7/12/2024

LEARNING OUTCOME
1.1 Experimental design
(a) name appropriate apparatus for the measurement of time, temperature, mass and
volume, including burettes, pipettes, measuring cylinders and gas syringes
(b) suggest suitable apparatus, given relevant information, for a variety of simple
experiments, including drying and collection of gases and measurement of rates of
reaction

EXPERIMENTAL Topic 1
CHEMISTRY

HOW ARE PHYSICAL QUANTITIES MEASURED? MEASUREMENT OF TIME 1 min = 60 s

1 h = 60 min

Analogue stopwatch Digital stopwatch

+0.1 s +0.01 s
Physical SI Unit Symbol Other common Units
Quantity
Time second s Minute (min), hour (h)
Temperature kelvin K Degree Celcius (oC)
Length metre m Centimetre (cm), decimetre (dm)
Mass kilogram kg Gram (g), tonne (t)
Volume Cubic metre m3 Cubic centimetre (cm3)
Cubic decimetre (dm3)
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Unknown
Author is
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-NC
licensed under
CC BY-SA
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MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURE K = oC + 273 MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH

Analogue thermometer Digital thermometer 1 m = 10 dm = 100 cm = 1000 mm
Accuracy of +0.1 cm
Metre rule
Measuring Tape

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA

MEASUREMENT OF MASS MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME

Choice of beaker, measuring cylinder, volumetric flask, burette and pipette.
1g = 1000 mg
1 kg = 1000 g
1 t = 1000 kg

Accuracy of electronic balance is +0.01 g

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

This Photo by Unknown Author is
licensed under CC BY-SA
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MEASUREMENT OF VOLUME Meniscus MEASURING THE VOLUME OF A GAS

– avoid parallax error

Apparatus Accuracy
Plunger
Beaker Least Accurate
Measuring Cylinder Range of volumes +0.5 cm
Burette Range of volumes +0.05 cm
Volumetric flask Accurate fixed volumes
Pipette Accurate fixed volumes

This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed

under CC BY-SA
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC BY-SA-NC

LET’S PRACTICE 1.1 1.2 HOW ARE

GASES COLLECTED?
1. What is an advantage of using a burette instead of a measuring cylinder
to measure a volume of liquid?

2. Although a pipette measures volume very accurately, state one

disadvantage of using a pipette to measure liquid volumes.
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METHODS FOR LET’S PRACTISE 1.2

DRYING GASES
1. Gas X is less dense than air and is insoluble in water. Suggest a method that can
be used to collect gas X. Draw the set-up.

2. Gas Y reacts with acids. Name one drying agent that can be used on gas Y.

LEARNING OUTCOME 1.3 HOW ARE SUBSTANCES IN MIXTURES

SEPARATED?
1.2 Methods of purification and analysis
(a) describe methods of separation and purification for the components of mixtures, 1. Separating solid-solid mixtures
to include:
 (i) use of a suitable solvent, filtration and crystallisation or evaporation
2. Separating solid-liquid mixtures
 (ii) sublimation 3. Separating liquid-liquid mixtures
 (iii) distillation and fractional distillation
 (iv) use of a separating funnel
 (v) paper chromatography

(b) suggest suitable separation and purification methods, given information about the
substances involved in the following types of mixtures: (i) solid-solid (ii) solid-liquid (iii)
liquid-liquid (miscible and immiscible)
(c) interpret paper chromatograms including comparison with ‘known’ samples and the
use of Rf values
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SEPARATING SOLID-SOLID MIXTURES SEPARATING SOLID-SOLID MIXTURES

1. Using magnetic attraction 3. Using suitable solvents
Magnets can be used to separate magnetic solids from non-magnetic solids. A suitable solvent can be used to separate solid-solid
Examples of magnetic materials are: mixtures in which only one of the solids is soluble in the
solvent.
Iron, cobalt, nickel, steel
Example: mixture of sand and salt
2. Sieving
4. Sublimation
A sieve can be used to separate solids of different particle sizes
When a mixture consists of particles of different sizes, they can be separated by Sublimation can be used to separate a mixture of solids
using a sieve with a suitable pore size. where one sublimes on heating while the other does not.
Example: sand and pebbles Example: mixture of iodine and salt

SEPARATING SOLID-LIQUID SEPARATING SOLID-LIQUID MIXTURES

MIXTURES
Filtration Evaporation to Dryness
 Used to separate insoluble solids from • Used to separate a dissolved solid from its solvent
liquid by heating the mixture until all the solvent has
vaporized.
 A filter funnel and filter paper are used
• All the solvent (of lower boiling point) are boiled off,
 The liquid that passes through is filtrate leaving only the solid (higher boiling point) in the
 The solid that remains on filter paper is evaporating dish.
residue • Example:
 Example: sand in water • Cannot be used for solids that break down or
decompose when heated.
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SEPARATING SOLID-LIQUID MIXTURES CRYSTALLISATION

Crystallisation
• Used to obtain a pure solid from its saturated solution.
• A saturated solution is one in which no more solute can be dissolved.
• Steps:
• Heat the solution in an evaporating dish until the solution is saturated.
• Cool the solution until solid crystals appear within the solution.
• Filter the mixture to obtain the crystals.
• Wash the crystals with some cold distilled water to remove impurities. This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed under CC
BY-SA

• Dry the crystals with filter paper

Example: sugar solution

SEPARATING SOLID-LIQUID MIXTURES

Simple Distillation is used to separate a pure solvent from a solution.
Example: sea water
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SEPARATING LIQUID-LIQUID MIXTURES SEPARATING LIQUID-LIQUID MIXTURES

Separating Funnel Chromatography

• Miscible liquids – form uniform or homogeneous solution Used to separate a mixture of substances which have different solubilities in a given
solvent.
• Immiscible liquids – form a heterogenous mixture. When Chromatogram – show the separated substances on the paper after chromatography
left to settle, they form separate layers (phases). The less
dense layer on top, the denser layer at the bottom. • The more soluble substance will move faster towards the solvent front
• The less soluble substance will move slower towards the solvent front.
• To separate immiscible liquid, use a separating funnel.
• Open the tap at the bottom to drain out the lower layer. The retention factor (Rf) is used for comparison:
• Pour out the top layer into a beaker. Rf = distance travelled by the substance / distance travelled by the solvent
This Photo by Unknown Author is licensed
under CC BY-SA
Note: if the solvent is changed, the Rf will be different.

Chromatography
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EXERCISE SEPARATING LIQUID-LIQUID MIXTURES

A sample of ink from a forged
signature was compared with inks Chromatography of colourless substances
from the pens of five suspects.
How to view if it is colourless?
a. Which of the inks, A, B, C, D, or E,
could have been used to write the Locating agents – react with the colourless substances to form coloured spots
forged signature?
UV light – to view the substances visible under UV light
Or use both – use locating agent to react with the colourless substance, then
b. Which of the inks must contain a view under UV light
mixture of at least 3 dyes?

SEPARATING LIQUID-LIQUID MIXTURES SEPARATING LIQUID-LIQUID MIXTURES

Applications of Chromatography Fractional Distillation Industrial Applications
• Identify pesticides or poisons in food • used to separate miscible • Oil refineries separate
• Detect banned substance in athlete’s urine or blood
liquids with different boiling different substances from
sample
point crude oil
• Forensic investigation – separate components like
• Miscible liquids cannot be • Separation of liquefied air
DNA fragments in biological samples
separated using simple to produce nitrogen, oxygen
distillation. and argon gas
• Ethanol produced by
glucose fermentation is
extracted in breweries
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SEPARATING LIQUID-LIQUID MIXTURES

Fractional Distillation
• A fractionating column is added to the simple
distillation set-up.
• The column contains glass beads to provide large
surface area for vapours to condense.
• At boiling point T1, collect first distillate.
• At boiling point T2, collect second distillate
• Liquids with boiling points close together require longer
fractionating column to separate.

EXERCISE
The apparatus on the right is used to
separate a mixture of two compounds
called octane and decane.

a. What feature must the two liquids

have in order for them to be separated
by this method?

b. What is the piece of apparatus

labelled X called? What does X do?

c. Which liquid appears in the beaker

first? Explain your answer.
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LET’S PRACTICE 1.3 1.4 HOW CAN THE PURITY OF SUBSTANCES BE

DETERMINED?
1. Name 2 separation techniques that involve a change of state of one of the A pure substance has
components.
• a specific melting and boiling point under fixed conditions
• only one spot in the chromatogram
2. Name 2 separation techniques that does not involve a change of state.

Mixtures melt or boil over a range of temperatures

Presence of impurities increases the boiling point of water to more than 100oC,
3. How can components separated in paper chromatograms be identified but decrease the freezing point of water to below 0oC.
against known substances?
Question: Why is salt being added to the road during winter?

EXERCISE EXERCISE