Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

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Journal of Energy Storage

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Research papers

CFD simulation of effect spacing between lithium-ion batteries by using

flow air inside the cooling pack
Husam Abdulrasool Hasan a, b, *, Hussein Togun c, **, Hayder I. Mohammed d, Azher M. Abed e,
Raad Z. Homod f
a
Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research, Department of Studies, Planning & Follow-up, Baghdad 10011, Iraq
b
Electromechanical Engineering Department, University of Technology, 10066 Baghdad, Iraq
c
Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Thi-Qar, Thi-Qar 64001, Iraq
d
Department of Physics, College of Education, University of Garmian, Kalar 46021, Iraq
e
College of Engineering and Technologies, Al-Mustaqbal University, Babylon 51001, Iraq
f
Department of Oil and Gas Engineering, Basra University for Oil and Gas, Iraq

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The CFD simulation of this study shows the impact of airflow with varying Reynolds numbers on heat transfer
Lithium-ion batteries improvement with cooling lithium-ion batteries at varied battery row spacing. Air was used as a cooling fluid to
Heat dissipation remove heat from lithium-ion batteries by flowing within the cooling pack during testing of four different spacing
Cooling battery
ranges (S = 1–4 mm). The Reynolds numbers vary from15,000 to 30,000 in the current analysis. The average Nu
Cooling pack
numbers are augmented through increasing Reynolds numbers for all types of cooling fluids. The CFD results
Heat transfer
Thermal management system (TMS) show that the Nu number increases as spacing increases. The temperature of the single cell drops with increasing
the Re or the flow rate since the liquid in the pack exchange with a new cold HTF at a faster rate. The average Nu
number is directly proportional to the Re number and the spacing between the neighbor cells. Further, the
temperature of the cells located closer to the inlet section is always lower than those closer to the outlet section
because of the temperature differences between the cells and the HTF. This study has confirmed that the flowing
air with high Re and highest spacing S = 4 mm has a major impact on thermal dissipation and rapid heat transfer
improvement from lithium-ion batteries in the cooling pack, which leads to improved electrical performance and
increase the life of lithium-ion batteries.

temperatures that are too high or too low, which will also significantly
reduce the battery’s ability to charge and discharge. After 300 cycles,
1. Introduction the capacity loss in a lithium-ion battery increases by 100 % when the
operating temperature is increased from 25 to 50 ◦ C. In latest years, a lot
Energy limitation and pollution have become major issues as the of emphasis has been focused on lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, which are
global economy has grown. The usage of fossil-fueled automobiles ac­ an essential part of electric vehicles (EVs). Compared to other
counts for most oil resource use, and vehicle exhaust emissions cause rechargeable battery types, Due to their high energy and power density,
pollution. Electric vehicles, along with their associated power battery long cycle life, and low self-discharge, Li-ion batteries are the best en­
business chains, are expanding worldwide to reduce vehicle emissions ergy storage technology for EVs. Moreover, the temperature increase
and provide renewable energy. based on by the heat generated during able to charge is among the most
Due to its several advantages, including high power density, effi­ significant and difficult challenges with Li-ion batteries. Mathematically
ciency, and extended cycle life, lithium-ion batteries are being utilized and experimentally, the forced air-cooling system for Lithium-ion bat­
extensively in electric vehicles and energy storage power plants. On the tery packs was investigated by Xie et al. [1]. The impact of the air/inlet
other hand, the operating temperature considerably influences lithium- angle, the air/outlet angle, and the width of the airflow channel between
ion battery performance and life. The battery’s cycle life, efficiency, battery cells on the heat dissipation of a Lithium-ion battery pack was
dependability, and safety can all be negatively impacted by operating

* Correspondence to: H.A. Hasan, Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research, Department of Studies, Planning & Follow-up, Baghdad 10011, Iraq.
** Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (H.A. Hasan), [email protected] (H. Togun).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.est.2023.108631
Received 16 April 2023; Received in revised form 20 July 2023; Accepted 6 August 2023
Available online 16 August 2023
2352-152X/© 2023 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
H.A. Hasan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

Nomenclature keff effective thermal conductivity of the heat pipe (W/m.k)

Qhp heat transferred by heat pipe (W)
Δt time interval (t) Ah the cross-section of the heat pipe (m2)
T battery temperature (K) qg cell heat generation (W)
I discharging current (Ah) V volume (m3)
V operation voltage (v)
ᶹ velocity (m/s) Greek
M mass of the cell (Kg) ρ′ resistivity (K/W)
cp specific heat capacity (J/kg.K) ρ density (kg/m3)
Tamb temperature of ambient (K)
Acronyms
Rbt total resistance of the battery (K/W)
Li-ion lithium-ion
Rtab total resistance of the battery table (K/W)
EVs Electrical Vehicles
K thermal conductivity (W/m.k)
CFD computational fluids dynamics
K T,x,y,z thermal conductivity in x, y and z axis (W/m.K)
TMS thermal management system
P pressure (Pa)
SHCS sandwiched heta pipes cooling system
S cross section of the tab and cell (m2)
SOC state of charge
h heat transfer coefficient (W/m2.k)
LTO lithium-titanate
qconv free cooling heat transfer (W)
PCM phase change material
Qcell power loss of battery (W)
3D 3-dimensional
gi gravity (m.s2)

investigated in experimental and computational fluid dynamic (CFD) thermal-management system was demonstrated, using phase change
studies. A hybrid battery equivalent circuit model, deep learning, and material PCM and water cooling via double s-shaped micro-channels.
transfer learning for battery state monitoring, as well as an adaptive The thermal dissipation of the battery thermal-management system is
boosting charging strategy optimization based on a thermoelectric-aging much better than the passive battery thermal performance with CPCM
model, surrogates, and multi-objective optimization, are just a few ex­ and no heat dissipation design. The BTMS with 20 % EG/PCM has a
amples of the many applications that make extensive use of batteries. better heat dissipation effect than other mass fractions, and the module’s
These illustrations highlight the usefulness and significance of batteries highest temperature and the temperature difference can be controlled to
in several industries. They can improve the literature by highlighting the 47.338 ◦ C and 4.8 ◦ C, respectively. Wang et al. [7] quantitatively
real-world uses for batteries and their significance across a range of investigated a novel idea for hybrid battery heat management systems.
fields by being included in the introduction Su et al. [2]. A three-dimensional thermal model is used to simulate the battery
The layout of the airflow channels was determined to substantially cooling system numerically. The findings demonstrated that a hybrid
impact the maximum temperature and temperature difference.2.5◦ air- cooling system with two-sided cold plates decreased the maximum
inlet angle, 2.5◦ air-outlet angle, and equal channel width were deter­ temperature from 64C to 46.3C for a 53 Ah lithium-ion battery depleted
mined to provide the best cooling performance discharging process. at 5C while retaining acceptable system weight and energy usage, which
García et al. [3] developed a novel modeling approach for Lithium-Ion is used for future pack level modeling. Using an appropriate temperature
batteries that combines basic and applied characteristics. The aged control system improves the performance of a lithium-ion battery Ren
cells were more likely to produce thermal runaway due to their et al. [8]. The impact of an active cooling heat source based on a U-
increased internal resistance. The difference might be decreased by shaped micro heat pipe array on lowering a battery’s temperature and
increasing the cooling flow from 3 g/s to 50 g/s. Lithium-ion batteries’ improving the temperature stability of the battery module during full
performance and life cycles for electric vehicles have been studied and charge and discharge was investigated. This cooling system provided
improved Jang et al. [4]. Under various conditions, the thermal per­ excellent thermal control also at large charge and discharge rates. Xu
formance of a novel liquid cooling system combined with heat tubing for et al. [9] discovered that the serpentine cooling channel offers better
Lithium-ion batteries was evaluated. The impacts of discharge rate, cooling, that the improved system’s maximum temperature difference is
liquid mass flow rate, liquid temperature, and ambient temperature 7.49 % lower than the initial scheme, and that the temperature profile of
were explored on the cooling function of the thermal performance. the lithium battery pack is more regular. Additionally, Xu et al. [10]
Compared to the LC, the highest temperatures of the battery module in employed an F2-type liquid cooling system with an M mode cooling
the LCB drop by 6.1 ◦ C and 9.4 ◦ C, respectively, under basic and optimal plate design to provide a novel thermal management approach for
conditions. To manage the battery pack’s temperature difficulties during lithium-ion batteries used in electric cars. According to the data, the F2-
high-intensity operation, Zhang et al. [5] investigated U-type and Z-type type liquid cooling system beat traditional liquid cooling systems in the
thermal management systems. An air-cooled T-type battery thermal context of cooling efficiency and total heat transfer performance.
management system was created based on current U-type and Z-type Youssef et al. [11] proposed a new battery heat management system
battery thermal management systems (T-BTMS). based on jute, a plant-based, low-cost, eco-friendly, cost-effective,
A lithium-ion battery’s charge and discharge operation was investi­ renewable, and lightweight fiber. The findings revealed that using jute
gated to discover the battery’s main features. In order to discover the for the proposed thermal management system improves air-cooling ef­
battery’s main features, computational fluid dynamic approach’s ficiency by enhancing temperature uniformity and lowering equipment
dependability was demonstrated by an air-cooled heat dissipation and weight. COMSOL-software was used to study the influence of uti­
experiment of the battery pack. According to the research, the T-BTMS lizing a sandwiched heat-pipe cooling system for thermal management
enhanced cooling performance while using less power. The temperature of lithium/titanate battery cells for Electrical Vehicles Behi et al. [12].
difference and maximum temperature were lowered by 2.2 and 90.8 %, The maximum cell temperature was reduced by 13.7 %, 31.6 %, and
respectively. Gao et al. [6] used water cooling using double s-shaped 33.4 % when a sandwiched heat-pipe cooling system was used to
micro-channels to exhibit heat dissipation of lithium-ion batteries at dissipate heat by natural convection, forced convection and forced
high discharge rates and ambient temperatures. A novel battery convection for cells to reach 49 ◦ C, 38.8 ◦ C, and 37.8 ◦ C, respectively.

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H.A. Hasan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

Also, Yang et al. [13] studied the impacts of water flow rate for inlet, for electric vehicles, resulting in significant reductions in maximum
cooling tubes and mini channels, tube spaces, water flow route, and temperature and temperature difference when optimized models are
spacer combined effect on the thermal performance of mini-channel used.
liquid cooling at 4 ◦ C using a CFD model of a lithium-ion battery sys­ Alsarraf, Alnaqi, and Al-Rashed [19] conducted a numerical evalu­
tem module. The findings showed that when the water input flow rate ation of the impact of phase change material (PCM) and nanofluids (N-
rose, the highest temperature and temperature difference increased, Fs) in a Li-ion battery cooling system (BCS). Capillary channels were
resulting in a significant rise in power consumption. Increase the num­ incorporated within the battery for N-Fs flow, with PCMs used between
ber of cooling tubes and mini-channels when the water intake flow rate the channels. The results revealed that the use of nanoparticles with
is 3.104 kg/s to improve cooling performance. Using a CFD model, varying shapes led to a reduction in average battery temperature, an
Ruhani et al. [14] studied the cooling system’s impact on the thermal enhancement in Nusselt number, and a decrease in molten PCM amount
management of a lithium-ion battery pack with nine battery cells. The in the BCS. Furthermore, the battery temperature and fluid outlet tem­
cooling system’s airflow has a Reynolds number of 80–140. The results perature showed a monotonic increase over time. The findings indicate
showed that raising the Reynolds number decreases the battery pack’s that the utilization of PCM and N-Fs holds promise as an approach to
maximum temperature. The battery cell near the inlet had the lowest improve the cooling performance of Li-ion batteries. Alnaqi [20] con­
temperature, while the one at the exit had the highest. The pressure drop ducted an investigation into cooling techniques for lithium-ion battery
in the cooling system is enhanced by increasing the Reynolds number (LIB) systems to reduce the operating temperature of the battery pack
and inlet size. The influence of flow air on cooling the 30 Lithium-ion system (BPS). A plate LIB consisting of multiple cells was utilized, with
cell module batteries was investigated using a CFD model of Kirad and nanofluids (Nfs) used for cooling. The thermal behavior of the LIB was
Mangesh [15]. The longitudinal spacing between the batteries signifi­ analyzed using finite element analysis and COMSOL software. The
cantly impacted temperature uniformity, while the longitudinal distance findings indicated that the addition of nanoparticles (NPs) to the base
between the batteries had a major impact on cooling system perfor­ fluid, along with an increase in fluid velocity and volume percentage of
mance. Mustafa [16] designed and built an air-cooling system for a 12- NPs, resulted in a reduction in the maximum LIB temperature, improved
cell Lithium-ion battery. The lithium-ion battery was placed in a cooling temperature uniformity, and enhanced heat transfer coefficient.
chamber and cooled by a forced airflow through the battery cells. The In the study by Wu et al. [21], an experimental evaluation was
cooling system’s effect was calculated using COMSOL software. Farouk conducted to assess the thermal control capability of a boiling cooling
et al. [19] conducted to simulate the cooling process of a plate lithium- system that uses Novec 7000 as a coolant for a large-format lithium-ion
ion battery cell using thermoelectric. In the study, the cold part of the battery. The focus was on investigating the impact of harsh operating
thermoelectric was placed on the battery, and a heatsink with a number conditions and parameters on the cooling performance of the system.
of pin fins was mounted on the hot part of the thermoelectric. The pin The findings revealed that the system demonstrates excellent cooling
fins had elliptical, circular, triangular, and trapezoidal shapes and were capacity and temperature control ability when operated with uninter­
placed in a channel saturated with alumina nanofluids (NFs). The study rupted coolant flow. However, under coolant starvation conditions, the
examined the values of battery and heatsink temperature, NFs output battery temperature and temperature difference increase significantly.
temperature, and pressure drop (DP) by changing the Reynolds number The use of 20PPI copper foam filler was found to partially alleviate this
(Re) of NFs flow between 300 and 600 for different types of pin-fins. The issue.
battery cooling system was modeled using COMSOL Multiphysics soft­ In this study, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling is used
ware. The findings showed that utilizing triangular pin-fins created the in a novel investigation into the impact of an air-cooled pack on the
greatest DP in the channel, and the output NFs temperature was greater thermal management system of lithium-ion batteries. The 30 cylindrical
than using other pin-fins. The oval pin fin led to the minimum DP and cells in the air-cooled pack are carefully planned and inspected to
NFs temperature drop in the channel. The use of triangular pin-fins effectively remove heat and lower battery temperature. The flow field
resulted in the minimum temperature on the battery and the heatsink, and temperature field are computed to examine the thermal manage­
while the elliptical pin-fins caused the maximum temperature (Tm) on ment system using Ansys Fluent, a cutting-edge CFD program. The study
the battery and the heatsink. As the Re was enhanced from 300 to 600, uses air as a cooling fluid to disperse heat from the batteries by moving
the DP was enhanced 4.85 and 7.67 times for the elliptical and trian­ air inside the cooling pack, simulating four various spacing ranges be­
gular pin fins, respectively. tween batteries (S = 1–4 mm). The Reynolds values are noteworthy
Farouk et al. (2022) [17] simulated the cooling process of a lithium- because they range from 15,000 to 30,000, demonstrating the validity of
ion battery using thermoelectric cooling, examining the effects of pin fin the analysis. This study will fill the gap of the limited research on using
shapes (elliptical, circular, triangular, and trapezoidal) on system per­ CFD modeling for air-cooled pack thermal management in lithium-ion
formance. The battery cooling system was modeled using COMSOL batteries, which is addressed by this novel investigation. The creative
Multiphysics software. Triangular pin fins showed the highest pressure approach of this research is highlighted using CFD as a design tool,
drop (DP) and output temperature of nanofluids (NFs), indicating su­ notably for design optimization, process optimization, and parametric
perior thermal transfer capability. Oval pin fins exhibited the minimum study, displaying its novelty in thermal management for lithium-ion
DP and NFs temperature drop. Triangular pin fins also resulted in the batteries. The aim is to advance the understanding of thermal
lowest temperature on the battery and heatsink, while elliptical pin fins behavior in air-cooled packs and provide valuable insights for the design
caused the highest temperature (Tm). Increasing Reynolds number (Re) and optimization of battery thermal management systems to enhance
from 300 to 600 enhanced DP by 7.67 times for triangular pin fins and battery performance and safety.
4.85 times for elliptical pin fins. These findings offer insights for opti­
mizing the design and operation of lithium-ion battery cooling systems. 2. Numerical technique and boundary conditions
Zhang et al. [18] extensively studied battery thermal management sys­
tems (BTMS) cooling performance, focusing on air cooling as a common 2.1. CFD model
method. They proposed a comprehensive optimization scheme
involving secondary outlets and baffles to enhance BTMS cooling per­ Fig. 1 shows the schematic of the air-cooling system for the cylin­
formance. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) was used to investigate drical lithium-ion battery module. The air coolant flows through a
the impact of secondary outlet number and width, as well as baffles, on uniform flow inlet. Thirty lithium-ion battery cells are placed in five
cooling performance. The validity of the CFD method was confirmed rows along the cooling pack, and the distance between each cell is S = 1,
through heat dissipation experiments. The study demonstrated that the 2, 3, and 4 mm. The heat generated in cells is taken away by air coolant
proposed optimization method can be applied to design effective BTMS flowing through the spacing between battery cells to improve the

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H.A. Hasan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of cooling lithium-ion batteries system.

performance of lithium-ion batteries and increase its operation life. The

Physical-Modeling and CFD Evaluation of flow air in the cooling pack to
dissipate the heat from the lithium-ion battery module is presented in
Fig. 1. The utilization of the cooling pack to reduce the temperature of
lithium-ion batteries. The same diameter of the inlet and outlet (10 mm)
are examined. Diameter of cylindrical battery = 15 mm and different
Spacing between lithium-ion batteries S = 1,2,3 and 4 mm are studied.
Range of Reynolds numbers of (Re = 15,000, 17,500, 20,000, 22,500,
25,000, 27,500, 30,000). Air is selected as the cooling fluid. The CFD
simulations are used to solve governing equations for air cooling packs.
The computational domain’s boundary conditions are given for the
current problem, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The Physical model shows the
efficient cooling technique for the lithium-ion battery module, with
uniform temperature, applied directly from the surface of the lithium-
ion battery. In the current simulation, K-epsilon (k-ε) turbulence
model with The RNG approach was considered. FVM was used to solve
Newtonian fluids, the Navier/Stokes equations numerically define mo­
mentum and mass transfer. The SIMPLE pressure-velocity coupling al­
gorithm was chosen to evaluate the pressure field. At the intake, the
turbulence intensity was controlled at 1 %. To solve equations and
produce geometry and grids, Ansys Fluent as Fluid Simulation Software
is employed. In the fully evolved stage, air enters the tube at a constant
temperature of 300 K and a constant velocity. The no-slip boundary
condition is applied to the channel walls, and the channel walls are
insulated. The air eventually exits the tunnel at an absolute pressure of
101,325 Pa.

2.2. Simulation process

The governing equations and boundary conditions are discretized

using finite element volume. A transient analysis is performed to
investigate the thermal performance of the proposed Li-ion battery pack.
A 3D heat transfer model coupled with lumped battery model is used to
acquire the temperature field and a Kepsilon (k-ε) turbulence model is
employed to calculate the flow field of cooling liquid between cells in
the battery pack. 30 cylindrical lithium-ion battery is considered in this
investigation. The initial temperature of lithium-ion batteries is taken as
25 ◦ C. In the current study, basically, the CFD problem could be studied
by using commercial software. FLUENT is a renowned computer pro­
gram for modeling and simulating fluid flows and heat transfer problems
in order to solve the fluid equations and produce the required solutions.
FLUENT’s pre-processor is another program called GAMBIT, which
provides the tool for building and applying the mesh to the geometrical
representation of the problem concerned. The Processing and post-
processing stages are done by FLUENT. The CFD modeling process in­ Fig. 2. CFD modeling process.
cludes the following steps as shown in Fig. 2:
The CFD modeling region could be classified into few significant initial conditions, and other appropriate parameters were defined in the
steps: pre-processing stage, the models step and solving, and followed by models step and solving. Finally, the results could be obtained
the post-processing stage. In pre-processing stage, the geometry of the throughout the computational domain in the post-processing stage
CFD region was constructed, and the computational mesh was generated (Fig. 3).
in GAMBIT. A physical model then follows it; boundary conditions,

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H.A. Hasan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

2.3. Grid independence test GIT

2.4. Code validation

Code validation is essential for any numerical work to check the

numerical code is validated with other previous works, and it is ready for
further runs. It should give the same results or very close to previous
works that have been investigated. Besides that, it is important to get
high accuracy of any numerical code and gain a better understanding on
its capabilities and limitations. In order to validate the numerical model,
the experimental study by Khoshvaght-Aliabadi et al. [22] was pre­
sented. They investigated air flow and heat transfer due to insertion of
novel delta-winglet tapes in a heated channel. The effects of the
geometrical parameters on heat transfer and fluid flow were also
examined using air as a test fluid. The comparison of the numerical re­
sults of the Nusselt number with the Reynolds number with the exper­
imental results of Khoshvaght-Aliabadi et al. [22] is presented in Fig. 5. Fig. 4. Grid Independence Study.
In this figure, the numerical results reasonably agree well with the re­
sults of the experimental study of Khoshvaght-Aliabadi et al. [22]. 3. Results and discussion

2.5. Governing equations of fluid motion 3.1. The influence of cooling on heat transfer enhancement

The governing equations (continuity, momentum, and energy) must The relation between the average Nusselt number (Nuavr.) and the
be determined to conduct the CFD study. The battery pack air cooling is Reynolds number (Re), which varies between 15,000 and 30,000 (tur­
used for removing the heat from lithium-ion batteries system. The steady bulent flow) for different spaces (1, 2, 3, and 4 mm) between the battery
two-dimensional with continuity, incompressible Navier/Stokes equa­ neighbor cells is illustrated in Fig. 6. The average Nusselt number rep­
tions and the energy equation decide the phenomena. For Newtonian resents the average heat transfer in the battery pack and the Reynolds
fluids, the Navier/Stokes equations numerically characterize mo­ number reflects the velocity of the heat transfer fluid (HTF) since the
mentum and mass conservation. They are occasionally accompanied by hydraulic diameter of the inlet section is constant. For each distance
a state equation involving pressure, temperature, and density. value between the battery cells, the average Nusselt number is directly
Continuity equation: proportional to the Reynolds number. The constant flow of cold Heat
Transfer Fluid (HTF) into the space or pack, which results in a consid­
∂ erable temperature differential between the cell surfaces and the HTF, is
(ρui ) = 0 (1)
∂xi to blame for the behavior shown. The high rate of convective heat
Momentum equation: transfer caused by this temperature difference allows for effective heat
( ) [ ( )] transmission from the cells to the HTF. The fluid tends to stay in the
∂ ρui uj
= −
∂p ∂
+ μ
∂ui ∂uj
+
2 ∂uk
− μ δij (2) space for longer at lower Reynolds numbers (Re), which correlate to
∂xj ∂xi ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xk slower HTF velocities, allowing it to absorb more heat from the cells and
Energy equation: reach greater temperatures. As a result, the average Nusselt number and
( ) [ ( ) ] convection heat transfer both decline as the temperature gradients be­
∂
ρuj Cp T − k
∂T ∂p
= uj + μ
∂ui ∂uj
+
2 ∂uk
− μ δij (3) tween the fluid and the cells narrow (Nu). The results demonstrate that
∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xj ∂xi 3 ∂xk at neighbor cell spacings of 1 mm and 4 mm, respectively, an increase in
Reynolds number from 15,000 to 30,000 resulted in a significant rise in
the average Nusselt number by 43 % and 49 %. This implies that higher
HTF velocities encourage more effective heat transfer, which raises
Nusselt numbers. Additionally, the outcomes show that larger average

Fig. 3. Schematics of the grid system for an air-cooled pack of the lithium-ion battery module.

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H.A. Hasan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

50
CFD Simulation
Experimental Results (Khoshvaght-Aliabadi et al. 2021)
45

40

Average Nusselt Number

35

30

25

20

15

10

5
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 120
12000
Reynolds Number
Fig. 5. The comparison of the numerical results of Reynolds number and Nusselt number with the experimental results of Khoshvaght-Aliabadi et al. [22].

Fig. 6. Variation of average the Nusselt number (Nu) with different inlet velocities at the different spacing between batteries S.

Nusselt values are produced by increasing the distance between neigh­ heat, with higher average Nusselt numbers and greater heat transfer
boring cells. This is since wider spacing enables a higher flow rate of the efficiency being the results of doing so.
HTF between and around the cells, enabling greater heat absorption When there is a 1 mm gap between adjacent cells, Fig. 7 shows the
from the cells and subsequently greater heat transfer from the cells to the input and outlet temperatures of the HTF, the battery pack’s average
fluid. For example, the average Nusselt number increases for Reynolds temperature, and the average temperature of cell C1. The inlet tem­
numbers of 15,000 and 30,000 when the distance between neighboring perature is initially constant since it is initially set to a fixed value. The
cells is raised from 1 mm to 4 mm and from 79 to 86 and 113 to 128, outlet temperature, however, exhibits an inverse correlation with Re,
respectively. This indicates that increasing the spacing between neigh­ demonstrating that higher Re values, which are associated with faster
boring cells can have a major impact on the system’s ability to transmit fluid velocities, lead to shorter residence durations of the fluid in the

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H.A. Hasan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

with quicker flow rates resulting in lower temperatures as a result of

enhanced heat absorption from the cells (Fig. 8).
The sole variation between Fig. 9 and Fig. 4 is that Fig. 9 shows the
identical parameters and circumstances as mentioned in Fig. 4, with the
neighboring cell gaps now measuring 2 mm. This widening of the gaps
causes the flow rate to increase around the cells, allowing more heat to
be absorbed and, as a result, lowering the surface temperature of each
cell. Although the temperature drop is more significant in this instance,
the behavior of the average temperature across all cells is comparable to
that previously described when the separation was 1 mm. For instance,
the temperatures of cells C1 and C28 decrease from 316 K to 304 K and
from 338 K to 329 K, respectively, as the Reynolds number (Re) rises
from 15,000 to 30,000. The temperatures of cells C3, C13, and C28 are
304 K, 318 K, and 328 K, respectively, when the distance is 2 mm and Re
is 30,000, in contrast to the data shown in Fig. 4 (when the gap was 1
mm). However, when the spacing is 1 mm and Re is the same, the
temperatures for the identical cells are 307 K, 322 K, and 333 K. By
allowing for greater heat absorption from the cells and resulting in lower
surface temperatures, this example proves unequivocally that increasing
Fig. 7. Variation of average temperature (K) at different Reynolds numbers for the space between the cells is inversely related to the temperature of the
a row of cell batteries at S = 1 mm. cells’ surfaces.
Figs. 10 and 11 show, at the same conditions and with intervals of 3
battery pack and restricted heat absorption from the cells. As a result, mm and 4 mm, respectively, the average temperature of the given cells.
temperatures drop at higher speeds (Re), with the outlet temperature These numbers demonstrate that as cell spacing increases, more heat is
falling from 335 K to 331 K as the turbulent flow’s Re rises from 15,000 released from the cells into the heat transfer fluid (HTF), which causes a
to 300,000. The open system battery pack’s flow rate or Reynolds greater reduction in cell temperature, especially at greater spacings. For
number can be increased to continually replenish the flow of cold fluid example, when the distance between adjacent cells is 3 mm and the
entering the component. Convection heat transfer is accelerated and the Reynolds number (Re) is 30,000, the surface temperatures of cells C3,
temperature of the battery pack and cell C1 are lowered because of the C13, and C28 are 303 K, 312 K, and 322 K, respectively. When the
larger temperature differences between the fluid and the cells. When the spacing is raised to 4 mm, these temperatures drop by 3 ◦ C, 2 ◦ C, and
Reynolds number rises from 15,000 to 30,000, the average temperature 3 ◦ C, respectively, for the same cells and Re. It is important to note that
of the pack and cell C1 decreases by 6 ◦ C and 4 ◦ C, respectively. Notably, when the spacing between cells is 4 mm, the temperatures of cells C3,
cell C1, which is in the pack’s first column and faces the inlet of the cold C8, C13, C18, C23, and C28 decrease by 8 ◦ C, 12 ◦ C, 13 ◦ C, 15 ◦ C, 16 ◦ C,
fluid, releases more heat into the fluid than the other cells do. As a result, and 15 ◦ C, respectively, in comparison to the case of 1 mm spacing. This
its average temperature is lower than the pack’s average temperature as allows for a thorough comparison and understanding of the impact of
a whole. In particular, when Re is set to 15,000, the average tempera­ cell spacing on average surface temperature. The temperature of cells
tures of the pack and cell C1 are 333 K and 315 K, respectively, and when closer to the intake portion is often consistently lower than that of cells
Re is set to 30,000, they fall to 327 K and 311 K, respectively. This closer to the output section. This is because cells near the inlet portion
implies that the temperature distribution inside the battery pack can be have lower temperatures than cells near the exit section since the tem­
considerably influenced by the location of the cell within the pack and perature differential between the cells and the HTF are greater towards
the fluid’s flow rate. the inlet section.
Fig. 4 shows the average temperature of the battery cells (C3, C8, The average surface temperature of the aforementioned cells is
C13, C18, C23, and C28) in the center row of the device, with a 1 mm shown in Figs. 12 and 13 at various spacings (1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, and 4
space between adjacent cells. Due to its advantageous location next to mm) and Reynolds numbers (Re) of 15,000 and 30,000, respectively.
the inlet and outflow sections, facing the fluid stream from the inlet These figures lead to three key conclusions. First off, in line with earlier
section, this particular row was picked for the investigation. In the findings, the average temperature of each cell rises as the distance be­
battery pack, the coolant fluid (HTF) first contacts cell C3, then moves tween it and its neighbors widens. This is demonstrated by the pattern of
on to cells C8, C13, C18, C23, and C28, absorbing heat from each one as increasing temperatures as the numbers’ spacing widens. Second, the
it does so. As a result, the HTF’s temperature progressively increases cells’ temperatures differ according on where they are. The temperature
along its flow route. Cell C3 sees the greatest heat transfer and, as a is lower in the cell (C3) closest to the inlet portion and higher in the cell
result, the greatest temperature drops when compared to the other cells, (C28) closest to the outlet section. The high-temperature differential
which results in the greatest temperature differential being seen. As a that the cell (C1) experiences is what is responsible for this discrepancy
result, cell C3 is left by the HTF at a lower temperature than the other since it causes a larger heat release from the cell to the HTF and a sharper
cells. As a result, the fluid’s temperature progressively rises and the drop in its temperature. Finally, at a given spacing (S), the temperature
temperature differences between the cells narrow as it moves near the of each cell is inversely proportional to Re. In contrast to lower Re
exit section, causing the distant cells to produce less heat. For instance, values, when Re rises, the velocity of the HTF rises as well, increasing
cells C3, C13, and C28’s temperatures fall to 318 K, 332 K, and 341 K, the amount of heat that is absorbed by the cells and causing a larger
respectively, when the Reynolds number (Re) is set at 15,000. As was reduction in their temperature. These inferences are made based on the
already said, as Re or flow rate increases, the fluid in the battery pack is patterns seen in Figs. 12 and 13, which show the correlation between
replaced with a new, cool HTF at a quicker rate, resulting in more spacing, Re, and cell temperature. These conclusions are further sup­
effective heat absorption from the cells. As a result, the temperature of a ported by the underlying physics of heat transmission and fluid
single cell falls as Re or flow rate increases. Particularly, the temperature dynamics.
of cells C3 and C28 decreases from 317 K to 308 K and from 341 K to 334 Fig. 14 illustrates the average temperature of cell C3 at different Re
K, respectively, as the Re rises from 15,000 to 30,000. This demonstrates (15,000 to 30,000) and various spacing (1 to 4 mm). The temperature of
how higher Re affects the distribution of temperature in the battery cells, the cell C3 drops with increasing the Re, a specific value of the spacing
(S). As mentioned, this is caused by the continuous high-temperature

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H.A. Hasan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

Fig. 8. Variation of average temperature (K) at different Reynolds numbers for a row of cell batteries at S = 1 mm.

Fig. 9. Variation of average temperature (K) at different Reynolds numbers for a row of cell batteries at S = 2 mm.

difference between the cell and the coolant. The higher Re provides a temperature drops by 1.9 % and 2.3 % when the spacing increases from
continuous refresh coolant to the pack, absorbing more heat from the 1 mm to 4 mm, for the Re of 15,000 and 30,000, respectively. Fig. 15
cell. Likewise, the average temperature of cell C3 is inversely propor­ shows the temperature of cell C28 for different Re and spaces between
tional to the spacing between the neighbor cells. Wider spacing (4 mm) the cells. The behavior of cell C3 is in line with earlier observations,
provides more fluid around the cell, which could absorb more heat from according to which a wider gap between cells causes higher tempera­
it, consequently, a sharper drop in the temperature of cell C3. The tures, which denotes a greater heat release to the HTF. However, it is
temperature drops by 3.5 % and 4 % when the Re increases from 15,000 noted that cell C28 has a higher temperature than cell C3, and this
to 30,000 for the spacing of 1 mm and 4 mm, respectively. Similarly, the phenomenon can be explained by a number of causes. The fluid around

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H.A. Hasan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

Fig. 10. Variation of average temperature (K) at different Reynolds numbers for row of cell batteries at S = 3 mm.

Fig. 11. Variation of average temperature (K) at different Reynolds numbers for a row of cell batteries at S = 4 mm.

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H.A. Hasan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

Fig. 12. Variation of average temperature for a row of batteries cell at different spacing between batteries S at Re = 15,000.

Fig. 13. Variation of average temperature for row of cell batteries at the different spacing between batteries S at Re = 30,000.

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H.A. Hasan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

of the thermal behavior of the cells is deepened by this information,

which also offers insightful advice for improving the system’s perfor­
mance and design. Additionally, these results are academically note­
worthy since they add to the body of research that suggests a cell’s
location inside a unit, together with its spacing and Reynolds number,
are key factors in determining its temperature. The arguments are sup­
ported by fundamental ideas in fluid dynamics and heat transfer that are
well acknowledged in the academic world.
Fig. 16 shows the velocity contours (left-hand side) and the fluid’s
temperature contours (right-hand side) at the distance of 1 mm, and Re
of 15,000 and 30,000. The Re is constant in each case, which means that
the flow rate and the velocity are constant, too since the cross-section
area of the inlet and the outlet sections of the pack are the same.
When Re is equal to15,000, the velocity of the fluid is 4 m/s in both inlet
and outlet sections, while, inside the pack, the velocity reduces ac­
cording to the fluid positions. The minimum velocity appears close to the
wall (far from the cells) and behind each cell. However, the maximum
velocity appears between the cells of each row, which reaches 8 m/s.
The behavior of the velocity is exactly the same but faster when Re is
Fig. 14. Variation of average temperature (K) at different Reynolds numbers equal to 30,000. The right side of the figure shows the temperature
for cell battery of No.3 at different spacing S. distribution contours for both Re values. When the Re is equal to 15,000,
the fluid enters the unit at 300 K and gains heat while it passes every
cell C28 is relatively heated, which is one major factor in its elevated single cell, and the fluid temperature increases more, bypassing every
temperature. Cell C28 is exposed to the fluid that has absorbed heat from column of these cells. The average temperature at the outlet section
each cell it has passed over because it is the last cell in the middle line reaches 337 K. two main points should be focused on; firstly, the tem­
(row) of the unit. The fluid becomes warmer as it approaches cell C28 perature between the cells in one row is maximum as it is generated by
because of this cumulative heat transfer, reducing the temperature dif­ gathering the layers around the cell due to the adhesive force, these
ferential between cells C28 and the coolant. When Re is 15,000 and the layers turn around the cell and gather in between the cells in each row.
spacing is 1 mm or 4 mm, respectively, the average temperature of cell Unlike the cells in the center line (row) of the unit, which are surrounded
C28 is higher than that of cell C3 by 7.2 % and 5.8 %, respectively, which by neighboring cells on both sides, the cells at the top and bottom of the
is consistent with the overall pattern seen in the previous figure. This is pack are only exposed to heat transfer from one side. Varying temper­
explained by the fact that cell C28 has a higher temperature as a result of ature profiles are produced along the height of the unit because of the
the cumulative heat transfer from the cells before it. This finding is different boundary conditions. Compared to the center line cells, which
important because it shows how a cell’s location within the unit affects are surrounded by cells on both sides and experience heat transfer from
its temperature. The average temperature of the cells varies depending both directions, the cells at the top and bottom of the pack, which are
on where they are in relation to the inlet portion of the central line since gaining heat from just one side, exhibit lower temperatures. This
they are exposed to a diverse thermal environment. The comprehension behavior is further confirmed by the fact that the fluid stays inside the

Fig. 15. Variation of average temperature (K) at different Reynolds numbers for cell battery No.28 at different spacing S.

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H.A. Hasan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

Fig. 16. Velocity and temperature contours of batteries cells at S = 1 mm and various Reynolds number of (a) Re = 15,000, (b) Re = 30,000. (The velocity contour at
the left hand side, and temperature contour at the right hand side).

unit for a shorter period of time at higher Reynolds number (Re) values, the rows as the fluid flows in its original direction. However, the
such as Re = 30,000, due to the higher velocity. Lower temperature rises maximum temperature appears between the columns. The average
than in the case of Re = 15,000 are the result of the fluid moving through temperature of the outlet section in the case of Re equal to 15,000 is 326
the unit more quickly since it has less opportunity to absorb heat from K and equal to 320 K when Re is 30,000. Higher fluid velocities and
the cells. This finding is in line with the expected behavior of increased higher Reynolds numbers (Re) lower the fluid’s residence time in the
fluid velocities, which shorten the fluid’s time in the unit and, as a result, heat exchange area. As a result, less time is available for heat exchange
shorten the amount of heat gain from the cells. This phenomenon can be to take place, which could lead to fluid temperature rises that are less
explained by the shorter fluid-cell interactions at higher Re values, rapid than those produced by lower Re values. According to well-
which result in slower fluid temperature rises and, as a result, lower established principles of fluid dynamics and convective heat transfer,
temperatures at the top and bottom of the pack. These explanations this phenomenon can be attributed to the fluid exchanging heat more
support the observation that the fluid at the top and bottom of the pack quickly due to higher velocities.
exhibits lower temperatures because it receives heat from only one side
and that higher Re values result in smaller temperature rises because the 4. Conclusion
fluid stays in the unit for a shorter period. They are consistent with
established principles of heat transfer and fluid dynamics. Any thermal unit is designed based on three primary rules: coolant
Fig. 17 shows the velocity (left-hand side) and the temperature flow modeling and assessment, configuration and optimization of the
contours (right-hand side) of the fluid when the space is equal to 4 mm coolant bath, and the operation strategy based on the output data. The
and the Re are 15,000 and 30,000. For each Re, the velocity of the fluid coolant flow behavior and its assessment greatly influence the efficiency
and the flow rate are constantly causing the same velocity at the inlet and performance of the thermal unit. This work presents a two-
and outlet sections. However, the velocity inside the pack is different dimensional numerical simulation of the airflow, which represents the
based on its location. The faster flow between the rows, and the lowest coolant at different Reynolds numbers and distances between the
appears between the columns. The maximum velocity appears around neighbor cells. The system is evaluated via the outcome of the Nusselt
cell C3 as the inlet flow separates into two directions, accelerating the number and the average temperature of every part of the system since
velocity. The fluids enter the unit at 300 K, and this temperature rises as the operational performance and service life of lithium-ion batteries are
the fluid flows in the pack. The minimum temperature appears between greatly affected by operating temperature. The main conclusion of this

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H.A. Hasan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

Fig. 17. Velocity contour (left) Temperature contour (right) of batteries cells at S = 4 mm and various Reynolds number of (a) Re = 15,000, (b) Re = 30,000.

work can be summarized as follows: • The temperature of each cell in the battery pack is influenced by its
position, with cell C1 in the first column and facing the incoming
• For varied distances (1, 2, 3, and 4 mm) between battery neighbor cold fluid having a lower average temperature than the pack.
cells, the average Nusselt number is proportional to the Reynolds • From cell C3 to cell C28, the average temperature of the battery cells
number (Re). in the center row of the unit gradually rises at a constrained Reynolds
• For neighbor cell distances of 1 mm and 4 mm, respectively, the number and a 1 mm spacing between adjacent cells.
average Nusselt number rises by 43 % and 49 % as the Reynolds • The surface temperature of the battery cells decreases as the intervals
number rises from 15,000 to 30,000. between adjacent cells are increased to 2 mm, showing that
• Increasing the distance between adjacent cells causes the heat increased flow rate around the cells increases heat absorption and
transfer fluid (HTF) to flow more quickly between and around the decreases surface temperatures.
cells, which increases the amount of heat transfer from the cells to
the fluid. Generally, this work has confirmed that the flowing air with high Re
• The average Nusselt number increases with increasing space be­ and highest spacing S = 4 mm has a significant influence on dissipating
tween neighboring cells, rising from 79 to 86 and from 113 to 128 the heat with high heat transfer enhancement from lithium-ion batteries
when the space between cells changes from 1 mm to 4 mm for sit­ in the cooling pack which led to improve the electrical performance and
uations with Re equal to 15,000 and 30,000, respectively. increased the life for lithium-ion batteries. Some ideas can be suggested
• The output temperature has an inverse relationship with Reynolds and planned by the authors for future work, such as, optimizing the
number, whereas the entrance temperature is constant and inde­ arrangement of the cells, the number, and the sizes of the cells, and using
pendent of Reynolds number. different types of the coolant including a high conductive fluid.
• The battery pack’s fluid residence time decreases as Reynolds num­
ber rises, limiting heat absorption from the cells and lowering the CRediT authorship contribution statement
temperature.
• When the Reynolds number goes from 15,000 to 30,000, the battery Writing-original draft, Husam Abdulrasool Hasan
Writing – review & editing Hussein Togun
pack’s average temperature decreases by 6 ◦ C and cell C1’s average
Hayder I. Mohammed
temperature decreases by 4 ◦ C, respectively.
(continued on next page)

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H.A. Hasan et al. Journal of Energy Storage 72 (2023) 108631

(continued ) [9] Huanwei Xu, Xin Zhang, Ge Xiang, Hao Li, Optimization of liquid cooling and heat
dissipation system of lithium-ion battery packs of automobile, Case Studies in
Visualization Hayder I. Mohammed
Thermal Engineering 26 (2021), 101012, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
Conceptualization Azher M Abed csite.2021.101012.
Raad Z. Homod [10] Jing Xu, Zhaoliang Chen, Jiang Qin, Pan Minqiang, A lightweight and low-cost
Methodology Azher M Abed liquid-cooled thermal management solution for high energy density prismatic
Project lead Husam Abdulrasool Hasan lithium-ion battery packs, Appl. Therm. Eng. 203 (2022), 117871, https://doi.org/
Investigation Husam Abdulrasool Hasan 10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2021.117871.
[11] Rekabra Youssef, Md Sazzad Hosen, Jiacheng He, Joris Jaguemont, Lysander De
Sutter, Joeri Van Mierlo, Maitane Berecibar, Effect analysis on performance
enhancement of a novel and environmental evaporative cooling system for lithium-
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Declaration of competing interest org/10.1016/j.est.2021.102475.
[12] Hamidreza Behi, Mohammadreza Behi, Danial Karimi, Joris Jaguemont,
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial Morteza Ghanbarpour, Masud Behnia, Maitane Berecibar, Joeri Van Mierlo, Heat
pipe air-cooled thermal management system for lithium-ion batteries: high power
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence applications, Appl. Therm. Eng. 183 (2021), 116240, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
the work reported in this paper. applthermaleng.2020.116240.
[13] Wen Yang, Fei Zhou, Haobing Zhou, Qianzhi Wang, Jizhou Kong, Thermal
performance of cylindrical lithium-ion battery thermal management system
Data availability integrated with mini-channel liquid cooling and air cooling, Appl. Therm. Eng. 175
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No data was used for the research described in the article. [14] Behrooz Ruhani, Awatef Abidi, Ahmed Kadhim Hussein, Obai Younis,
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