ISRO

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO /ˈɪsroʊ/) [a]

is India's national space agency,
headquartered in Bengaluru, Karnataka. It serves as the principal research and development
arm of the Department of Space (DoS), overseen by the Prime Minister of India, with the
Chairman of ISRO also serving as the chief executive of the DoS. It is primarily responsible for
space-based operations, space exploration, international space cooperation and the
development of related technologies.[3] The agency maintains a constellation of imaging,
communication and remote sensing satellites. It operates the GAGAN and IRNSS satellite
navigation systems. It has sent three missions to the Moon and one mission to Mars.

Formerly known as the Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR), ISRO
was set up in 1962 by then-Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru on the recommendation of
scientist Vikram Sarabhai. It was renamed as ISRO in 1969 and was subsumed into the
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE).[4] The establishment of ISRO institutionalised space
research activities in India.[5][6] In 1972, the Government set up a Space Commission and the
DoS, bringing ISRO under its purview. It has since then been managed by the DoS, which also
governs various other institutions in the domain of astronomy and space technology.[7]

ISRO built India's first satellite Aryabhata which was launched by the Soviet space agency
Interkosmos in 1975.[8] In 1980, it launched the satellite RS-1 on board the indigenously built
launch vehicle SLV-3, making India the seventh country to undertake orbital launches. It has
subsequently developed various small-lift and medium-lift launch vehicles, enabling the
agency to launch various satellites and deep space missions. It is one of the six government
space agencies in the world that possess full launch capabilities with the ability to deploy
cryogenic engines, launch extraterrestrial missions and artificial satellites.[9][10][b] It is also the
only one of the four governmental space agencies to have demonstrated unmanned soft
landing capabilities.[11][c]

ISRO's programmes have played a significant role in socio-economic development. It has

supported both civilian and military domains in various aspects such as disaster management,
telemedicine, navigation and reconnaissance. ISRO's spin-off technologies have also aided in
new innovations in engineering and other allied domains.[12]
History Indian Space Research Organisation
Bhāratīya Antarikṣa Anusandhāna

Formative years Saṅgaṭhana

Modern space research in India can be traced

to the 1920s, when scientist S. K. Mitra
conducted a series of experiments sounding
the ionosphere through ground-based radio in
Kolkata.[13] Later, Indian scientists like C. V.
Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to
scientific principles applicable in space
sciences.[13] After 1945, important Logo

developments were made in coordinated

space research in India[13] by two scientists:
Vikram Sarabhai, founder of the Physical
Research Laboratory at Ahmedabad, and
Homi Bhabha, who established the Tata
Institute of Fundamental Research in 1945.[13]
ISRO Headquarters at Bengaluru
Initial experiments in space sciences included
the study of cosmic radiation, high-altitude Agency overview
and airborne testing, deep underground
experimentation at the Kolar mines—one of
Formed 15 August 1969

the deepest mining sites in the world—and Preceding agency INCOSPAR (1962–
studies of the upper atmosphere.[14] These 1969)
studies were done at research laboratories,
Type Government space
universities, and independent locations.[14][15]
agency

In 1950, the Department of Atomic Energy Jurisdiction Department of

(DAE) was founded with Bhabha as its Space
secretary.[15] It provided funding for space
research throughout India.[16] During this time,
Headquarters Bengaluru,
Karnataka
tests continued on aspects of meteorology
13°2′7″N
and the Earth's magnetic field, a topic that had 77°34′16″E (http
been studied in India since the establishment s://geohack.toolforg
of the Colaba Observatory in 1823. In 1954, the e.org/geohack.php?
Aryabhatta Research Institute of Observational pagename=ISRO&p
arams=13_2_7_N_7
Sciences (ARIES) was established in the 7_34_16_E_type:lan

foothills of the Himalayas.[15] The Rangpur dmark_region:IN-K

Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania A)

University, Hyderabad. Space research was Chairman V. Narayanan

further encouraged by the government of
India.[16] In 1957, the Soviet Union launched
Primary spaceports Satish Dhawan
Space Centre
Sputnik 1 and opened up possibilities for the
rest of the world to conduct a space launch.[16] SSLV Launch
Complex
INCOSPAR was set up in 1962 by Prime
Thumba
Minister Jawaharlal Nehru on the suggestion
Equatorial Rocket
of Dr. Vikram Sarabhai.[6] Initially there was no Launching Station
dedicated ministry for the space programme
and all activities of INCOSPAR relating to Owner Government of
India
space technology continued to function within
the DAE.[17][5] IOFS officers were drawn from Employees 19,247 (as on 1
the Indian Ordnance Factories to harness their March 2022)[1]
knowledge of propellants and advanced light
Annual budget ₹13,042 crore
materials used to build rockets.[18] H. G. S.
(US$1.5 billion)
Murthy, an IOFS officer, was appointed the (2024-2025)[2]
first director of the Thumba Equatorial Rocket
Launching Station,[19] where sounding rockets Website isro.gov.in (https://
www.isro.gov.in/)
were fired, marking the start of upper
atmospheric research in India.[20] An
indigenous series of sounding rockets named Rohini was subsequently developed and started
undergoing launches from 1967 onwards.[21] Waman Dattatreya Patwardhan, another IOFS
officer, developed the propellant for the rockets.

1970's and 1980's

Under the government of Indira Gandhi, INCOSPAR was superseded by ISRO. Later in 1972, a
space commission and Department of Space (DoS) were set up to oversee space technology
development in India specifically. ISRO was brought under DoS, institutionalising space
research in India and forging the Indian space programme into its existing form.[5][7] India
joined the Soviet Interkosmos programme for space cooperation[22] and got its first satellite
Aryabhata in orbit through a Soviet rocket.[8]
Efforts to develop an orbital launch vehicle began after mastering sounding rocket
technology. The concept was to develop a launcher capable of providing sufficient velocity
for a mass of 35 kg (77 lb) to enter low Earth orbit. It took 7 years for ISRO to develop Satellite
Launch Vehicle capable of putting 40 kg (88 lb) into a 400-kilometre (250 mi) orbit. An SLV
Launch Pad, ground stations, tracking networks, radars and other communications were set
up for a launch campaign. The SLV's first launch in 1979 carried a Rohini technology payload
but could not inject the satellite into its desired orbit. It was followed by a successful launch in
1980 carrying a Rohini Series-I satellite, making India the seventh country to reach Earth's
orbit after the USSR, the US, France, the UK, China and Japan. RS-1 was the third Indian
satellite to reach orbit as Bhaskara had been launched from the USSR in 1979. Efforts to
develop a medium-lift launch vehicle capable of putting 600-kilogram (1,300 lb) class
spacecrafts into 1,000-kilometre (620 mi) Sun-synchronous orbit had already begun in
1978.[23] They would later lead to the development of the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle
(PSLV).[24] The SLV-3 later had two more launches before discontinuation in 1983.[25] ISRO's
Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC) was set up in 1985 and started working on a more
powerful engine, Vikas, based upon the French Viking.[26] Two years later, facilities to test
liquid-fuelled rocket engines were established and development and testing of various rocket
engines thrusters began.[27]

At the same time, another solid-fuelled rocket, the Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle
(ASLV), whose design was based upon SLV-3 was being developed, with technologies to
launch satellites into geostationary orbit (GTO). The ASLV had limited success and multiple
launch failures; it was soon discontinued.[28] Alongside these developments, communication
satellite technologies for the Indian National Satellite System[29] and the Indian Remote
Sensing Programme for earth observation satellites[30] were developed and launches from
overseas were initiated. The number of satellites eventually grew and the systems were
established as among the largest satellite constellations in the world, with multi-band
communication, radar imaging, optical imaging and meteorological satellites.[31]

1990s
The arrival of the PSLV in 1990s was a major boost for the Indian space programme. With the
exception of its first flight in 1994 and two partial failures later, the PSLV had a streak of more
than 50 successful flights. The PSLV enabled India to launch all of its low Earth orbit satellites,
small payloads to GTO and hundreds of foreign satellites.[32] Along with the PSLV flights,
development of a new rocket, a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) was going
on. India tried to obtain upper-stage cryogenic engines from Russia's Glavkosmos but was
blocked by the US from doing so. As a result, KVD-1 engines were imported from Russia
under a new agreement which had limited success[33] and a project to develop indigenous
cryogenic technology was launched in 1994, taking two decades to reach fulfillment.[34] A
new agreement was signed with Russia for seven KVD-1 cryogenic stages and a ground
mock-up stage with no technology transfer, instead of five cryogenic stages along with the
technology and design in the earlier agreement.[35] These engines were used for the initial
flights and were named GSLV Mk.1.[36] ISRO was under US government sanctions between 6
May 1992 to 6 May 1994.[37] After the United States refused to help India with Global
Positioning System (GPS) technology during the Kargil war, ISRO was prompted to develop its
own satellite navigation system IRNSS (now NaVIC i.e. Navigation with Indian Constellation)
which it is now expanding further.[38]

21st century
In 2003, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee urged scientists to develop technologies to land
humans on the Moon[39] and programmes for lunar, planetary and crewed missions were
started. ISRO launched Chandrayaan-1 aboard PSLV in 2008, purportedly the first probe to
verify the presence of water on the Moon.[40]

ISRO launched the Mars Orbiter Mission (or Mangalyaan) aboard a PSLV in 2013, which later
became the first Asian spacecraft to enter Martian orbit, making India the first country to
succeed at this on its first attempt.[41]

Subsequently, the cryogenic upper stage for GSLV rocket became operational, making India
the sixth country to have full launch capabilities.[42] A new heavier-lift launcher LVM3 was
introduced in 2014 for heavier satellites and future human space missions.[43]

Chandrayaan-3 Lander on the

Moon surface imaged by rover
Pragyan 15 meters away
On 23 August 2023, India achieved its first soft landing on an extraterrestrial body and
became the first nation to successfully land a spacecraft near the lunar south pole and fourth
nation to successfully land a spacecraft on the Moon with ISRO's Chandrayaan-3, the third
Moon mission.[44] Indian moon mission, Chandrayaan-3 (lit. "Mooncraft"), saw the successful
soft landing of its Vikram lander at 6.04 pm IST (12:34 pm GMT) near the little-explored
southern pole of the Moon in a world's first for any space programme.[45]

India then successfully launched its first solar probe, the Aditya-L1, aboard a PSLV on 2
September 2023.[46][47]

On 30 December 2024, ISRO successfully launched the SpaDeX mission, pioneering

spacecraft rendezvous, docking, and undocking using two small satellites.[48][49] On 16
January 2025, the ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network's Mission Operations
Complex verified that the docking process was successful. India became the 4th country —
after USA, Russia and China — to achieve successful Space Docking.[50][51][52] ISRO also
successfully managed to control two satellites as a single entity after docking.[53]

Agency logo
ISRO has an official logo since 2002. It consists of an orange arrow shooting upwards
attached with two blue coloured satellite panels with the name of ISRO written in two sets of
text, orange-coloured Devanagari on the left and blue-coloured English in the Prakrta
typeface on the right.[54][55]
Goals and objectives

Vikram Sarabhai, first

chairperson of INCOSPAR,
ISRO's predecessor
organization

As the national space agency of India, ISRO's purpose is the pursuit of all space-based
applications such as research, reconnaissance, and communications. It undertakes the
design and development of space rockets and satellites, and undertakes explores upper
atmosphere and deep space exploration missions. ISRO has also incubated technologies in
India's private space sector, boosting its growth.[56][57]

On the topic of the importance of a space programme to India as a developing nation, Vikram
Sarabhai as INCOSPAR chairman said in 1969:[58][59][60]

To us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing

with the economically advanced nations in the exploration of the Moon or the
planets or manned space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a
meaningful role nationally, and in the community of nations, we must be second to
none in the application of advanced technologies to the real problems of man and
society, which we find in our country. And we should note that the application of
sophisticated technologies and methods of analysis to our problems is not to be
confused with embarking on grandiose schemes, whose primary impact is for show
rather than for progress measured in hard economic and social terms.

The former president of India and chairman of DRDO, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, said:[61]
 Very many individuals with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space
activities in a newly independent nation which was finding it difficult to feed its
population. But neither Prime Minister Nehru nor Prof. Sarabhai had any ambiguity
of purpose. Their vision was very clear: if Indians were to play a meaningful role in
the community of nations, they must be second to none in the application of
advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They had no intention of using it
merely as a means of displaying our might.

India's economic progress has made its space programme more visible and active as the
country aims for greater self-reliance in space technology.[62] In 2008, India launched as
many as 11 satellites, including nine from other countries, and went on to become the first
nation to launch 10 satellites on one rocket.[62] ISRO has put into operation two major satellite
systems: the Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) for communication services, and the
Indian Remote Sensing Programme (IRS) satellites for management of natural
resources.[29][31]

Organisation structure and facilities

The organisational structure of the Indian

Department of Space

ISRO is managed by the DOS, which itself falls under the authority of the Space Commission
and manages the following agencies and institutes:[63][64][65]

Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)

Antrix Corporation – The marketing arm of ISRO, Bengaluru

Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad

National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL), Gadanki, Andhra Pradesh

NewSpace India Limited – Commercial wing, Bengaluru

 North-Eastern Space Applications Centre[66] (NE-SAC), Umiam

Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram – India's

space university

Research facilities
Facility Location Description
The largest ISRO base is also the main technical centre and the venue
Vikram Sarabhai for development of the SLV-3, ASLV, and PSLV series.[67] The base
Thiruvananthapuram
Space Centre supports TERLS and the Rohini Sounding Rocket programme.[67] It is
also developing the GSLV series.[67]

The LPSC handles design, development, testing and implementation

of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid stages and liquid engines
Liquid Propulsion Thiruvananthapuram
for launch vehicles and satellites.[67] The testing of these systems is
Systems Centre and Bengaluru
largely conducted at IPRC at Mahendragiri.[67] The LPSC, Bengaluru
also produces precision transducers.[68]

Solar planetary physics, infrared astronomy, geo-cosmo physics,

Physical Research plasma physics, astrophysics, archaeology, and hydrology are some
Ahmedabad
Laboratory of the branches of study at this institute.;[67] it also operates the
observatory at Udaipur.[67]

National
Atmospheric The NARL carries out fundamental and applied research in
Tirupati
Research atmospheric and space sciences.[69]
Laboratory

The SAC deals with the various aspects of the practical use of space
technology.[67] Among the fields of research at the SAC are geodesy,
Space satellite based telecommunications, surveying, remote sensing,
Applications Ahmedabad meteorology, environment monitoring etc.[67] The SAC also operates
Centre the Delhi Earth Station, which is located in Delhi and is used for
demonstration of various SATCOM experiments in addition to normal
SATCOM operations.[70]

North-Eastern
Providing developmental support to North East by undertaking
Space
Shillong specific application projects using remote sensing, GIS, satellite
Applications
communication and conducting space science research.[71]
Centre
Test facilities
Facility Location Description
Formerly called LPSC-Mahendragiri, was declared a separate centre. It
ISRO Propulsion
Mahendragiri handles testing and assembly of liquid propulsion control packages, liquid
Complex
engines, and stages for launch vehicles and satellites.[67]

Construction and launch facilities

Facility Location Description
The venue of eight successful spacecraft projects is also one of the
main satellite technology bases of ISRO. The facility serves as a venue
U R Rao Satellite for implementing indigenous spacecraft in India.[67] The satellites
Bengaluru
Centre Aaryabhata, Bhaskara, APPLE, and IRS-1A were built at this site, and
the IRS and INSAT satellite series are presently under development
here. This centre was formerly known as ISRO Satellite Centre.[68]

The Unit of ISRO responsible for the development of altitude sensors

Laboratory for
for all satellites. The high precision optics for all cameras and
Electro-Optics Bengaluru
payloads in all ISRO satellites are developed at this laboratory, located
Systems
at Peenya Industrial Estate, Bengaluru.

With multiple sub-sites the Sriharikota island facility acts as a

launching site for India's satellites.[67] The Sriharikota facility is also
the main launch base for India's sounding rockets.[68] The centre is
Satish Dhawan also home to India's largest Solid Propellant Space Booster Plant
Sriharikota
Space Centre (SPROB) and houses the Static Test and Evaluation Complex
(STEX).[68] The Second Vehicle Assembly Building (SVAB) at
Sriharikota is being realised as an additional integration facility, with
suitable interfacing to a second launch pad.[72][73]

SSLV Launch Currently under construction. This launch facility will cater smaller
Kulasekarapattinam
Complex rockets such as the SSLV and private sector's launch vehicles.

Thumba
Equatorial Rocket Thiruvananthapuram TERLS is used to launch sounding rockets.[74]
Launching Station
Tracking and control facilities
Facility Location Description
This network receives, processes, archives and distributes the spacecraft
Indian Deep Space
Bengaluru health data and payload data in real-time. It can track and monitor
Network (IDSN)
satellites up to very large distances, even beyond the Moon.[75]

The NRSC applies remote sensing to manage natural resources and study
National Remote aerial surveying.[67] With centres at Balanagar and Shadnagar it also has
Hyderabad
Sensing Centre training facilities at Dehradun acting as the Indian Institute of Remote
Sensing.[67]

Bengaluru
(headquarters)
ISRO Telemetry, and a number Software development, ground operations, Tracking Telemetry and
Tracking and of ground Command (TTC), and support is provided by this institution.[67] ISTRAC
Command stations has Tracking stations throughout the country and all over the world in Port
Network throughout Louis (Mauritius), Bearslake (Russia), Biak (Indonesia) and Brunei.[76]
India and the
world.[70]

Geostationary satellite orbit raising, payload testing, and in-orbit

operations are performed at this facility.[77] The MCF has Earth stations
Master Control
Bhopal; Hassan and the Satellite Control Centre (SCC) for controlling satellites.[77] A
Facility
second MCF-like facility named 'MCF-B' is being constructed at
Bhopal.[77]

A network of telescopes and radars are being set up under the Directorate
of Space Situational Awareness and Management to monitor space debris
Space Situational and to safeguard space-based assets. The new facility will end ISRO's
Peenya,
Awareness Control dependence on NORAD. The sophisticated multi-object tracking radar
Bengaluru
Centre installed in Nellore, a radar in Northeast India and telescopes in
Thiruvananthapuram, Mount Abu and North India will be part of this
network.[78][79]
Human resource development
Facility Location Description
The Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS) is a premier training and
educational institute set up for developing trained professionals (P.G.
and PhD level) in the field of remote sensing, geoinformatics and GPS
Indian Institute of technology for natural resources, environmental and disaster
Remote Sensing Dehradun management. IIRS is also executing many R&D projects on remote
(IIRS) sensing and GIS for societal applications. IIRS also runs various
outreach programmes (Live & Interactive and e-learning) to build
trained skilled human resources in the field of remote sensing and
geospatial technologies.[80]

Indian Institute of The institute offers undergraduate and graduate courses in

Space Science Aerospace Engineering, Electronics and Communication Engineering
Thiruvananthapuram
and Technology (Avionics), and Engineering Physics. The students of the first
(IIST) three batches of IIST were inducted into different ISRO centres.[81]

The centre works for education, research, and training, mainly in

Development and
conjunction with the INSAT programme.[67] The main activities carried
Educational
Ahmedabad out at DECU include GRAMSAT and EDUSAT projects.[68] The
Communication
Training and Development Communication Channel (TDCC) also falls
Unit
under the operational control of the DECU.[70]

Space Technology Jalandhar, Bhopal, The S-TICs opened at premier technical universities in India to
Incubation Centres Agartala, Rourkela, promote startups to build applications and products in tandem with
(S-TICs) at: Nagpur the industry and would be used for future space missions. The S-TIC
Dr. B. R. will bring the industry, academia and ISRO under one umbrella to
Ambedkar contribute towards research and development (R&D) initiatives
National Institute relevant to the Indian Space Programme.[84]
of Technology
Jalandhar

Maulana Azad
National Institute
of Technology

National Institute
of Technology
Agartala

National Institute
of Technology,
Rourkela[82]

Visvesvaraya
National Institute
 of
Technology[83]

In line with its ongoing effort to promote R&D in space technology

through industry as well as academia, ISRO in collaboration with Veer
Space Innovation
Surendra Sai University of Technology (VSSUT), Burla, Sambalpur,
Centre at:
Odisha, has set up Veer Surendra Sai Space Innovation Centre
Veer Surendra Burla, Sambalpur
(VSSSIC) within its campus at Sambalpur. The objective of its Space
Sai University of
Innovation Research Lab is to promote and encourage the students in
Technology
research and development in the area of space science and
technology at VSSUT and other institutes within this region.[85][86]

Regional Academy
Centre for Space
(RAC-S) at:
Banaras Hindu
University

Gauhati
University

Kurukshetra
University
All these centres are set up in tier-2 cities to create awareness,
Malaviya
Varanasi, Guwahati, strengthen academic collaboration and act as incubators for space
National Institute
Kurukshetra, Jaipur, technology, space science and space applications. The activities of
of Technology
Mangaluru, Patna RAC-S will maximise the use of research potential, infrastructure,
National Institute expertise, experience and facilitate capacity building.
of Technology
Karnataka

National Institute
of Technology
Patna

Indian Institute
of Technology
(BHU)
Varanasi[87]

Antrix Corporation Limited (Commercial Wing)

Set up as the marketing arm of ISRO, Antrix's job is to promote products, services and
technology developed by ISRO.[88][89]
NewSpace India Limited (Commercial Wing)
Set up for marketing spin-off technologies, tech transfers through industry interface and
scale up industry participation in the space programmes.[90]

Space Technology Incubation Centre

ISRO has opened Space Technology Incubation Centres (S-TIC) at premier technical
universities in India which will incubate startups to build applications and products in tandem
with the industry and for use in future space missions. The S-TIC will bring the industry,
academia and ISRO under one umbrella to contribute towards research and development
(R&D) initiatives relevant to the Indian Space Programme. S-TICs are at the National Institute
of Technology, Agartala serving for east region, National Institute of Technology, Jalandhar
for the north region, and the National Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli for the south
region of India.[84]

Advanced Space Research Group

Similar to NASA's CalTech-operated Jet Propulsion Laboratory, ISRO and the Indian Institute
of Space Science and Technology (IIST) implemented a joint working framework in 2021,
wherein ISRO will approve all short-, medium- and long-term space research projects of
common interest between the two. In return, an Advanced Space Research Group (ASRG)
formed at IIST under the guidance of the EOC will have full access to ISRO facilities. This was
done with the aim of "transforming" the IIST into a premier space research and engineering
institute with the capability of leading future space exploration missions for ISRO.[91][92]

Directorate of Space Situational Awareness and Management

To reduce dependency on North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD) for
space situational awareness and protect the civilian and military assets, ISRO is setting up
telescopes and radars in four locations to cover each direction. Leh, Mount Abu and Ponmudi
were selected to station the telescopes and radars that will cover North, West and South of
Indian territory. The last one will be in Northeast India to cover the entire eastern region. Satish
Dhawan Space Centre at Sriharikota already supports Multi-Object Tracking Radar
(MOTR).[93] All the telescopes and radars will come under Directorate of Space Situational
Awareness and Management (DSSAM) in Bengaluru. It will collect tracking data on inactive
satellites and will also perform research on active debris removal, space debris modelling and
mitigation.[94]

For early warning, ISRO began a ₹400 crore (4 billion; US$53 million) project called Network
for Space Object Tracking and Analysis (NETRA). It will help the country track atmospheric
entry, intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), anti-satellite weapon and other space-based
attacks. All the radars and telescopes will be connected through NETRA. The system will
support remote and scheduled operations. NETRA will follow the Inter-Agency Space Debris
Coordination Committee (IASDCC) and United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs
(UNOSA) guidelines. The objective of NETRA is to track objects at a distance of 36,000
kilometres (22,000 mi) in GTO.[78][95]

India signed a memorandum of understanding on the Space Situational Awareness Data

Sharing Pact with the US in April 2022.[96][97] It will enable Department of Space to collaborate
with the Combined Space Operation Center (CSpOC) to protect the space-based assets of
both nations from natural and man-made threats.[98] On 11 July 2022, ISRO System for Safe
and Sustainable Space Operations Management (IS4OM) at Space Situational Awareness
Control Centre, in Peenya was inaugurated by Jitender Singh. It will help provide information
on on-orbit collision, fragmentation, atmospheric re-entry risk, space-based strategic
information, hazardous asteroids, and space weather forecast. IS4OM will safeguard all the
operational space assets, identify and monitor other operational spacecraft with close
approaches which have overpasses over Indian subcontinent and those which conduct
intentional manoeuvres with suspicious motives or seek re-entry within South Asia.[99]

ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management

On 7 March 2023, ISRO System for Safe and Sustainable Space Operations Management
(IS4OM) conducted successful controlled re-entry of decommissioned satellite Megha-
Tropiques after firing four on-board 11 Newton thrusters for 20 minutes each. A series of 20
manoeuvres were performed since August 2022 by spending 120 kg fuel. The final telemetry
data confirmed disintegtration over Pacific Ocean. It was part of a compliance effort following
international guidelines on space debris mitigation.[100]

Speaking at the 42nd annual meeting of the Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination
Committee (IADC) in Bengaluru, S. Somanath stated that the long-term goal is for all Indian
space actors—both governmental and non-governmental—to accomplish debris-free space
missions by 2030.[101]
Other facilities
Balasore Rocket Launching Station (BRLS) – Balasore

Bhaskaracharya Institute For Space Applications and Geo-Informatics (BISAG),

Gandhinagar

Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC), Bengaluru

Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System (IRNSS)

Indian Space Science Data Centre (ISSDC)

Integrated Space Cell

Inter-University Centre for Astronomy and Astrophysics (IUCAA)

ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU) – Thiruvananthapuram

Master Control Facility

National Deep Space Observation Centre (NDSPO)

Regional Remote Sensing Service Centres (RRSSC)

General satellite programmes

INSAT-1B

Since the launch of Aryabhata in 1975,[8] a number of satellite series and constellations have
been deployed by Indian and foreign launchers. At present, ISRO operates one of the largest
constellations of active communication and earth imaging satellites for military and civilian
uses.[31]
The IRS series
The Indian Remote Sensing satellites (IRS) are India's earth observation satellites. They are
the largest collection of remote sensing satellites for civilian use in operation today, providing
remote sensing services.[31] All the satellites are placed in polar Sun-synchronous orbit
(except GISATs) and provide data in a variety of spatial, spectral and temporal resolutions to
enable several programs to be undertaken relevant to national development. The initial
versions are composed of the 1 (A, B, C, D) nomenclature while the later versions were
divided into sub-classes named based on their functioning and uses including Oceansat,
Cartosat, HySIS, EMISAT and ResourceSat etc. Their names were unified under the prefix
"EOS" regardless of functioning in 2020.[102] They support a wide range of applications
including optical, radar and electronic reconnaissance for Indian agencies, city planning,
oceanography and environmental studies.[31]

Render of Cartosat-3 satellite in

deployed configuration.

The INSAT series

INSAT-1B satellite: The

broadcasting sector in India is
highly dependent on INSAT system.

The Indian National Satellite System (INSAT) is the country's telecommunication system. It is a
series of multipurpose geostationary satellites built and launched by ISRO to satisfy the
telecommunications, broadcasting, meteorology and search-and-rescue needs. Since the
introduction of the first one in 1983, INSAT has become the largest domestic communication
system in the Asia-Pacific Region. It is a joint venture of DOS, the Department of
Telecommunications, India Meteorological Department, All India Radio and Doordarshan. The
overall coordination and management of INSAT system rests with the Secretary-level INSAT
Coordination Committee.[29] The nomenclature of the series was changed to "GSAT" from
"INSAT", then further changed to "CMS" from 2020 onwards.[103] These satellites have been
used by the Indian Armed Forces as well.[104][105] GSAT-9 or "SAARC Satellite" provides
communication services for India's smaller neighbors.[106]

Gagan Satellite Navigation System

The Ministry of Civil Aviation has decided to implement an indigenous Satellite-Based
Regional GPS Augmentation System also known as Space-Based Augmentation System
(SBAS) as part of the Satellite-Based Communications, Navigation, Surveillance and Air
Traffic Management plan for civil aviation. The Indian SBAS system has been given the
acronym GAGAN – GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation. A national plan for satellite
navigation including implementation of a Technology Demonstration System (TDS) over
Indian airspace as a proof of concept has been prepared jointly by Airports Authority of India
and ISRO. The TDS was completed during 2007 with the installation of eight Indian Reference
Stations at different airports linked to the Master Control Centre located near Bengaluru.[107]

Navigation with Indian Constellation (NavIC)

IRNSS with an operational name NavIC is an independent regional navigation satellite system
developed by India. It is designed to provide accurate position information service to users in
India as well as the region extending up to 1,500 km (930 mi) from its borders, which is its
primary service area. IRNSS provides two types of services, namely, Standard Positioning
Service (SPS) and Restricted Service (RS), providing a position accuracy of better than 20 m
(66 ft) in the primary service area.[108]
 Rendering of an IRNSS Series 1
satellite

Other satellites
Kalpana-1 (MetSat-1) was ISRO's first dedicated meteorological satellite.[109][110] Indo-French
satellite SARAL on 25 February 2013. SARAL (or "Satellite with ARgos and AltiKa") is a
cooperative altimetry technology mission, used for monitoring the oceans' surface and sea
levels. AltiKa measures ocean surface topography with an accuracy of 8 mm (0.31 in),
compared to 2.5 cm (0.98 in) on average using altimeters, and with a spatial resolution of
2 km (1.2 mi).[111][112]

Launch vehicles

Comparison of Indian carrier rockets. Left to

right: SLV, ASLV, PSLV, GSLV, LVM3

During the 1960s and 1970s, India initiated its own launch vehicles owing to geopolitical and
economic considerations. In the 1960s–1970s, the country developed a sounding rocket, and
by the 1980s, research had yielded the Satellite Launch Vehicle-3 and the more advanced
Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV), complete with operational supporting
infrastructure.[113]
Satellite Launch Vehicle

Stamp depicting SLV-3 D1 carrying

RS-D1 satellite to orbit

The Satellite Launch Vehicle (known as SLV-3) was the first space rocket to be developed by
India. The initial launch in 1979 was a failure followed by a successful launch in 1980 making
India the sixth country in world with orbital launch capability. The development of bigger
rockets began afterwards.[24]

Augmented Satellite Launch Vehicle

Augmented or Advanced Satellite Launch Vehicle (ASLV) was another small launch vehicle
released in 1980s to develop technologies required to place satellites into geostationary orbit.
ISRO did not have adequate funds to develop ASLV and PSLV at once. Since ASLV suffered
repeated failures, it was dropped in favour of a new project.[114][28]
Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle

PSLV-C11 lifts off carrying

Chandrayaan-1, first Indian mission
to the moon.

Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle or PSLV is the first medium-lift launch vehicle from India which
enabled India to launch all its remote-sensing satellites into Sun-synchronous orbit. PSLV had
a failure in its maiden launch in 1993. Besides two other partial failures, PSLV has become the
primary workhorse for ISRO with more than 50 launches placing hundreds of Indian and
foreign satellites into orbit.[32]

Decade-wise summary of PSLV launches:

Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

1990s 3 1 1 5

2000s 11 0 0 11

2010s 33 0 1 34

2020s 10 0 0 10

Total 57 1 2 60
Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle

GSLV-F08 launches GSAT-6A into

geostationary transfer orbit (2018).

Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle was envisaged in 1990s to transfer significant

payloads to geostationary orbit. ISRO initially had a great problem realising GSLV as the
development of CE-7.5 in India took a decade. The US had blocked India from obtaining
cryogenic technology from Russia, leading India to develop its own cryogenic engines.[33]

Decade-wise summary of GSLV Launches:

Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

2000s 2 2 1 5

2010s 6 0 2 8

2020s 3 0 1 4

Total 11 2 4 17
Launch Vehicle Mark-3

LVM3 M4 lifting off from SDSC

SLP, carrying Chandrayaan-3
(2023)

Launch Vehicle Mark-3 (LVM3), previously known as GSLV Mk III, is the heaviest rocket in
operational service with ISRO. Equipped with a more powerful cryogenic engine and boosters
than GSLV, it has significantly higher payload capacity and allows India to launch all its
communication satellites.[115] LVM3 is expected to carry India's first crewed mission to
space[116] and will be the testbed for SCE-200 engine which will power India's heavy-lift
rockets in the future.[117]

Decade-wise summary of LVM3 launches:

Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

2010s 4 0 0 4[118]

2020s 3 0 0 3[119]

Total 7 0 0 7
Small Satellite Launch Vehicle

SSLV D1 lifting off from SDSC FLP

The Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV) is a small-lift launch vehicle developed by the ISRO
with payload capacity to deliver 500 kg (1,100 lb) to low Earth orbit (500 km (310 mi)) or
300 kg (660 lb) to Sun-synchronous orbit (500 km (310 mi))[120] for launching small satellites,
with the capability to support multiple orbital drop-offs.[121][122][123]

Decade-wise summary of SSLV launches:

Decade Successful Partial success Failure Total

2020s 2 0 1 3

Rohini Sounding Rockets

Rohini rocket family

Rohini is a series of sounding rockets developed by ISRO [124]

for meteorological and
atmospheric study. These sounding rockets are capable of carrying payloads of 2 to 200
kilograms (4.4 to 440.9 lb) between altitudes of 100 to 500 kilometres (62 to 311 mi).[125] The
ISRO currently uses RH-200, RH-300,Mk-II, RH-560 Mk-II and RH-560 Mk-III rockets, which
are launched from the Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station (TERLS) in Thumba and
the Satish Dhawan Space Centre in Sriharikota.

Launch facilities

Satish Dhawan Space Centre

SSLV Launch Complex

Thumba Equatorial Rocket Launching Station

Sriharikota

Thumba Kulasekarapattinam

Location of India's spaceports

Human spaceflight programme

The first proposal to send humans into space was discussed by ISRO in 2006, leading to work
on the required infrastructure and spacecraft.[126][127] The trials for crewed space missions
began in 2007 with the 600-kilogram (1,300 lb) Space Capsule Recovery Experiment (SRE),
launched using the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket, and safely returned to earth
12 days later.[128]

In 2009, the Indian Space Research Organisation proposed a budget of ₹124 billion
(equivalent to ₹310 billion or US$3.6 billion in 2023) for its human spaceflight programme. An
unmanned demonstration flight was expected after seven years from the final approval and a
crewed mission was to be launched after seven years of funding.[129] A crewed mission
initially was not a priority and left on the backburner for several years.[130] A space capsule
recovery experiment in 2014[131][132] and a pad abort test in 2018[133] were followed by Prime
Minister Narendra Modi's announcement in his 2018 Independence Day address that India will
send astronauts into space by 2022 on the new Gaganyaan spacecraft.[134] To date, ISRO has
developed most of the technologies needed, such as the crew module and crew escape
system, space food, and life support systems. The project would cost less than ₹100 billion
(US$1.3 billion) and would include sending two or three Indians to space, at an altitude of
300–400 km (190–250 mi), for at least seven days, using a GSLV Mk-III launch
vehicle.[135][136]

Astronaut training and other facilities

The newly established Human Space Flight Centre (HSFC) will coordinate the IHSF
campaign.[137][65] ISRO will set up an astronaut training centre in Bengaluru to prepare
personnel for flights in the crewed vehicle. It will use simulation facilities to train the selected
astronauts in rescue and recovery operations and survival in microgravity, and will undertake
studies of the radiation environment of space. ISRO had to build centrifuges to prepare
astronauts for the acceleration phase of the launch. Existing launch facilities at Satish Dhawan
Space Centre will have to be upgraded for the Indian human spaceflight campaign.[138]
Human Space Flight Centre and Glavcosmos signed an agreement on 1 July 2019 for the
selection, support, medical examination and space training of Indian astronauts.[139] An ISRO
Technical Liaison Unit (ITLU) was to be set up in Moscow to facilitate the development of
some key technologies and establishment of special facilities which are essential to support
life in space.[140] Four Indian Air Force personnel finished training at Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut
Training Center in March 2021.[141]

Crewed spacecraft
ISRO is working towards an orbital crewed spacecraft that can operate for seven days in low
Earth orbit. The spacecraft, called Gaganyaan, will be the basis of the Indian Human
Spaceflight Programme. The spacecraft is being developed to carry up to three people, and a
planned upgraded version will be equipped with a rendezvous and docking capability. In its
first crewed mission, ISRO's largely autonomous 3-tonne (3.3-short-ton; 3.0-long-ton)
spacecraft will orbit the Earth at 400 km (250 mi) altitude for up to seven days with a two-
person crew on board. A source in April 2023 suggested that ISRO was aiming for a 2025
launch.[142]

Space station
India plans to build a space station as a follow-up programme to Gaganyaan. ISRO chairman
K. Sivan has said that India will not join the International Space Station programme and will
instead build a 20-tonne (22-short-ton; 20-long-ton) space station on its own.[143][144] It is
expected to be placed in a low Earth orbit at 400 kilometres (250 mi) altitude and be capable
of harbouring three humans for 15–20 days. The rough time-frame is five to seven years
after completion of the Gaganyaan project.[145][146] "Giving out broad contours of the planned
space station, Dr. Sivan said it has been envisaged to weigh 20 tonnes and will be placed in
an orbit of 400 km above earth where astronauts can stay for 15-20 days. The time frame is
5-7 years after Gaganyaan," he stated.[147]

As per S. Somanath, the Phase1 will be ready by 2028 and the entire space station will be
completed by 2035. The space station will be an international platform for collaborative
research on future interplanetary missions, microgravity studies, space biology, medicine and
research.[148]

Planetary sciences and astronomy

ISRO and Tata Institute of Fundamental Research have operated a balloon launch base at
Hyderabad since 1967.[149] Its proximity to the geo-magnetic equator,[150] where both primary
and secondary cosmic ray fluxes are low, makes it an ideal location to study diffuse cosmic
X-ray background.[149]

ISRO played a role in the discovery of three species of bacteria in the upper stratosphere at
an altitude between 20–40 km (12–25 mi). The bacteria, highly resistant to ultra-violet
radiation, are not found elsewhere on Earth, leading to speculation on whether they are
extraterrestrial in origin.[151] They are considered extremophiles, and named as Bacillus
isronensis in recognition of ISRO's contribution in the balloon experiments, which led to its
discovery, Bacillus aryabhata after India's celebrated ancient astronomer Aryabhata and
Janibacter hoylei after the distinguished astrophysicist Fred Hoyle.[152]
Astrosat

Astrosat-1 in deployed
configuration

Launched in 2015, Astrosat is India's first dedicated multi-wavelength space observatory. Its
observation study includes active galactic nuclei, hot white dwarfs, pulsations of pulsars,
binary star systems, and supermassive black holes located at the centre of the galaxy.[153]

XPoSat

XPoSat

The X-ray Polarimeter Satellite (XPoSat) is a satellite for studying black holes and
polarisation.[154][155] The spacecraft carries the Polarimeter Instrument in X-rays (POLIX)
payload which will study the degree and angle of polarisation of bright astronomical X-ray
sources in the energy range 5–30 keV.[156] It launched on 1 January 2024 on a PSLV-DL
rocket,[157] and it has an expected operational lifespan of at least five years.[155][158]

Extraterrestrial exploration

Lunar exploration
Chandryaan (lit. 'Mooncraft') are India's series of lunar exploration spacecraft. The initial
mission included an orbiter and controlled impact probe while later missions include landers,
rovers and sampling missions.[117][159]

Chandrayaan-1
 Rendering of Chandrayaan-1
spacecraft

Chandrayaan-1 was India's first mission to the Moon. The robotic lunar exploration mission
included a lunar orbiter and an impactor called the Moon Impact Probe. ISRO launched it
using a modified version of the PSLV on 22 October 2008 from Satish Dhawan Space Centre.
It entered lunar orbit on 8 November 2008, carrying high-resolution remote sensing
equipment for visible, near infrared, and soft and hard X-ray frequencies. During its 312-day
operational period (two years were planned), it surveyed the lunar surface to produce a
complete map of its chemical characteristics and three-dimensional topography. The polar
regions were of special interest, as they had possible ice deposits. Chandrayaan-1 carried 11
instruments: five Indian and six from foreign institutes and space agencies (including NASA,
ESA, the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Brown University and other European and North
American institutions and companies), which were carried for free. The mission team was
awarded the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics SPACE 2009 award,[160] the
International Lunar Exploration Working Group's International Co-operation award in 2008,[161]
and the National Space Society's 2009 Space Pioneer Award in the science and engineering
category.[162][163]

Chandrayaan-2
 Vikram lander mounted on top of
the orbiter of Chandrayaan-2
spacecraft

Chandrayaan-2, the second mission to the Moon, which included an orbiter, a lander and a
rover. It was launched on a Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle Mark III (GSLV Mk III) on
22 July 2019, consisting of a lunar orbiter, the Vikram lander, and the Pragyan lunar rover, all
developed in India.[164][165] It was the first mission meant to explore the little-explored lunar
south pole region.[166] The objective of the Chandrayaan-2 mission was to land a robotic
rover to conduct various studies on the lunar surface.[167]

The Vikram lander, carrying the Pragyan rover, was scheduled to land on the near side of the
Moon, in the south polar region at a latitude of about 70° S at approximately 1:50 am(IST) on 7
September 2019. However, the lander deviated from its intended trajectory starting from an
altitude of 2.1 km (1.3 mi), and telemetry was lost seconds before touchdown was
expected.[168] A review board concluded that the crash-landing was caused by a software
glitch.[169] The lunar orbiter was efficiently positioned in an optimal lunar orbit, extending its
expected service time from one year to seven.[170] It was planned that there will be another
attempt to soft-land on the Moon in 2023, without an orbiter.[171]

Chandrayaan-3
 Integrated Module of Chandrayaan-3 spacecraft

Chandryaan-3 is India's second attempt to soft-land on the Moon after the partial failure of
Chandrayaan-2. The mission only included a lander-rover set and communicated with the
orbiter from the previous mission.

On 23 August 2023, ISRO became the first space agency to successfully land a spacecraft
near the lunar south pole. ISRO is the fourth space agency ever to land on the Moon.[172]

Mars exploration

Tharsis and Valles Marineris as

captured by Mars Orbiter Mission.

Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) or (Mangalyaan-1)

 Artist's rendering of the Mars
Orbiter Mission spacecraft, with
Mars in the background

The Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM), informally known as Mangalyaan (eng: ''MarsCraft'' ) was
launched into Earth orbit on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation
(ISRO) and has entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014.[173] India thus became the first
country to have a space probe enter Mars orbit on its first attempt. It was completed at a
record low cost of $74 million.[174]

MOM was placed into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. The spacecraft had a launch mass
of 1,337 kg (2,948 lb), with 15 kg (33 lb) of five scientific instruments as payload.[175][176]

The National Space Society awarded the Mars Orbiter Mission team the 2015 Space Pioneer
Award in the science and engineering category.[177][178]

Mars and Moon analogue research station

Researchers from the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palaeosciences (BSIP) and Indian Institute of
Science (IISc) have determined that Ladakh is the best site for India's first Mars and Moon
analogue research station. The study project is being conducted by BSIP's Binita Phartiyal,
IISc's Aloke Kumar who pioneered the idea of building space-bricks from biologically
solidified lunar and martian regolith, and Gaganyaan astronaut Shubhanshu Shukla. An
analog research station is a location where plans and exercises intended for the Moon and
Mars are made. The projected research station would be used for geological and
astrobiological research, human studies, crew training, advancing Technology Readiness
Levels (TRL), testing space technologies, and engineering integration.[179]

In Ladakh, Aaka Space Studio and ISRO will be leading a 21-day Mars and Moon analog
mission. An important step forward in India's efforts to develop human spaceflight and analog
research in support of the Gaganyaan program and future missions like Bharatiya Antariksha
Station. It will replicate the harsh conditions of extraterrestrial environments. The expedition
will test human health and endurance in isolation, acquire biometric data, simulate
extraterrestrial landscape, investigate circadian lighting, and test life support technologies.
The startup has experimented with technology, human endurance, and habitat design in Rann
of Kutch in 2023, simulating lunar conditions.[180][181]

Solar probes
Aditya-L1
On 2 September 2023, ISRO launched the 400 kg (880 lb) Aditya-L1 mission to study the solar
corona.[182][183][184] It is the first Indian space-based solar coronagraph to study the corona in
visible and near-infrared bands. The main objective of the mission is to study coronal mass
ejections (CMEs), their properties (the structure and evolution of their magnetic fields for
example), and consequently constrain parameters that affect space weather.[185] On 6
January 2024, Aditya-L1 spacecraft, India's first solar mission, has successfully entered its
final orbit around the first Sun-Earth Lagrangian point (L1), approximately 1.5 million
kilometers from Earth.[186]

Future projects

ISRO is developing and operationalising more powerful and less pollutive rocket engines so it
can eventually develop much heavier rockets. It also plans space station above earth where
astronauts can stay for 15–20 days. The time frame is 5–7 years after Gaganyaan,[147] to
develop electric and nuclear propulsion for satellites and spacecraft to reduce their weight
and extend their service lives.[187] Long-term plans may include crewed landings on the Moon
and other planets as well.[188]

Engines and launch vehicles

Semi-cryogenic engine
SCE-200 is a rocket-grade kerosene (dubbed "ISROsene") and liquid oxygen (LOX)-based
semi-cryogenic rocket engine inspired by RD-120. The engine will be less polluting and far
more powerful than the existing Vikas engine. When combined with the LVM3, it will boost its
payload capacity; it will be clustered in future to power India's heavy rockets.[189]
On 28 March 2025, ISRO announced significant progress in the design and development of a
semi-cryogenic engine with a high thrust of 2,000 kN that will power the semi-cryogenic
booster stage of the LVM3.[190]

Methalox engine
Reusable methane and LOX-based engines are under development. Methane is less pollutive,
leaves no residue and hence the engine needs very little refurbishment.[191] The LPSC began
cold flow tests of engine prototypes in 2020.[27]

Modular heavy rockets

NGLV, NGLV-H and NGLV-SH

India's own rockets lack the capacity for launching very heavy satellites to the geostationary
orbit beyond 4 ton class, a problem that is planned to be fixed with the introduction of the
NGLV.[192][193] ISRO is studying heavy (HLV) and super heavy-lift launch vehicle (SHLV).
Modular launchers are being designed, with interchangeable parts, to reduce production
time. A 10-tonne (11-short-ton; 9.8-long-ton) capacity HLV and an SHLV capable of
delivering 50–100 tonnes (55–110 short tons; 49–98 long tons) into orbit have been
mentioned in statements and presentations from ISRO officials.[194][195]

The agency intends to develop a launcher in the 2020s which can carry nearly 16 t (18 short
tons; 16 long tons) to geostationary transfer orbit, nearly four times the capacity of the existing
LVM3.[191] A rocket family of five medium to heavy-lift class modular rockets described as
"Next Generation Launch Vehicle or NGLV"[196] (initially planned as Unified Modular Launch
Vehicle or Unified Launch Vehicle) are being planned which will share parts and will replace
ISRO's existing PSLV and GSLV rockets completely. The rocket family will be powered by
LOX-Methane engine and will have a capacity of lifting from 4.9 t (5.4 short tons; 4.8 long
tons) to 16 t (18 short tons; 16 long tons) to geostationary transfer orbit.[197]

Reusable launch vehicles

 RLV-TD HEX01 from Satish Dhawan
Space Centre First Launch Pad
(SDSC SHAR) on 23 May 2016

There have been two reusable launcher projects ongoing at ISRO. One is the ADMIRE test
vehicle, conceived as a VTVL system and another is RLV-TD programme, being run to
develop an autonomous spacecraft which will be launched vertically but land like a plane.[198]

To realise a fully re-usable two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) launch vehicle, a series of technology

demonstration missions have been conceived. For this purpose, the winged Reusable Launch
Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) has been configured. The RLV-TD acts as a
flying testbed to evaluate various technologies such as hypersonic flight, autonomous
landing, powered cruise flight, and hypersonic flight using air-breathing propulsion. First in
the series of demonstration trials was the Hypersonic Flight Experiment (HEX). ISRO launched
the prototype's test flight, RLV-TD, from the Sriharikota spaceport in February 2016. It weighs
around 1.5 t (1.7 short tons; 1.5 long tons) and flew up to a height of 70 km (43 mi).[199] HEX
was completed five months later. A scaled-up version of it could serve as fly-back booster
stage for the winged TSTO concept.[200] HEX will be followed by a landing experiment (LEX)
and return flight experiment (REX).[201]

Spacecraft propulsion and power

Electric thrusters
India has been working on replacing conventional chemical propulsion with Hall-effect and
plasma thrusters which would make spacecraft lighter.[191] GSAT-4 was the first Indian
spacecraft to carry electric thrusters, but it failed to reach orbit.[202] GSAT-9 launched later in
2017, had xenon-based electric propulsion system for in-orbit functions of the spacecraft.
GSAT-20 is expected to be the first fully electric satellite from India.[203][204]

Alpha source thermoelectric propulsion technology

Radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG), also called alpha source thermoelectric
technology by ISRO, is a type of atomic battery which uses nuclear decay heat from
radioactive material to power the spacecraft.[205] In January 2021, the U R Rao Satellite
Centre issued an Expression of Interest (EoI) for design and development of a 100-watt RTG.
RTGs ensure much longer spacecraft life and have less mass than solar panels on satellites.
Development of RTGs will allow ISRO to undertake long-duration deep space missions to the
outer planets.[206][207]

Radioisotope heater unit

ISRO included two radioisotope heater units developed by the Department of Atomic Energy
(DAE) in the propulsion module of Chandrayaan-3 on a trial basis which worked
flawlessly.[148]

Nuclear propulsion
ISRO has plans for collaboration with Department of Atomic Energy to power future space
missions using nuclear propulsion technology.[148]

Quantum technology
Satellite-based quantum communication
At the Indian Mobile Congress (IMC) 2023, ISRO presented its satellite-based quantum
communication technology. It's called quantum key distribution (QKD) technology. According
to ISRO, it is creating technologies to thwart quantum computers, which have the ability to
readily breach the current generation of encrypted secure communication. A significant
milestone for unconditionally secured satellite data communication was reached in
September 2023 when ISRO demonstrated free-space quantum communication across a
300-meter distance, including live video conferencing using quantum-key encrypted
signals.[208]
Extraterrestrial probes
Destination Craft name Launch vehicle Year
Moon Chandrayaan-4 2 × LVM3 2027

Moon LUPEX H3 2028-29

Venus Venus Orbiter Mission LVM3 29 March 2028[209]

Mars Mars Lander Mission LVM3 2026

Lunar exploration
Chandrayaan-4
Chandrayaan-4 is a planned lunar sample return mission of ISRO and the fourth iteration in its
Chandrayaan programme.[210][211] As of January 2025 the conceptualisation phase has been
completed, and the design phase is nearing completion.[212] The mission is expected to
launch around 2027.[213] It is planned to return up to 3 kg (6.6 lb) of lunar regolith from near
Shiv Shakti point, the landing site of Chandrayaan-3.[214]

Lunar Polar Exploration Mission

The Lunar Polar Exploration mission (LUPEX) is a planned robotic lunar mission concept by
ISRO and Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) that would send a lunar rover and
lander to explore the south pole region of the Moon no earlier than 2026. JAXA is likely to
provide the under-development H3 launch vehicle and the rover, while ISRO would be
responsible for the lander.[215][216]

Crewed Lunar Landing

ISRO aims to put an astronaut on the lunar surface by 2040.[217]

Mars exploration
The next Mars mission, Mars Lander Mission or Mangalyaan 2, has been proposed for launch
in 2024.[218] The new mission plan includes a rover, helicopter, sky crane and a supersonic
parachute.[219]

Venus exploration
ISRO is considering an orbiter mission to Venus called Venus Orbiter Mission, that could
launch as early as 2023 to study the planet's atmosphere.[220] Some funds for preliminary
studies were allocated in the 2017–18 Indian budget under Space Sciences;[221][222][223]
solicitations for potential instruments were requested in 2017[224] and 2018. A mission to
Venus is scheduled for 2025 that will include a payload instrument called Venus Infrared
Atmospheric Gases Linker (VIRAL) which has been co-developed with the Laboratoire
atmosphères, milieux, observations spatiales (LATMOS) under French National Centre for
Scientific Research (CNRS) and Roscosmos.[225]

The Venus Orbiter Mission (VOM), which is intended to orbit a spacecraft in the orbit of planet
Venus for a better understanding of the Venusian surface and subsurface, atmospheric
processes, and influence of Sun on Venusian atmosphere, was approved by the Union
Cabinet on 18 September 2024, under the direction of Prime Minister Narendra Modi.
Understanding the fundamental processes that have transformed Venus—which is thought to
have once been habitable and very comparable to Earth—will be crucial to comprehending
the development of Earth and Venus, the sister planets.[209] A total of ₹1,236 crore
(US$140 million) has been sanctioned for the Venus Orbiter Mission, of which ₹824 crore
(US$94 million) would go toward the spacecraft.[226][227]

Asteroids and outer solar system

Conceptual studies are underway for spacecraft destined for the asteroids and Jupiter, as
well, in the long term. The ideal launch window to send a spacecraft to Jupiter occurs every
33 months. If the mission to Jupiter is launched, a flyby of Venus would be required.[228]
Development of RTEG power might allow the agency to further undertake deeper space
missions to the other outer planets.[206]

Space telescopes and observatories

AstroSat-2
AstroSat-2 is the successor to the AstroSat mission.[229]

Exoworlds
Exoworlds is a joint proposal by ISRO, IIST and the University of Cambridge for a space
telescope dedicated for atmospheric studies of exoplanets, planned for 2025.[230][231]
ExoWorlds is proposed as a dedicated mission for exoplanet spectroscopy in the NUV-
VISIBLE-IR ranges. It would be placed in a stable orbit around the Earth-Sun L2 point.[232][233]

Indian Spectroscopic and Imaging Space Telescope (INSIST)

The Indian Spectroscopic and Imaging Space Telescope (INSIST) will produce high-resolution
deep UV-optical images, and will also have capabilities to carry out low to medium resolution
spectroscopy.The INSIST proposal was recommended by ISRO for pre-project phase with
seed funding in March 2019. Collaboration with the Canadian Space Agency is also being
proposed.[232][233]

DAKSHA
DAKSHA is a proposed all-sky, high-energy transients mission, with the primary objectives of
studying the gravitational waves and gamma-ray bursts in a spectral range from 1 keV to
about 1 MeV. To achieve these goals, Daksha will use twin Low-Earth Orbit satellites with
Three Identical Instruments each. Seed funding has been issued to ISRO Laboratories to
create a laboratory model of its Instruments.[233][232]

Proposed space weather probe

ISRO has envisioned a mission to the stable L5 Lagrange point. It is under conceptual stage
and parallels ESA's Vigil mission.[232]

Proposed LEO Solar Observatory

ISRO has proposed to launch a complement to the Aditya L1 probe to be placed in Low-Earth
Orbit.[232]
Forthcoming satellites
Satellite Launch Year Purpose Notes
name vehicle
Geospatial imagery to facilitate continuous observation of
GISAT 2 GSLV TBA Earth observation Indian sub-continent, quick monitoring of natural hazards
and disaster.[234]

Facilitates continuous real-time communication between

Data relay and Low Earth orbit bound spacecraft to the ground station as
IDRSS GSLV TBA satellite tracking well as inter-satellite communication. Such a satellite in
constellation geostationary orbit can track a low altitude spacecraft up to
almost half of its orbit.[235]

Disturbed and quite-type Ionosphere System at High Altitude

[236]
DISHA PSLV 2025 Aeronomy (DISHA) satellite constellation with two satellites in 450 km
(280 mi) LEO.[218]

AHySIS-
PSLV TBA Earth observation Follow-up to HySIS hyperspectral Earth imaging satellite.[237]
2

NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a joint

project between NASA and ISRO to co-develop and launch a
[238]
NISAR GSLV 2025 Earth observation dual frequency synthetic aperture radar satellite to be used
for remote sensing. It is notable for being the first dual band
radar imaging satellite.[239]

Geospatial intelligence satellites

A family of 50 artificial intelligence based satellites will be launched by ISRO between 2024
and 2028 to collect geospatial intelligence (GEOINT) in different orbits to track military
movements and photograph areas of interest. For the sake of national security, the satellites
will monitor the neighboring areas and the international border. It will use thermal, optical,
synthetic aperture radar (SAR), among other technologies, for GEOINT application. Each
satellite using artificial intelligence will have the ability to communicate and collaborate with
the remaining satellites in space at different orbits to monitor the environment for intelligence
gathering operations.[240][241]

Modular Space Station

Bharatiya Antariksh Station
Bharatiya Antariksh Station (BAS) is a planned modular space station to be constructed by
India and operated by ISRO.[242] The space station would weigh 52 tonnes and maintain an
orbit of approximately 400 kilometres above the Earth, where astronauts could stay for 3–6
months.[243]

Upcoming launch facility

SSLV Launch Complex
SSLV Launch Complex is an under-construction spaceport in Kulasekarapattinam,
Thoothukudi district of Tamil Nadu. After completion, it would serve as the second launch
facility of ISRO. This spaceport will mainly be used by ISRO for launching SSLV.[244]

Applications

Telecommunication
India uses its satellite communication network – one of the largest in the world – for
applications such as land management, water resources management, natural disaster
forecasting, radio networking, weather forecasting, meteorological imaging and computer
communication.[245] Business, administrative services, and schemes such as the National
Informatics Centre (NIC) are direct beneficiaries of applied satellite technology.[246]

Military
The Integrated Space Cell, under the Integrated Defence Staff headquarters of the Ministry of
Defence,[247] has been set up to utilise more effectively the country's space-based assets for
military purposes and to look into threats to these assets.[248][249] This command will leverage
space technology including satellites. Unlike an aerospace command, where the Air Force
controls most of its activities, the Integrated Space Cell envisages cooperation and
coordination between the three services as well as civilian agencies dealing with space.[247]

With 14 satellites, including GSAT-7A for exclusive military use and the rest as dual-use
satellites, India has the fourth largest number of satellites active in the sky which includes
satellites for the exclusive use of its air force (IAF) and navy.[250] GSAT-7A, an advanced
military communications satellite built exclusively for the Air Force,[215] is similar to the Navy's
GSAT-7, and GSAT-7A will enhance the IAF's network-centric warfare capabilities by
interlinking different ground radar stations, ground airbases and airborne early warning and
control (AWACS) aircraft such as the Beriev A-50 Phalcon and DRDO AEW&CS.[215][251]
GSAT-7A will also be used by the Army's Aviation Corps for its helicopters and unmanned
aerial vehicle (UAV) operations.[215][251] In 2013, ISRO launched GSAT-7 for the exclusive use
of the Navy to monitor the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) with the satellite's 2,000-nautical-mile
(3,700 km; 2,300 mi) 'footprint' and real-time input capabilities to Indian warships,
submarines and maritime aircraft.[250] To boost the network-centric operations of the IAF,
ISRO launched GSAT-7A in December 2018.[252][250] The RISAT series of radar-imaging earth
observation satellites is also meant for Military use.[253] ISRO launched EMISAT on 1 April
2019. EMISAT is a 436-kilogram (961 lb) electronic intelligence (ELINT) satellite. It will improve
the situational awareness of the Indian Armed Forces by providing information and the
location of hostile radars.[254]

India's satellites and satellite launch vehicles have had military spin-offs. While India's 150–
200-kilometre (93–124 mi) range Prithvi missile is not derived from the Indian space
programme, the intermediate range Agni missile is derived from the Indian space
programme's SLV-3. In its early years, under Sarabhai and Dhawan, ISRO opposed military
applications for its dual-use projects such as the SLV-3. Eventually, the Defence Research
and Development Organisation (DRDO)-based missile programme borrowed staff and
technology from ISRO. Missile scientist A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (later elected president), who had
headed the SLV-3 project at ISRO, took over as missile programme at DRDO. About a dozen
scientists accompanied him, helping to design the Agni missile using the SLV-3's solid fuel
first stage and a liquid-fuel (Prithvi-missile-derived) second stage. The IRS and INSAT
satellites were primarily intended, and used, for civilian-economic applications, but they also
offered military spin-offs. In 1996 the Ministry of Defence temporarily blocked the use of IRS-
1C by India's environmental and agricultural ministries in order to monitor ballistic missiles
near India's borders. In 1997, the Air Force's "Airpower Doctrine" aspired to use space assets
for surveillance and battle management.[255]

Academic
Institutions like the Indira Gandhi National Open University and the Indian Institutes of
Technology use satellites for educational applications.[256] Between 1975 and 1976, India
conducted its largest sociological programme using space technology, reaching
2,400 villages through video programming in local languages aimed at educational
development via ATS-6 technology developed by NASA.[257] This experiment—named
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE)—conducted large-scale video broadcasts
resulting in significant improvement in rural education.[257]
Telemedicine
ISRO has applied its technology for telemedicine, directly connecting patients in rural areas to
medical professionals in urban locations via satellite.[256] Since high-quality healthcare is not
universally available in some of the remote areas of India, patients in those areas are
diagnosed and analysed by doctors in urban centers in real time via video conferencing.[256]
The patient is then advised on medicine and treatment,[256] and treated by the staff at one of
the 'super-specialty hospitals' per instructions from those doctors.[256] Mobile telemedicine
vans are also deployed to visit locations in far-flung areas and provide diagnosis and support
to patients.[256]

Biodiversity Information System

ISRO has also helped implement India's Biodiversity Information System, completed in
October 2002.[258] Nirupa Sen details the programme: "Based on intensive field sampling and
mapping using satellite remote sensing and geospatial modeling tools, maps have been made
of vegetation cover on a 1: 250,000 scale. This has been put together in a web-enabled
database that links gene-level information of plant species with spatial information in a
BIOSPEC database of the ecological hot spot regions, namely northeastern India, Western
Ghats, Western Himalayas and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. This has been made possible
with collaboration between the Department of Biotechnology and ISRO."[258]

Cartography
The Indian IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was equipped with high-resolution panchromatic
equipment to enable it for cartographic purposes.[58] IRS-P5 (CARTOSAT-1) was followed by
a more advanced model named IRS-P6 developed also for agricultural applications.[58] The
CARTOSAT-2 project, equipped with single panchromatic camera that supported scene-
specific on-spot images, succeeded the CARTOSAT-1 project.[259]

Spin-offs
ISRO's research has been diverted into spin-offs to develop various technologies for other
sectors. Examples include bionic limbs for people without limbs, silica aerogel to keep Indian
soldiers serving in extremely cold areas warm, distress alert transmitters for accidents,
Doppler weather radar and various sensors and machines for inspection work in engineering
industries.[260][261]

International cooperations

ISRO has signed various formal cooperative arrangements in the form of either Agreements
or Memoranda of Understanding (MoU) or Framework Agreements with Afghanistan, Algeria,
Argentina, Armenia, Australia, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bolivia, Brazil, Brunei, Bulgaria, Canada,
Chile, China, Denmark, Egypt, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Indonesia, Israel, Italy,
Japan, Kazakhstan, Kuwait, Maldives, Mauritius, Mexico, Mongolia, Morocco, Myanmar, the
Netherlands, Norway, Oman, Peru, Portugal, Russia, São Tomé and Príncipe, Saudi Arabia,
Singapore, Spain, South Africa, South Korea, Sweden, Switzerland, Syria, Tajikistan, Thailand,
Netherlands, Tunisia, Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, the United
States, Uzbekistan, Venezuela and Vietnam. Formal cooperative instruments have been
signed with international multilateral bodies including European Centre for Medium-Range
Weather Forecasts (ECMWF), European Commission, European Organisation for the
Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT), European Space Agency (ESA) and
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC).[262]

Notable collaborative projects

Chandrayaan-1 also carried scientific payloads to the Moon from NASA, the European
Space Agency, Bulgarian Space Agency, and other institutions/companies in North America
and Europe.[263]

For the Gaganyaan mission, ISRO signed a Technical Implementing Plan (TIP) with ESA to
provide ground station support.[264]
Indo-French satellite missions
ISRO has two collaborative satellite missions with France's CNES, namely the now retired
Megha-Tropiques to study water cycle in the tropical atmosphere[265] and the presently
active SARAL for altimetry.[112] A third mission consisting of an Earth observation satellite with
a thermal infrared imager, TRISHNA (Thermal infraRed Imaging Satellite for High resolution
Natural resource Assessment) is being planned by the two countries.[266]

LUPEX
The Lunar Polar Exploration Mission (LUPEX) is a joint Indo-Japanese mission to study the
polar surface of the Moon where India is tasked with providing soft landing technologies.[267]
NISAR
NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperture Radar (NISAR) is a joint Indo-US radar project carrying an L
band and an S band radar. It will be world's first radar imaging satellite to use dual
frequencies.[268]

Some other notable collaborations include:

ISRO operates LUT/MCC under the international COSPAS/SARSAT Programme for Search
and Rescue.[269]

India has established a Centre for Space Science and Technology Education in Asia and the
Pacific (CSSTE-AP) that is sponsored by the United Nations.[270]

India is a member of the United Nations Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space,
Cospas-Sarsat, International Astronautical Federation, Committee on Space Research
(COSPAR), Inter-Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee (IADC), International Space
University, and the Committee on Earth Observation Satellite (CEOS).[265]

Contributing to planned BRICS virtual constellation for remote sensing.[271][272]

Statistics

Last updated: 26 March 2023

Total number of foreign satellites launched by ISRO: 417 (34 countries)[273]

Spacecraft missions: 116[274]

Launch missions: 86

Student satellites: 13 [275]

Re-entry missions: 2
Budget for the Department of Space
Budget of Department of Space
[277]
GDP (2011–12 Total
Calendar base year) in Expenditure
Nominal INR % of % of Total 2020 Notes and references
Year crores(₹) [276]
in crores (₹) (crore) GDP Expenditure Constant
INR (crore)
Revised Estimate as
1972–73 55245 18.2325000 0.03% 696.489 Actuals are not
available [278][279]

Revised Estimate as
1973–74 67241 19.0922000 0.03% 624.381 Actuals are not
available [279]: 13 [280]
[281]
1974–75 79378 30.7287000 0.04% 781.901
[282]
1975–76 85212 36.8379000 0.04% 879.281

Revised Estimate as
1976–77 91812 41.1400000 0.04% 1,062.174 Actuals are not
available [282]
[283]
1977–78 104024 37.3670000 0.04% 890.726
[284]
1978–79 112671 51.4518000 0.05% 1,196.291
[285]
1979–80 123562 57.0062000 0.05% 1,247.563
[286]: 39
1980–81 147063 82.1087000 0.06% 1,613.259

Revised Estimate as
1981–82 172776 109.132100 0.06% 1,896.051 Actuals are not
available[286]: 38 [287]
[288]
1982–83 193255 94.8898000 0.05% 1,527.408
[289]
1983–84 225074 163.365600 0.07% 2,351.37
[290]
1984–85 252188 181.601000 0.07% 2,410.543
[291]
1985–86 284534 229.102300 0.08% 2,881.303
[292]
1986–87 318366 309.990900 0.1% 3,585.645
[293]
1987–88 361865 347.084600 0.1% 3,690.41
[294]
1988–89 429363 422.367000 0.1% 4,105.274
[295]
1989–90 493278 398.559500 0.08% 3,616.972
[296][297]
1990–91 576109 105298 386.221800 0.07% 0.37% 3,217.774
[298][297]
1991–92 662260 111414 460.101000 0.07% 0.41% 3,366.237
[299][297]
1992–93 761196 122618 490.920400 0.06% 0.4% 3,210.258
[300][297]
1993–94 875992 141853 695.335000 0.08% 0.49% 4,277.163
 [301][297][302]
1994–95 1027570 160739 759.079300 0.07% 0.47% 4,237.768
[303][297][302]
1995–96 1205583 178275 755.778596 0.06% 0.42% 3,826.031
[304][297][302]
1996–97 1394816 201007 1062.44660 0.08% 0.53% 4,935.415
[305][302]
1997–98 1545294 232053 1050.50250 0.07% 0.45% 4,550.066
[306][302][307]
1998–99 1772297 279340 1401.70260 0.08% 0.5% 5,364.608
[308][302][307]
1999–00 1988262 298053 1677.38580 0.08% 0.56% 6,123.403
[309][302][307]
2000–01 2139886 325592 1905.39970 0.09% 0.59% 6,686.851
[310][307][311]
2001–02 2315243 362310 1900.97370 0.08% 0.52% 6,429.035

2002– [312][307][311]
2492614 413248 2162.22480 0.09% 0.52% 7,010.441
03

2003– [313][307][311]
2792530 471203 2268.80470 0.08% 0.48% 7,085.999
04

2004– [314][307][311]
3186332 498252 2534.34860 0.08% 0.51% 7,627.942
05

2005– [315][307][311]
3632125 505738 2667.60440 0.07% 0.53% 7,701.599
06

2006– [316][311][317]
4254629 583387 2988.66550 0.07% 0.51% 8,156.366
07

2007– [318][311][317]
4898662 712671 3278.00440 0.07% 0.46% 8,408.668
08

2008– [319][311][317]
5514152 883956 3493.57150 0.06% 0.4% 8,273.225
09
[320][317]
2009–10 6366407 1024487 4162.95990 0.07% 0.41% 8,894.965
[321][317]
2010–11 7634472 1197328 4482.23150 0.06% 0.37% 8,542.8
[322][317]
2011–12 8736329 1304365 3790.78880 0.04% 0.29% 6,636.301
[323][317]
2012–13 9944013 1410372 4856.28390 0.05% 0.34% 7,778.216
[324][317]
2013–14 11233522 1559447 5168.95140 0.05% 0.33% 7,464
[325][326]
2014–15 12467960 1663673 5821.36630 0.05% 0.35% 7,902.702
[327][328]
2015–16 13771874 1790783 6920.00520 0.05% 0.39% 8,872.483
[329][330]
2016–17 15391669 1975194 8039.99680 0.05% 0.41% 9,820.512
[331][332]
2017–18 17090042 2141975 9130.56640 0.05% 0.43% 10,881.647
[333][334]
2018–19 18899668 2315113 11192.6566 0.06% 0.48% 12,722.226
[335][336]
2019–20 20074856 2686330 13033.2917 0.06% 0.49% 13,760.472
[337][338]
2020–21 19800914 3509836 9490.05390 0.05% 0.27% 9,490.054
[339][338][340]
2021–22 23664637 3793801 12473.84 0.05% 0.33% 12,473.84
Corporate affairs

S-band spectrum scam

In India, electromagnetic spectrum, a scarce resource for wireless communication, is
auctioned by the Government of India to telecom companies for use. As an example of its
value, in 2010, 20 MHz of 3G spectrum was auctioned for ₹677 billion (US$7.7 billion). This
part of the spectrum is allocated for terrestrial communication (cell phones). However, in
January 2005, Antrix Corporation (commercial arm of ISRO) signed an agreement with Devas
Multimedia (a private company formed by former ISRO employees and venture capitalists
from the US) for lease of S band transponders (amounting to 70 MHz of spectrum) on two
ISRO satellites (GSAT 6 and GSAT 6A) for a price of ₹14 billion (US$160 million), to be paid
over a period of 12 years. The spectrum used in these satellites (2500 MHz and above) is
allocated by the International Telecommunication Union specifically for satellite-based
communication in India. Hypothetically, if the spectrum allocation is changed for utilisation for
terrestrial transmission and if this 70 MHz of spectrum were sold at the 2010 auction price of
the 3G spectrum, its value would have been over ₹2,000 billion (US$23 billion). This was a
hypothetical situation. However, the Comptroller and Auditor-General considered this
hypothetical situation and estimated the difference between the prices as a loss to the Indian
Government.[341][342]

There were lapses on implementing official procedures. Antrix/ISRO had allocated the
capacity of the above two satellites exclusively to Devas Multimedia, while the rules said it
should always be non-exclusive. The Cabinet was misinformed in November 2005 that
several service providers were interested in using satellite capacity, while the Devas deal was
already signed. Also, the Space Commission was not informed when approving the second
satellite (its cost was diluted so that Cabinet approval was not needed). ISRO committed to
spending ₹7.66 billion (US$88 million) of public money on building, launching, and operating
two satellites that were leased out for Devas.[343] In late 2009, some ISRO insiders exposed
information about the Devas-Antrix deal,[342][344] and the ensuing investigations led to the
deal's annulment. G. Madhavan Nair (ISRO Chairperson when the agreement was signed)
was barred from holding any post under the Department of Space. Some former scientists
were found guilty of "acts of commission" or "acts of omission". Devas and Deutsche
Telekom demanded US$2 billion and US$1 billion, respectively, in damages.[345] The
Department of Revenue and Ministry of Corporate Affairs began an inquiry into Devas
shareholding.[343]
The Central Bureau of Investigation registered a case against the accused in the Antrix-Devas
deal under Section 120-B, besides Section 420 of IPC and Section 13(2) read with 13(1)(d) of
PC Act, 1988 in March 2015 against the then executive director of Antrix Corporation, two
officials of a USA-based company, a Bengaluru-based private multimedia company, and
other unknown officials of the Antrix Corporation or the Department of Space.[346][347]

Devas Multimedia started arbitration proceedings against Antrix in June 2011. In September
2015, the International Court of Arbitration of the International Chamber of Commerce ruled in
favour of Devas, and directed Antrix to pay US$672 million (Rs 44.35 billion) in damages to
Devas.[348] Antrix opposed the Devas plea for tribunal award in the Delhi High Court.[349]

Heads of ISRO

List of Chairmen (since 1963) of ISRO.

1. Vikram Sarabhai (1963–1971)

2. M. G. K. Menon (1972)

3. Satish Dhawan (1973–1984)

4. U. R. Rao (1984–1994)

5. K. Kasturirangan (1994–2003)

6. G. Madhavan Nair (2003–2009)

7. K. Radhakrishnan (2009–2014)

8. Shailesh Nayak (2015)

9. A. S. Kiran Kumar (2015–2018)

10. K. Sivan (2018–2022)

11. S. Somanath (2022–2025)

12. V. Narayanan (2025–present)

See also

Portals: India Outer space Rocketry Spaceflight

Satish Dhawan Space Centre

Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre

 Deep Ocean mission

Defence Space Agency

Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology

List of government space agencies

List of ISRO missions

NewSpace India Limited

IN–SPACe

Indian Space Association

Rashtriya Vigyan Puraskar

Science and technology in India

Space industry of India

Swami Vivekananda Planetarium

Telecommunications in India

Timeline of Solar System exploration

National Space Science Symposium

Notes

a. ISO 15919: Bhāratīya Antarikṣa Anusandhāna Saṅgaṭhana

b. CNSA (China), ESA (most of Europe), ISRO, (India), JAXA (Japan), NASA (United States)
and Roscosmos (Russia) are the six space agencies with full launch capabilities.

c. The Soviet Union (Interkosmos), The United States (NASA), China (CNSA) and India
(ISRO) are the four nations to have successfully achieved unmanned soft landing.

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Further reading

The Economics of India's Space Programme, by U. Sankar, Oxford University Press, New
Delhi, 2007, ISBN 978-0-19-568345-5

The Indian Space Programme, by Gurbir Singh, Astrotalkuk Publications, ISBN 978-
0956933737

Reach For the Stars: The Evolution of India's Rocket Programme, by Gopal Raj, ISBN 978-
0670899500

From Fishing Hamlet to Red Planet: India's Space Journey, by ISRO, ISBN 978-9351776895

Brief History of Rocketry in ISRO, by P V Manoranjan Rao and P Radhakrishnan, ISBN 978-
8173717642

India's Rise as a Space Power, by U R Rao, ISBN 978-9382993483

External links

Official website (https://www.isro.gov.in/)

"Official website of the Department of Space of the Government of India" (http://www.dos.

gov.in) . dos.gov.in.

Media related to Indian Space Research Organisation at Wikimedia Commons