
transmitted data to be divided into TCP/IP packets, ensuring smooth transmission. The
device identifier field makes it easier to address network terminals supporting the classic
version of Modbus by using appropriate gates [33]. The data frame is shown in Figure 6:

Figure 6. Modbus TCP/IP data frame [33].

The increasing use of the TCP/IP protocol across various industries has led more
manufacturers of industrial automation systems to implement this standard in their
devices. Typically, solutions based on this protocol integrate proven communication
mechanisms used in industrial networks with the functionalities of the TCP/IP protocol.
A frequently used practice is the encapsulation of industrial network frames in TCP
segments, which allows for the effective use of the capabilities of this communication
standard [34]. The Modbus TCP protocol uses the Ethernet TCP/IP standard, which
enables easy and convenient connection between devices with a TCP/IP interface. This
allows users to communicate effectively between different devices on the network, which
increases the flexibility and interoperability of systems using this protocol [35].
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 10 of 21

Additionally, Modbus TCP eliminates the need for complex conversion processes
between different communication standards, simplifying system architecture and
reducing latency. Another advantage of this protocol is its scalability, allowing the
seamless integration of new devices without significant reconfiguration efforts. These
features make Modbus TCP a preferred choice in many industrial automation
applications, where reliability and ease of use are crucial [36].
When selecting microcontrollers, it is necessary to pay attention to the support of
appropriate communication protocols. Comparing the microcontrollers available on the
market such as Arduino Uno, ESP32 and Raspberry Pi, we chose the last of the mentioned
platforms, due to the built-in support of the Modbus protocol without the need to use
additional libraries, and because of the presence of an Ethernet port.
Raspberry Pi 3B+ has basic communication interfaces often found in everyday
computers. In addition to audio and video connections, the user has at their disposal the
following features – presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Specifications of Raspberry Pi 3B+ [31].

Interface Function
Allows for the connection of various peripherals, such as a
Four USB connectors
mouse or keyboard
Serves as a socket for communication with an external device via
Ethernet socket
the Modbus protocol
Allows communication with a 2.4 GHz and
WiFi module
5 GHz 802.11b/g/n/ac wireless network
Bluetooth 4.2 module Enables data transfer via a popular interface
GPIO Outputs/inputs that can be programmed for specific functions

The real-time performance of the control system is achieved through optimized

hardware and software components. The ESP32 microcontroller enables efficient wireless
communication with low latency, while the MPU6050 sensor provides real-time motion
data, which is processed using filtering algorithms to enhance accuracy. The Raspberry Pi
3B+ functions as the central processing unit, managing data acquisition and control tasks
with sufficient computational power to ensure smooth operation. This integrated
hardware setup allows the system to respond quickly and reliably, making it well-suited
for precise robotic control applications.
The components used along with their functions are presented in the Table 4.

Table 4. Hardware list.

Device Function
Reading data from the sensor module and
ESP32
sending data via WiFi to Raspberry Pi 3B+
MPU6050 Tracking hand movements in the control glove
Receiving data sent from ESP32 and sending
Raspberry Pi 3B+ them to the robot controller using the Modbus
protocol
Displaying information about the current hand
OLED Display
position and system initialization

In the next step, a program was developed to enable control using the control glove.
The block diagram of the control system is presented in Figure 7. The program consists of
several key components, beginning with process initialization. During this stage, the inputs
and outputs of the microcontroller on the control glove PCB are configured. Additionally,
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 11 of 21

the Wi-Fi connection is established by assigning the IP address of the target device and
setting a password to facilitate communication between the two microcontrollers.
Furthermore, the I2C protocol is initialized within the microprocessor system to
enable data retrieval from the sensor module. At this stage, the MPU6050 module is also
calibrated. To enhance system performance, the entire initialization process should be
conducted with minimal hand movement, reducing potential interference.
Next, the program moves on to downloading data from the MPU6050. At this stage,
the data are read from the sensor module. The electrical signals received from the sensor
appear in the form of a data frame, and the ESP32 module only needs to receive these data
and store them in a buffer. Following this, the program enters the data processing phase,
where the data frames received from the sensor module are processed. To ensure proper
processing, an appropriate library is used to convert the received signals into clear
indications from the gyroscope and accelerometer. At this stage, the signal is also filtered.
The next step involves checking the status of the microcontroller inputs. Here, it is verified
whether any of the buttons (made of conductive fabric) on the fingers are activated. This
information is then saved in the microcontroller.
Finally, if an enabling input is active, the data is post-processed, and the appropriate
data frame is created to send the information to the microcontroller that intervenes
between the control glove and the delta robot. The relationship between the control
system of the delta robot mechanism and the sensory glove is crucial for ensuring smooth
and responsive operations. The control glove acts as the primary interface for human
interaction, allowing the intuitive and precise manipulation of the robot. The sensory
glove captures hand movements and button presses, which are processed and converted
into control signals. These signals are then transmitted wirelessly to the intermediary
microcontroller, which interprets them and generates appropriate commands for the delta
robot’s driving system. This integration ensures that the user’s hand movements directly
influence the positioning of the robot’s end-effector, enabling real-time and highly
accurate control. By combining data from the glove’s motion sensors and tactile inputs,
the system achieves a natural and efficient method of robot operation, enhancing usability
and responsiveness.

Figure 7. Control algorithm.

Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 12 of 21

Each button (Figure 4) has its own unique function (presented in Table 5) that allows
the user to control the delta robot. Data from the buttons are sent to the robot controller
and trigger the appropriate function.

Table 5. Functions of buttons.

Button Function
Sends system status information to an intermediary microcontroller,
Button 1 transmitting a complete data frame that includes details about the current
position and the state of the other buttons
Activates the pneumatic suction cup, which serves as the TCP of the delta
Button 2
robot
Button 3 Deactivates the pneumatic suction cup
Button 4 Switches the mode from full mode to manual mode
Button 5 In manual mode, changes the currently controlled axis

The sensor module enables rotation measurement along three axes. In the full-
control-system mode, data from all three axes are captured simultaneously, providing the
user with comprehensive information about hand positioning in 3D space. This mode
allows the robot’s TCP (tool center point) to move along multiple axes at once. Manual
mode, on the other hand, restricts control to a single axis at a time. This functionality is
particularly useful for precise TCP positioning, as the full-control mode may introduce
unintentional rotation along unintended axes. Therefore, the manual mode is essential for
fine-tuning the TCP position with high accuracy.
When reading data from the sensor module and buttons, it is necessary to create an
appropriate data frame that is sent to the microcontroller intervening between the control
glove and the robot controller. The data received from the sensor module include
information about rotation in the x, y, and z axes in degrees, each represented as a float
type variable. Additionally, information about the button states is encoded in an int
variable consisting of four digits, which reflects the current state of the system. This allows
the user to choose between the manual mode, in which each axis is controlled separately,
or the full-control mode, in which all axes are controlled simultaneously. It also enables
the activation of the pneumatic suction cup.
Information about the button status consists of four digits, as shown on Figure 8.

Figure 8. Information about the button status.

Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 13 of 21

The prepared programs were implemented using the microcontroller. Then, a PCB
was made according to the diagram—presented in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Electrical connection diagram.

The completed control glove is presented in Figure 10.

Figure 10. Control glove.

4. Experimental Results and Signal Filtering

This section describes the filtration process that allows a user to remove the
measurement noise present in measurements related to the position of the hand. Control
using hand movement requires, first of all, the acquisition of precise output signals.
Therefore, an appropriate filtration process of measurements obtained from the sensor
module is necessary. The project analyzed the possibilities of using both basic recursive
and more advanced filters, such as the commonly used Kalman filter. These filters differ
in their operating principles, and we verified whether recursive filters are sufficient for
the needs of the project.

4.1. Theoretical Basis of Filtration

Data read from sensors, such as a gyroscope or accelerometer, often contain noise,
which can lead to inaccuracies in readings and, consequently, measurement errors. The
MPU6050 sensor allows data to be read from both the accelerometer and gyroscope. These
data were imported into MATLAB R2023a for further analysis.
First, an analysis was performed on the unfiltered signals to observe how the presence
of noise affects the quality of the readings. The results showed significant variation in the
data over short time intervals, which could lead to difficulties in further processing and
analysis. Various filtering methods were then applied to reduce these disturbances.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 14 of 21

The basic element in filtering systems is a filter, which reduces unwanted

components of the input signal through appropriate attenuation. Processing occurs in the
time domain, which simultaneously alters the spectrum of the original signal, i.e., in the
frequency domain. Filtering can be applied to both analog and digital signals using
appropriate types of filters. The goal of signal filtering is to remove interference from the
input signal and extract useful information, while also transforming the signal into
another form, such as through differentiation filters, Hilbert filters, or filter banks for
signal decomposition.

4.2. Recursive Filters

Recursive dependencies in filtering are primarily used in systems that handle large
amounts of data, as they do not require all of the data to be stored in memory (on the
stack). Recursive methods only require knowledge of the previous average value,
additional current data, and an understanding of the total number of data points. The first
filter tested is the averaging filter. A good way to eliminate measurement noise is to
average the measurement values, although, in this way, we also eliminate information
about the dynamics of the object—only its average value remains.
The set of values obtained from the gyroscope is presented as (𝑥 , 𝑥 , 𝑥 , … , 𝑥 ) and
consists of k elements. The average value is:
𝑥 + 𝑥 +𝑥 +⋯+𝑥
𝑥 = (1)
𝑘
The above relationship can be transformed into a recursive relationship.

𝑥 = 𝛼𝑥 + (1 − 𝛼)𝑥 (2)

where α = 1/k.
The result of using the averaging filter is shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11. The result of using the averaging filter.

This averaging filter is typically suitable for various measurements, effectively

reducing fast-changing noise in a small amplitude range. However, in the case of
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 15 of 21

measuring rotation speed, which can vary over a wide range, the filter does not provide
the desired results. While it works well for eliminating noise in measurements with slower
variations, it loses important information when the rotation speed changes rapidly, an
effect that is particularly noticeable up to t = 0.5 s.
A good way to eliminate measurement noise is to average the measurement values;
however, this also eliminates information about the object’s dynamics, leaving only its
average value. To reduce noise while preserving dynamic properties, an averaging filter
with a moving window can be used. The moving average is not calculated from all
measurements, but only from a certain set of recently recorded values. Previous data are
discarded when new ones are obtained, and only the most recent measurements are used
to determine the average. The moving average of the last n elements is determined as:
𝑥 +𝑥 +𝑥 +⋯+𝑥
𝑥 = (3)
𝑛
The above relationship can be transformed into a recursive relationship:
𝑥 −𝑥
𝑥 =𝑥 + (4)
𝑛
The result of using the moving average filter is shown in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Comparison of filtration for different window sizes.

Comparing the operation with the averaging filter, its value is revealed to be a
compromise between two opposing goals: delay and the filtration of measurement noise.
If the delay is too large, the value of window n should be reduced, but this will result in a
deterioration of the quality of measurement noise filtration.

4.3. Advanced Filtration Methods

The Kalman filter is a state observer that allows for the minimization of the mean
squared estimation error, which means that the algorithm allows for the estimation of the
internal state based on input and output measurements. The state estimate is statistically
optimal. The Kalman filter can work in both linear and nonlinear systems (it is then called
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 16 of 21

the extended Kalman filter). The filtration process is presented using a discrete-time state-
space model:

𝑥(𝑡 + 1) = 𝐴𝑥(𝑡) + 𝐵𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑣(𝑡) (5)

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑥(𝑡) + 𝑤(𝑡) (6)

In the given system, x(t) represents the state of the system at a specific time t, where
t takes discrete values, such as t = 0, 1, 2, .... The state vector x(t) contains the internal
variables that describe the current condition or configuration of the system. Meanwhile,
y(t) denotes the system’s output at time t, which is typically a function of the state and
input of the system.
The system’s dynamics are governed by a set of matrices: A, B, and C. The matrix A,
known as the state matrix, determines how the state evolves over time based on its current
values. It describes the relationship between the system’s current state and the next state.
The matrix B, the input matrix, defines how the input to the system influences the state.
The input vector, often denoted as u(t), is multiplied by this matrix to determine its effect
on the system’s state. The matrix C, the output matrix, governs the relationship between
the state and the system’s output. It maps the state to the output, indicating how the
internal system variables contribute to the observable quantities.
In summary, the system is defined by its states, outputs, and the way inputs affect
both, with the matrices A, B, and C capturing the relationships that govern the system’s
behavior over time.
The symbols v(t) and w(t) denote process noise (generating noise) and measurement
noise. These are independent mutual realizations of white Gaussian noise with zero
expected value and known covariance matrices V and W. Thanks to them, it is possible to
reproduce the imperfections of the adopted model and, in other applications, the
inaccuracies of the measurement equipment.
The result of using the Kalman filter is shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13. Kalman filter.

Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 17 of 21

4.4. Filtration Results

The Kalman filter is a more advanced filtering method, which is particularly effective
in conditions where measurement noise and process disturbances are significant. It is an
optimal algorithm that estimates the internal state based on both input data and output
measurements. Thanks to its structure, the Kalman filter provides the most accurate
results by eliminating both noise and inaccuracies in the model. The Kalman filter is
statistically optimal, meaning it minimizes the mean squared error in state estimation.

Compared to averaging filters, the Kalman filter is more precise and adapts to
changing conditions, considering both system dynamics and measurement noise. Its use
in nonlinear systems (in the extended Kalman filter version) allows for even wider
applications in more complex systems. Its advanced structure allows for better modeling
of dynamic systems compared to simpler filtering methods, such as averaging and
moving average filters. After analyzing the filters based on the hand movement
indications, the filtration results are summarized in the Table 6.

Table 6. Comparison of filters.

Filter Advantages Disadvantages

− Loses dynamic signal
− Effectively reduces high-
information
Averaging Filter frequency noise
− Low effectiveness in the case of
− Easy to apply
rapid changes in the signal
− Responds better to signal changes − Larger windows cause increased
Moving Average than the averaging filter delay in responses
Filter − Can be adjusted for different − Not optimal for highly variable
window sizes signals
− Involves advanced mathematics,
− Statistically optimal
making implementation
− Minimizes mean squared error
Kalman Filter challenging
− Effective in dynamic, nonlinear
− Requires knowledge of system
systems
parameters

5. Control System Implementation and Demonstration

After preparing the filtration system and constructing the glove, the system was used
to control a real delta robot, which serves as a demonstration model. Its primary task is to
precisely transport a ball, showcasing the capabilities of the technology in motion control.
Thanks to the glove, the robot can smoothly replicate the operator’s hand movements,
performing the task dynamically and accurately.
Additionally, this solution enables the execution of other tasks, such as precisely
arranging objects in specific configurations, manipulating items in constrained spaces, or
performing actions that require high accuracy, such as assembling small components. The
advantage of this approach is its ability to intuitively control the robot in a natural way,
which enhances efficiency in various industrial and educational applications, as well as
allowing for quick adaptation to different manipulation tasks.
The control system developed in this project (presented in Figure 14) is a versatile
solution that can be adapted to various types of robots, including tripod robots. Although
this study focuses on a tripod robot, the control system is designed to accommodate
multiple robotic configurations, such as delta robots, tripod robots, and other industrial
robots. For the tripod robot, the control system addresses specific challenges arising from
its configuration, particularly the need to synchronize the movements of its three legs to
ensure stability and precision in executing tasks. The control algorithms are tailored to the
kinematic and dynamic characteristics of this robot type while maintaining a general
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 18 of 21

operational framework. This adaptability allows the system to be easily implemented

across different robotic platforms, depending on their structural design and application
requirements. The flexibility of this solution makes it suitable for a wide range of
applications, from educational demonstrations to industrial tasks requiring precise object
manipulation in demanding environments. Adapting the control system to a tripod robot
primarily involves adjusting control parameters and algorithms to meet mechanical
constraints, while the fundamental principles of control and data filtering remain
unchanged.

(a) (b)

Figure 14. Control process: (a) initial position; (b) final position.

6. Conclusions
The completed project lays the groundwork for further research on the sensory glove.
The integration of flexible, lightweight, and conductive polymer materials presents an
opportunity to enhance comfort, durability, and sensor performance. By refining the
material composition, it is possible to develop a more ergonomic and user-friendly glove,
making it better suited for long-term use in various robotic applications.
Future work will focus on implementing polymer-based sensors to improve motion
tracking accuracy. These sensors could enhance the detection of both static positions and
dynamic forces, allowing for more precise gesture control. By fine-tuning sensitivity and
flexibility, the system could respond more effectively to user input, increasing its
reliability in industrial and educational robotics. Moreover, advanced filtering algorithms
will be explored to further refine data processing and minimize noise in motion capture.
The long-term goal is to create a highly adaptive control system that is seamlessly
integrated with different robotic platforms. Expanding compatibility with various robot
configurations will increase the versatility of the system, making it more accessible to a
broader range of applications. Additionally, further research into wireless communication
protocols and power efficiency will help improve the glove’s overall performance,
ensuring seamless real-time interaction with robotic systems.
Electronics 2025, 14, 1150 19 of 21

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.K. and T.T.; methodology, P.K.; software, J.K.;
validation, P.K., M.S. and T.T.; formal analysis, T.T.; investigation, J.K.; resources, M.S.; data
curation, M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, J.K.; writing—review and editing, T.T.;
supervision, P.K.; project administration, T.T. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.

Funding: This research received no external funding.

Data Availability Statement: Dataset available on request from the authors. The raw data
supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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