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Computer Graphics with Open GL
Hearn Baker Carithers
Fourth Edition
Pearson Education Limited
Edinburgh Gate
Harlow
Essex CM20 2JE
England and Associated Companies throughout the world

Visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.pearsoned.co.uk

© Pearson Education Limited 2014

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the
prior written permission of the publisher or a licence permitting restricted copying in the United Kingdom
issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.

All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark
in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such
trademarks, nor does the use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this
book by such owners.

ISBN 10: 1-292-02425-9

ISBN 13: 978-1-292-02425-7

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Printed in the United States of America

 P E A R S O N C U S T O M L I B R A R Y

Table of Contents

1. Computer Graphics Hardware

Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 1
Computer Graphics Hardware Color Plates
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 27
2. Computer Graphics Software
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 29
3. Graphics Output Primitives
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 45
4. Attributes of Graphics Primitives
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 99
5. Implementation Algorithms for Graphics Primitives and Attributes
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 131
6. Two-Dimensional Geometric Transformations
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 189
7. Two-Dimensional Viewing
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 227
8. Three-Dimensional Geometric Transformations
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 273
9. Three-Dimensional Viewing
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 301
Three-Dimensional Viewing Color Plate
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 353
10. Hierarchical Modeling
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 355
11. Computer Animation
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 365

I
 12. Three-Dimensional Object Representations
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 389
Three-Dimensional Object Representations Color Plate
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 407
13. Spline Representations
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 409
14. Visible-Surface Detection Methods
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 465
15. Illumination Models and Surface-Rendering Methods
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 493
Illumination Models and Surface-Rendering Methods Color Plates
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 541
16. Texturing and Surface-Detail Methods
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 543
Texturing and Surface-Detail Methods Color Plates
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 567
17. Color Models and Color Applications
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 569
Color Models and Color Applications Color Plate
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 589
18. Interactive Input Methods and Graphical User Interfaces
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 591
Interactive Input Methods and Graphical User Interfaces Color Plates
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 631
19. Global Illumination
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 633
Global Illumination Color Plates
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 659
20. Programmable Shaders
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 663
Programmable Shaders Color Plates
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 693
21. Algorithmic Modeling
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 695
Algorithmic Modeling Color Plates
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 725

II
22. Visualization of Data Sets
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 729
Visualization of Data Sets Color Plates
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 735
Appendix: Mathematics for Computer Graphics
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 737
Appendix: Graphics File Formats
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 773
Bibliography
Donald D. Hearn/M. Pauline Baker, Warren Carithers 789
Index 801

III
This page intentionally left blank
 Computer Graphics Hardware

1 Video Display Devices

2 Raster-Scan Systems
3 Graphics Workstations and Viewing
Systems
4 Input Devices
5 Hard-Copy Devices
6 Graphics Networks
7 Graphics on the Internet
8 Summary

T he power and utility of computer graphics is widely recog-

nized, and a broad range of graphics hardware and soft-
ware systems is now available for applications in virtually
all fields. Graphics capabilities for both two-dimensional and three-
dimensional applications are now common, even on general-purpose
computers and handheld calculators. With personal computers, we
can use a variety of interactive input devices and graphics software
packages. For higher-quality applications, we can choose from a num-
ber of sophisticated special-purpose graphics hardware systems and
technologies. In this chapter, we explore the basic features of graphics
hardware components and graphics software packages.

From Chapter 2 of Computer Graphics with OpenGL®, Fourth Edition, Donald Hearn, M. Pauline Baker, Warren R. Carithers.
Copyright © 2011 by Pearson Education, Inc. Published by Pearson Prentice Hall. All rights reserved.
1
 Computer Graphics Hardware

1 Video Display Devices

Typically, the primary output device in a graphics system is a video monitor.
Historically, the operation of most video monitors was based on the standard
cathode-ray tube (CRT) design, but several other technologies exist. In recent
years, flat-panel displays have become significantly more popular due to their
reduced power consumption and thinner designs.

Refresh Cathode-Ray Tubes

Figure 1 illustrates the basic operation of a CRT. A beam of electrons (cathode
rays), emitted by an electron gun, passes through focusing and deflection systems
that direct the beam toward specified positions on the phosphor-coated screen.
The phosphor then emits a small spot of light at each position contacted by the
electron beam. Because the light emitted by the phosphor fades very rapidly,
some method is needed for maintaining the screen picture. One way to do this
is to store the picture information as a charge distribution within the CRT. This
charge distribution can then be used to keep the phosphors activated. However,
the most common method now employed for maintaining phosphor glow is to
redraw the picture repeatedly by quickly directing the electron beam back over the
same screen points. This type of display is called a refresh CRT, and the frequency
at which a picture is redrawn on the screen is referred to as the refresh rate.
The primary components of an electron gun in a CRT are the heated metal
cathode and a control grid (Fig. 2). Heat is supplied to the cathode by directing
a current through a coil of wire, called the filament, inside the cylindrical cathode
structure. This causes electrons to be “boiled off” the hot cathode surface. In

Magnetic
Deflection Coils Phosphor-
Focusing Coated
System Screen
Base

Electron
Connector Electron Beam
FIGURE 1 Pins Gun
Basic design of a magnetic-deflection
CRT.

Electron
Focusing Beam
Cathode Anode Path

Heating
Filament

Control Accelerating
FIGURE 2 Grid Anode
Operation of an electron gun with an
accelerating anode.

2
 Computer Graphics Hardware

the vacuum inside the CRT envelope, the free, negatively charged electrons are
then accelerated toward the phosphor coating by a high positive voltage. The
accelerating voltage can be generated with a positively charged metal coating
on the inside of the CRT envelope near the phosphor screen, or an accelerating
anode, as in Figure 2, can be used to provide the positive voltage. Sometimes
the electron gun is designed so that the accelerating anode and focusing system
are within the same unit.
Intensity of the electron beam is controlled by the voltage at the control grid,
which is a metal cylinder that fits over the cathode. A high negative voltage
applied to the control grid will shut off the beam by repelling electrons and
stopping them from passing through the small hole at the end of the control-
grid structure. A smaller negative voltage on the control grid simply decreases
the number of electrons passing through. Since the amount of light emitted by
the phosphor coating depends on the number of electrons striking the screen, the
brightness of a display point is controlled by varying the voltage on the control
grid. This brightness, or intensity level, is specified for individual screen positions
with graphics software commands.
The focusing system in a CRT forces the electron beam to converge to a small
cross section as it strikes the phosphor. Otherwise, the electrons would repel each
other, and the beam would spread out as it approaches the screen. Focusing is
accomplished with either electric or magnetic fields. With electrostatic focusing,
the electron beam is passed through a positively charged metal cylinder so that
electrons along the center line of the cylinder are in an equilibrium position. This
arrangement forms an electrostatic lens, as shown in Figure 2, and the electron
beam is focused at the center of the screen in the same way that an optical lens
focuses a beam of light at a particular focal distance. Similar lens focusing effects
can be accomplished with a magnetic field set up by a coil mounted around the
outside of the CRT envelope, and magnetic lens focusing usually produces the
smallest spot size on the screen.
Additional focusing hardware is used in high-precision systems to keep the
beam in focus at all screen positions. The distance that the electron beam must
travel to different points on the screen varies because the radius of curvature for
most CRTs is greater than the distance from the focusing system to the screen
center. Therefore, the electron beam will be focused properly only at the center
of the screen. As the beam moves to the outer edges of the screen, displayed
images become blurred. To compensate for this, the system can adjust the focusing
according to the screen position of the beam.
As with focusing, deflection of the electron beam can be controlled with either
electric or magnetic fields. Cathode-ray tubes are now commonly constructed
with magnetic-deflection coils mounted on the outside of the CRT envelope, as
illustrated in Figure 1. Two pairs of coils are used for this purpose. One pair is
mounted on the top and bottom of the CRT neck, and the other pair is mounted
on opposite sides of the neck. The magnetic field produced by each pair of coils
results in a transverse deflection force that is perpendicular to both the direction
of the magnetic field and the direction of travel of the electron beam. Horizontal
deflection is accomplished with one pair of coils, and vertical deflection with the
other pair. The proper deflection amounts are attained by adjusting the current
through the coils. When electrostatic deflection is used, two pairs of parallel plates
are mounted inside the CRT envelope. One pair of plates is mounted horizontally
to control vertical deflection, and the other pair is mounted vertically to control
horizontal deflection (Fig. 3).
Spots of light are produced on the screen by the transfer of the CRT beam
energy to the phosphor. When the electrons in the beam collide with the phosphor

3
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 Computer Graphics Hardware

Vertical Phosphor-
Focusing Deflection Coated
System Plates Screen
Base

Electron
Connector Electron Horizontal Beam
FIGURE 3 Pins Gun Deflection
Electrostatic deflection of the electron Plates
beam in a CRT.

coating, they are stopped and their kinetic energy is absorbed by the phosphor.
Part of the beam energy is converted by friction into heat energy, and the remain-
der causes electrons in the phosphor atoms to move up to higher quantum-energy
levels. After a short time, the “excited” phosphor electrons begin dropping back
to their stable ground state, giving up their extra energy as small quantums of
light energy called photons. What we see on the screen is the combined effect of all
the electron light emissions: a glowing spot that quickly fades after all the excited
phosphor electrons have returned to their ground energy level. The frequency (or
color) of the light emitted by the phosphor is in proportion to the energy difference
between the excited quantum state and the ground state.
Different kinds of phosphors are available for use in CRTs. Besides color, a
major difference between phosphors is their persistence: how long they continue
to emit light (that is, how long it is before all excited electrons have returned to
the ground state) after the CRT beam is removed. Persistence is defined as the
time that it takes the emitted light from the screen to decay to one-tenth of its
original intensity. Lower-persistence phosphors require higher refresh rates to
maintain a picture on the screen without flicker. A phosphor with low persistence
can be useful for animation, while high-persistence phosphors are better suited
for displaying highly complex, static pictures. Although some phosphors have
persistence values greater than 1 second, general-purpose graphics monitors are
usually constructed with persistence in the range from 10 to 60 microseconds.
FIGURE 4
Figure 4 shows the intensity distribution of a spot on the screen. The
Intensity distribution of an illuminated
phosphor spot on a CRT screen. intensity is greatest at the center of the spot, and it decreases with a Gaussian
distribution out to the edges of the spot. This distribution corresponds to the
cross-sectional electron density distribution of the CRT beam.
The maximum number of points that can be displayed without overlap on
a CRT is referred to as the resolution. A more precise definition of resolution is
the number of points per centimeter that can be plotted horizontally and ver-
tically, although it is often simply stated as the total number of points in each
direction. Spot intensity has a Gaussian distribution (Fig. 4), so two adjacent
spots will appear distinct as long as their separation is greater than the diameter
at which each spot has an intensity of about 60 percent of that at the center of
FIGURE 5
the spot. This overlap position is illustrated in Figure 5. Spot size also depends
Two illuminated phosphor spots are
distinguishable when their separation on intensity. As more electrons are accelerated toward the phosphor per second,
is greater than the diameter at which the diameters of the CRT beam and the illuminated spot increase. In addition,
a spot intensity has fallen to the increased excitation energy tends to spread to neighboring phosphor atoms
60 percent of maximum. not directly in the path of the beam, which further increases the spot diameter.
Thus, resolution of a CRT is dependent on the type of phosphor, the intensity
to be displayed, and the focusing and deflection systems. Typical resolution on
high-quality systems is 1280 by 1024, with higher resolutions available on many
systems. High-resolution systems are often referred to as high-definition systems.

4
 Computer Graphics Hardware

The physical size of a graphics monitor, on the other hand, is given as the length of
the screen diagonal, with sizes varying from about 12 inches to 27 inches or more.
A CRT monitor can be attached to a variety of computer systems, so the number
of screen points that can actually be plotted also depends on the capabilities of
the system to which it is attached.

Raster-Scan Displays
The most common type of graphics monitor employing a CRT is the raster-scan
display, based on television technology. In a raster-scan system, the electron beam
is swept across the screen, one row at a time, from top to bottom. Each row is
referred to as a scan line. As the electron beam moves across a scan line, the beam
intensity is turned on and off (or set to some intermediate value) to create a pattern
of illuminated spots. Picture definition is stored in a memory area called the
refresh buffer or frame buffer, where the term frame refers to the total screen area.
This memory area holds the set of color values for the screen points. These stored
color values are then retrieved from the refresh buffer and used to control the
intensity of the electron beam as it moves from spot to spot across the screen. In this
way, the picture is “painted” on the screen one scan line at a time, as demonstrated
in Figure 6. Each screen spot that can be illuminated by the electron beam
is referred to as a pixel or pel (shortened forms of picture element). Since the
refresh buffer is used to store the set of screen color values, it is also sometimes
called a color buffer. Also, other kinds of pixel information, besides color, are
stored in buffer locations, so all the different buffer areas are sometimes referred
to collectively as the “frame buffer.” The capability of a raster-scan system to
store color information for each screen point makes it well suited for the realistic
display of scenes containing subtle shading and color patterns. Home television
sets and printers are examples of other systems using raster-scan methods.
Raster systems are commonly characterized by their resolution, which is the
number of pixel positions that can be plotted. Another property of video monitors

(a) (b)

FIGURE 6
A raster-scan system displays an object
as a set of discrete points across each
(c) (d) scan line.

5
 Computer Graphics Hardware

is aspect ratio, which is now often defined as the number of pixel columns divided
by the number of scan lines that can be displayed by the system. (Sometimes this
term is used to refer to the number of scan lines divided by the number of pixel
columns.) Aspect ratio can also be described as the number of horizontal points
to vertical points (or vice versa) necessary to produce equal-length lines in both
directions on the screen. Thus, an aspect ratio of 4/3, for example, means that
a horizontal line plotted with four points has the same length as a vertical line
plotted with three points, where line length is measured in some physical units
such as centimeters. Similarly, the aspect ratio of any rectangle (including the total
screen area) can be defined to be the width of the rectangle divided by its height.
The range of colors or shades of gray that can be displayed on a raster system
depends on both the types of phosphor used in the CRT and the number of bits
per pixel available in the frame buffer. For a simple black-and-white system, each
screen point is either on or off, so only one bit per pixel is needed to control
the intensity of screen positions. A bit value of 1, for example, indicates that the
electron beam is to be turned on at that position, and a value of 0 turns the beam
off. Additional bits allow the intensity of the electron beam to be varied over
a range of values between “on” and “off.” Up to 24 bits per pixel are included
in high-quality systems, which can require several megabytes of storage for the
frame buffer, depending on the resolution of the system. For example, a system
with 24 bits per pixel and a screen resolution of 1024 by 1024 requires 3 MB of
storage for the refresh buffer. The number of bits per pixel in a frame buffer is
sometimes referred to as either the depth of the buffer area or the number of bit
planes. A frame buffer with one bit per pixel is commonly called a bitmap, and
a frame buffer with multiple bits per pixel is a pixmap, but these terms are also
used to describe other rectangular arrays, where a bitmap is any pattern of binary
values and a pixmap is a multicolor pattern.
As each screen refresh takes place, we tend to see each frame as a smooth
continuation of the patterns in the previous frame, so long as the refresh rate is
not too low. Below about 24 frames per second, we can usually perceive a gap
between successive screen images, and the picture appears to flicker. Old silent
films, for example, show this effect because they were photographed at a rate of
16 frames per second. When sound systems were developed in the 1920s, motion-
picture film rates increased to 24 frames per second, which removed flickering
and the accompanying jerky movements of the actors. Early raster-scan computer
systems were designed with a refresh rate of about 30 frames per second. This
produces reasonably good results, but picture quality is improved, up to a point,
with higher refresh rates on a video monitor because the display technology on the
monitor is basically different from that of film. A film projector can maintain the
continuous display of a film frame until the next frame is brought into view. But
on a video monitor, a phosphor spot begins to decay as soon as it is illuminated.
Therefore, current raster-scan displays perform refreshing at the rate of 60 to
80 frames per second, although some systems now have refresh rates of up to
120 frames per second. And some graphics systems have been designed with a
variable refresh rate. For example, a higher refresh rate could be selected for a
stereoscopic application so that two views of a scene (one from each eye position)
can be alternately displayed without flicker. But other methods, such as multiple
frame buffers, are typically used for such applications.
Sometimes, refresh rates are described in units of cycles per second, or hertz
(Hz), where a cycle corresponds to one frame. Using these units, we would
describe a refresh rate of 60 frames per second as simply 60 Hz. At the end of
each scan line, the electron beam returns to the left side of the screen to begin
displaying the next scan line. The return to the left of the screen, after refreshing

6
 Computer Graphics Hardware

0
1
2
3

FIGURE 7
Interlacing scan lines on a raster-scan display. First,
all points on the even-numbered (solid) scan lines
are displayed; then all points along the
odd-numbered (dashed) lines are displayed.

each scan line, is called the horizontal retrace of the electron beam. And at the
1 1
end of each frame (displayed in 80 to 60 of a second), the electron beam returns
to the upper-left corner of the screen (vertical retrace) to begin the next frame.
On some raster-scan systems and TV sets, each frame is displayed in two
passes using an interlaced refresh procedure. In the first pass, the beam sweeps
across every other scan line from top to bottom. After the vertical retrace, the
beam then sweeps out the remaining scan lines (Fig. 7). Interlacing of the scan
lines in this way allows us to see the entire screen displayed in half the time that
it would have taken to sweep across all the lines at once from top to bottom.
This technique is primarily used with slower refresh rates. On an older, 30 frame-
per-second, non-interlaced display, for instance, some flicker is noticeable. But
1
with interlacing, each of the two passes can be accomplished in 60 of a second,
which brings the refresh rate nearer to 60 frames per second. This is an effective
technique for avoiding flicker—provided that adjacent scan lines contain similar
display information.

Random-Scan Displays
When operated as a random-scan display unit, a CRT has the electron beam
directed only to those parts of the screen where a picture is to be displayed.
Pictures are generated as line drawings, with the electron beam tracing out the
component lines one after the other. For this reason, random-scan monitors are
also referred to as vector displays (or stroke-writing displays or calligraphic
displays). The component lines of a picture can be drawn and refreshed by a
random-scan system in any specified order (Fig. 8). A pen plotter operates in a
similar way and is an example of a random-scan, hard-copy device.
Refresh rate on a random-scan system depends on the number of lines to be
displayed on that system. Picture definition is now stored as a set of line-drawing
commands in an area of memory referred to as the display list, refresh display file,
vector file, or display program. To display a specified picture, the system cycles
through the set of commands in the display file, drawing each component line in
turn. After all line-drawing commands have been processed, the system cycles
back to the first line command in the list. Random-scan displays are designed to
draw all the component lines of a picture 30 to 60 times each second, with up to
100,000 “short” lines in the display list. When a small set of lines is to be displayed,
each refresh cycle is delayed to avoid very high refresh rates, which could burn
out the phosphor.
Random-scan systems were designed for line-drawing applications, such as
architectural and engineering layouts, and they cannot display realistic shaded
scenes. Since picture definition is stored as a set of line-drawing instructions rather
than as a set of intensity values for all screen points, vector displays generally have
higher resolutions than raster systems. Also, vector displays produce smooth line

7
 Computer Graphics Hardware

(a) (b)

FIGURE 8
A random-scan system draws the
component lines of an object in any
specified order. (c) (d)

drawings because the CRT beam directly follows the line path. A raster system, by
contrast, produces jagged lines that are plotted as discrete point sets. However,
the greater flexibility and improved line-drawing capabilities of raster systems
have resulted in the abandonment of vector technology.

Color CRT Monitors

A CRT monitor displays color pictures by using a combination of phosphors
that emit different-colored light. The emitted light from the different phosphors
merges to form a single perceived color, which depends on the particular set of
phosphors that have been excited.
One way to display color pictures is to coat the screen with layers of different-
colored phosphors. The emitted color depends on how far the electron beam
penetrates into the phosphor layers. This approach, called the beam-penetration
method, typically used only two phosphor layers: red and green. A beam of
slow electrons excites only the outer red layer, but a beam of very fast electrons
penetrates the red layer and excites the inner green layer. At intermediate beam
speeds, combinations of red and green light are emitted to show two additional
colors: orange and yellow. The speed of the electrons, and hence the screen color
at any point, is controlled by the beam acceleration voltage. Beam penetration has
been an inexpensive way to produce color, but only a limited number of colors
are possible, and picture quality is not as good as with other methods.
Shadow-mask methods are commonly used in raster-scan systems (including
color TV) because they produce a much wider range of colors than the beam-
penetration method. This approach is based on the way that we seem to perceive
colors as combinations of red, green, and blue components, called the RGB color
model. Thus, a shadow-mask CRT uses three phosphor color dots at each pixel
position. One phosphor dot emits a red light, another emits a green light, and the
third emits a blue light. This type of CRT has three electron guns, one for each
color dot, and a shadow-mask grid just behind the phosphor-coated screen. The

8
 Computer Graphics Hardware

Section
Electron of
Guns Shadow Mask

Magnified
Red Phosphor-Dot FIGURE 9
Triangle Operation of a delta-delta,
Green Blue shadow-mask CRT. Three electron
guns, aligned with the triangular
color-dot patterns on the screen, are
directed to each dot triangle by a
Screen shadow mask.

light emitted from the three phosphors results in a small spot of color at each pixel
position, since our eyes tend to merge the light emitted from the three dots into
one composite color. Figure 9 illustrates the delta-delta shadow-mask method,
commonly used in color CRT systems. The three electron beams are deflected
and focused as a group onto the shadow mask, which contains a series of holes
aligned with the phosphor-dot patterns. When the three beams pass through a
hole in the shadow mask, they activate a dot triangle, which appears as a small
color spot on the screen. The phosphor dots in the triangles are arranged so that
each electron beam can activate only its corresponding color dot when it passes
through the shadow mask. Another configuration for the three electron guns is an
in-line arrangement in which the three electron guns, and the corresponding RGB
color dots on the screen, are aligned along one scan line instead of in a triangular
pattern. This in-line arrangement of electron guns is easier to keep in alignment
and is commonly used in high-resolution color CRTs.
We obtain color variations in a shadow-mask CRT by varying the intensity
levels of the three electron beams. By turning off two of the three guns, we get
only the color coming from the single activated phosphor (red, green, or blue).
When all three dots are activated with equal beam intensities, we see a white
color. Yellow is produced with equal intensities from the green and red dots only,
magenta is produced with equal blue and red intensities, and cyan shows up
when blue and green are activated equally. In an inexpensive system, each of the
three electron beams might be restricted to either on or off, limiting displays to
eight colors. More sophisticated systems can allow intermediate intensity levels
to be set for the electron beams, so that several million colors are possible.
Color graphics systems can be used with several types of CRT display devices.
Some inexpensive home-computer systems and video games have been designed
for use with a color TV set and a radio-frequency (RF) modulator. The purpose of
the RF modulator is to simulate the signal from a broadcast TV station. This means
that the color and intensity information of the picture must be combined and
superimposed on the broadcast-frequency carrier signal that the TV requires as
input. Then the circuitry in the TV takes this signal from the RF modulator, extracts
the picture information, and paints it on the screen. As we might expect, this
extra handling of the picture information by the RF modulator and TV circuitry
decreases the quality of displayed images.

9
 Computer Graphics Hardware

Composite monitors are adaptations of TV sets that allow bypass of the broad-
cast circuitry. These display devices still require that the picture information be
combined, but no carrier signal is needed. Since picture information is combined
into a composite signal and then separated by the monitor, the resulting picture
quality is still not the best attainable.
Color CRTs in graphics systems are designed as RGB monitors. These moni-
tors use shadow-mask methods and take the intensity level for each electron gun
(red, green, and blue) directly from the computer system without any interme-
diate processing. High-quality raster-graphics systems have 24 bits per pixel in
the frame buffer, allowing 256 voltage settings for each electron gun and nearly
17 million color choices for each pixel. An RGB color system with 24 bits of storage
per pixel is generally referred to as a full-color system or a true-color system.

Flat-Panel Displays
Although most graphics monitors are still constructed with CRTs, other tech-
nologies are emerging that may soon replace CRT monitors. The term flat-panel
display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight, and
power requirements compared to a CRT. A significant feature of flat-panel dis-
plays is that they are thinner than CRTs, and we can hang them on walls or wear
them on our wrists. Since we can even write on some flat-panel displays, they
are also available as pocket notepads. Some additional uses for flat-panel dis-
plays are as small TV monitors, calculator screens, pocket video-game screens,
laptop computer screens, armrest movie-viewing stations on airlines, advertise-
ment boards in elevators, and graphics displays in applications requiring rugged,
portable monitors.
We can separate flat-panel displays into two categories: emissive displays
and nonemissive displays. The emissive displays (or emitters) are devices that
convert electrical energy into light. Plasma panels, thin-film electroluminescent
displays, and light-emitting diodes are examples of emissive displays. Flat CRTs
have also been devised, in which electron beams are accelerated parallel to the
screen and then deflected 90 onto the screen. But flat CRTs have not proved to be as
successful as other emissive devices. Nonemissive displays (or nonemitters) use
optical effects to convert sunlight or light from some other source into graphics
patterns. The most important example of a nonemissive flat-panel display is a
liquid-crystal device.
Plasma panels, also called gas-discharge displays, are constructed by filling
the region between two glass plates with a mixture of gases that usually includes
neon. A series of vertical conducting ribbons is placed on one glass panel, and a
set of horizontal conducting ribbons is built into the other glass panel (Fig. 10).
Firing voltages applied to an intersecting pair of horizontal and vertical conduc-
tors cause the gas at the intersection of the two conductors to break down into
a glowing plasma of electrons and ions. Picture definition is stored in a refresh
buffer, and the firing voltages are applied to refresh the pixel positions (at the
intersections of the conductors) 60 times per second. Alternating-current methods
are used to provide faster application of the firing voltages and, thus, brighter dis-
plays. Separation between pixels is provided by the electric field of the conductors.
One disadvantage of plasma panels has been that they were strictly monochro-
matic devices, but systems are now available with multicolor capabilities.
Thin-film electroluminescent displays are similar in construction to plasma
panels. The difference is that the region between the glass plates is filled with a
phosphor, such as zinc sulfide doped with manganese, instead of a gas (Fig. 11).
When a sufficiently high voltage is applied to a pair of crossing electrodes, the

10
 Computer Graphics Hardware

Conductors Conductors

Gas

Glass Plate Glass Plate

Glass Plate Glass Plate

Phosphor

FIGURE 10 FIGURE 11
Basic design of a plasma-panel display Basic design of a thin-film
device. electroluminescent display device.

phosphor becomes a conductor in the area of the intersection of the two electrodes.
Electrical energy is absorbed by the manganese atoms, which then release the
energy as a spot of light similar to the glowing plasma effect in a plasma panel.
Electroluminescent displays require more power than plasma panels, and good
color displays are harder to achieve.
A third type of emissive device is the light-emitting diode (LED). A matrix of
diodes is arranged to form the pixel positions in the display, and picture definition
is stored in a refresh buffer. As in scan-line refreshing of a CRT, information is
read from the refresh buffer and converted to voltage levels that are applied to
the diodes to produce the light patterns in the display.
Liquid-crystal displays (LCDs) are commonly used in small systems, such as
laptop computers and calculators (Fig. 12). These nonemissive devices produce
a picture by passing polarized light from the surroundings or from an internal
light source through a liquid-crystal material that can be aligned to either block
or transmit the light.
The term liquid crystal refers to the fact that these compounds have a crys-
talline arrangement of molecules, yet they flow like a liquid. Flat-panel displays
commonly use nematic (threadlike) liquid-crystal compounds that tend to keep
the long axes of the rod-shaped molecules aligned. A flat-panel display can then
be constructed with a nematic liquid crystal, as demonstrated in Figure 13. Two
glass plates, each containing a light polarizer that is aligned at a right angle to the
other plate, sandwich the liquid-crystal material. Rows of horizontal, transpar-
ent conductors are built into one glass plate, and columns of vertical conductors
are put into the other plate. The intersection of two conductors defines a pixel
position. Normally, the molecules are aligned as shown in the “on state” of Fig- FIGURE 12
ure 13. Polarized light passing through the material is twisted so that it will pass A handheld calculator with an LCD
through the opposite polarizer. The light is then reflected back to the viewer. To screen. (Courtesy of Texas
turn off the pixel, we apply a voltage to the two intersecting conductors to align the Instruments.)
molecules so that the light is not twisted. This type of flat-panel device is referred
to as a passive-matrix LCD. Picture definitions are stored in a refresh buffer, and
the screen is refreshed at the rate of 60 frames per second, as in the emissive

11
 Computer Graphics Hardware

Nematic
Liquid Crystal
Transparent
Conductor Polarizer

Polarizer
On State Transparent
Conductor
Nematic
Liquid Crystal
Transparent
Conductor Polarizer

FIGURE 13 Polarizer
The light-twisting, shutter effect used Off State Transparent
in the design of most LCD devices. Conductor

devices. Backlighting is also commonly applied using solid-state electronic

devices, so that the system is not completely dependent on outside light sources.
Colors can be displayed by using different materials or dyes and by placing a triad
of color pixels at each screen location. Another method for constructing LCDs is
to place a transistor at each pixel location, using thin-film transistor technology.
The transistors are used to control the voltage at pixel locations and to prevent
charge from gradually leaking out of the liquid-crystal cells. These devices are
called active-matrix displays.

Three-Dimensional Viewing Devices

Graphics monitors for the display of three-dimensional scenes have been devi-
sed using a technique that reflects a CRT image from a vibrating, flexible mirror
(Fig. 14). As the varifocal mirror vibrates, it changes focal length. These vibra-
tions are synchronized with the display of an object on a CRT so that each point
on the object is reflected from the mirror into a spatial position corresponding
to the distance of that point from a specified viewing location. This allows us to
walk around an object or scene and view it from different sides.
In addition to displaying three-dimensional images, these systems are
often capable of displaying two-dimensional cross-sectional “slices” of objects
selected at different depths, such as in medical applications to analyze data
from ultrasonography and CAT scan devices, in geological applications to
analyze topological and seismic data, in design applications involving solid
objects, and in three-dimensional simulations of systems, such as molecules and
terrain.

12
 Computer Graphics Hardware

Projected
3D Image
Timing and
Control
System
Vibrating
Flexible
Mirror

CRT

Viewer
FIGURE 14 FIGURE 15
Operation of a three-dimensional Glasses for viewing a stereoscopic
display system using a vibrating mirror scene in 3D. (Courtesy of XPAND, X6D
that changes focal length to match the USA Inc.)
depths of points in a scene.

Stereoscopic and Virtual-Reality Systems

Another technique for representing a three-dimensional object is to display
stereoscopic views of the object. This method does not produce true three-
dimensional images, but it does provide a three-dimensional effect by presenting
a different view to each eye of an observer so that scenes do appear to have
depth.
To obtain a stereoscopic projection, we must obtain two views of a scene
generated with viewing directions along the lines from the position of each eye
(left and right) to the scene. We can construct the two views as computer-generated
scenes with different viewing positions, or we can use a stereo camera pair to
photograph an object or scene. When we simultaneously look at the left view
with the left eye and the right view with the right eye, the two views merge into
a single image and we perceive a scene with depth.
One way to produce a stereoscopic effect on a raster system is to display each
of the two views on alternate refresh cycles. The screen is viewed through glasses,
with each lens designed to act as a rapidly alternating shutter that is synchronized
to block out one of the views. One such design (Figure 15) uses liquid-crystal
shutters and an infrared emitter that synchronizes the glasses with the views on
the screen.
Stereoscopic viewing is also a component in virtual-reality systems, where
users can step into a scene and interact with the environment. A headset contain-
ing an optical system to generate the stereoscopic views can be used in conjunc-
tion with interactive input devices to locate and manipulate objects in the scene.
A sensing system in the headset keeps track of the viewer’s position, so that the
front and back of objects can be seen as the viewer “walks through” and inter-
acts with the display. Another method for creating a virtual-reality environment

13
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TRANSPORTATION FIFTY YEARS AGO

Overland Emigrant and Freight Train,

Operated by Sprague & Digan, Leaving
West Main Street, Atchison, Kan., April
1, 1866, en route to the Far West.
History of Atchison County
 CHAPTER I.
GEOLOGY.

FOSSILS—EVIDENCES OF EARLY ANIMAL AND PLANT LIFE—

GEOLOGICAL AGES—ROCK FORMATION—GLACIER
PERIOD—MINERALS.

The oldest citizens of Atchison county are the animals and

plants whose fossil remains now lie buried in the solid rocks. These
denizens of long ago, by their lives, made it possible for later and
better citizens to live and flourish in the happy and contented homes
of her best citizens of the present day. Long before man ever saw
Atchison county—long before man lived anywhere upon this earth,
the seas swarmed with animal life and the dry lands supported a
fauna and a flora substantially as great as those of the present time.
In character the animals and plants of those early days were very
different from those of the present time. Almost all of their kind long
ago became extinct. It is only the few who have living representatives
anywhere in the world today, and they are degraded in form and size
as though they had long outlived their usefulness. Some of the
animals live in the waters of distant oceans, such as the brachiopods
and other shell fish; the crinoids or sea lilies, and others of like
character. On the dry land we find a few insects of the cock-roach
type and other creeping things which inhabit dark and damp places,
animals of gloom on whose forms the sunshine of day rarely falls.
The plants, likewise, are degraded in size and form. The modern
bull-rushes of our swamps are descendants of ancient giants of their
kind which grew to ten or twenty times the size of their modern
representatives. The little creeping vines sometimes found in the
shaded forest are lineal descendants of the mighty trees of the forests
in the long ago while materials were gathering for the rock masses
constituting Atchison county.
In order to converse rationally about geological time it has been
found most convenient to divide time into periods in accordance
with great natural events, and to give a name to each period that in
some way expresses something desirable to be known and
remembered. Usually geographic names of areas where rock masses
are exposed to the surface of the ground are chosen, or some favorite
geographic term may be used, and in rare instances some quality
name expressive of the character or composition of the rocks.
Following the best usage of geologists the rocks exposed at the
surface all belong to the age known as the Carboniferous, which lies
at the top of the Palaeozoic, or ancient life rocks. The Carboniferous
is divided and subdivided into a number of divisions, the lowermost
of which has been named the Mississippian on account of their great
abundance throughout the Mississippi valley. Above the
Mississippian we find a mass of alternating beds of shale and
limestone and sandstone aggregating about 2,500 feet in thickness,
called the Pennsylvanians, a term borrowed from the State of
Pennsylvania, where rocks of the same age so abound. Rocks formed
during the remainder of geologic time are not found in Atchison
county, except the covering of soil and clay so abundant throughout
the county. An old-time name for the Pennsylvanian rocks is the
coal-measures, a term now on the decline because the newer names
—well, it is newer.
It appears that from the close of the Pennsylvanian time to the
present Atchison county has been dry land. At one time, quite
recently, as geologists reckon time, climatic conditions changed so
that the snow falling during the winter could not be melted during
the summer, so that to the far north great quantities of snow and ice
accumulated and gradually spread over the surface of a large part of
North America. One limb of this ice mass moved slowly southward
and covered all of Atchison county, and much adjacent territory, and
brought with it vast quantities of soil and clay and gravel that the ice
sheet, as a great scraper, picked up from the surface as it came along.
When the ice finally melted this debris was left, like a mantle of
snow, covering the entire surface of Atchison county.
 The rocks of Pennsylvanian age have within them much of value
economically. Here and there inter-stratified with the sandstone and
shale are large and valuable beds of coal, as is abundantly shown by
the drilled wells and coal shafts within the county. It is probable that
almost the entire county is underlaid with this same bed of coal, and
if so it is worth substantially as much to the county as is the surface
soil. It lies at so great a depth that it may be mined without any
danger whatever of disturbing the surface.

Main Building State Orphans’ Home,

Atchison, Kan.

The large amount of good hard limestone in the county

guarantees an everlasting supply of stone for road making, railroad
ballast, crushed rock for concrete works and all other uses to which
such limestone may be put. With the Missouri river on the eastern
boundary carrying unlimited amounts of sand Atchison county is
well supplied with every material needed for unlimited amounts of
mortar construction of all kinds. Recently, since Portland cement
construction has so effectually replaced stone masonry, this becomes
a very important matter.
Should market conditions ever become favorable it is also
possible to manufacture the best grades of Portland cement by
properly combining the limestones and shales of the county. Their
chemical and physical properties are admirably suited for such
purposes.
There is a possibility that somewhere within the county oil and
gas may be found by proper prospecting. As no search for these
materials has yet been made it is impossible to say what the results
might be. Atchison county, however, lies within the oil zone that has
been proven to be so much farther south, and until proper search has
been made no one can say that oil and gas cannot be found here also.
 CHAPTER II.
PRE-HISTORIC PERIOD.

EVIDENCES OF PALEOLITHIC MAN—AN ANCIENT

FORTIFICATION—ABORIGINAL VILLAGE AND CAMP
SITES—THE INGALLS AND OTHER BURIAL MOUNDS.

How long the region embraced in Atchison county has been the
home of man is not known, but the finding of a prehistoric human
skeleton, computed by the highest anthropological and geological
authorities to be at least 10,000 years old, in the adjoining county of
Leavenworth, favors the presumption that what is now Atchison
county was occupied by man at an equally remote period. Evidences
of a very early human existence here have been found at various
times. Near Potter, in this county, the writer found deep in the
undisturbed gravel and clay, a rude flint implement that
unquestionably had been fashioned by prehistoric man, evidently, of
what is known as the Paleolithic period. In drilling the well at the
power house of the Atchison Street Railway, Light and Power
Company, the late T. J. Ingels, of Atchison, encountered at a great
depth, several fragments of fossilized bone, intermingled with
charcoal, evidently the remains of a very ancient fireplace. About
1880, M. M. Trimmer, an Atchison contractor, in opening a stone
quarry at the northeast point of the Branchtown hill, near the
confluence of White Clay and Brewery creeks, in Atchison,
unexpectedly encountered a pit or excavation, eighty feet long, sixty
feet wide, and eighteen feet deep, in the solid rock formation of the
hill. The surface of the hill is composed of drift or gravel, and the pit
had become filled with this gravel to the original surface, thus
obliterating all external evidences of its existence. The lower layer of
stone, about six inches thick, had been left for a floor in the pit, and
in the northwest corner this lower strata of stone for about four feet
square had been removed. Water issued from the ground at this
point indicating that a spring or well, or source of water supply, had
been located here. A careful examination of the place at the time
showed unmistakably that this excavation had been made by human
hands at a very early period and was probably used as a fortification
or defensive work. Prehistoric excavations of this character, made in
the solid rock, are common in Europe, but almost unknown in
America, except in the cases of ancient flint and steatite quarries, and
the absence of either in the Atchison formation, except an occasional
flint nodule, precludes the possibility that this was just an aboriginal
quarry. The Smithsonian authorities at Washington pronounced the
work worthy of careful study, but unfortunately it was obliterated by
the progress of the quarrying. Many weapons and implements of the
stone age have been found in the vicinity of this pit.
Almost the entire surface of Atchison county, particularly where
bordering streams, presents various traces of aboriginal occupancy,
from the silent sepulchers of the dead and the mouldy rubbish of the
wigwam, to the solitary arrowhead lost on the happy chase or the
sanguinary war path. In many places these remains blend into the
prehistoric, semi-historic and historic periods, showing evidences of
a succession of occupancy. For instance we find the Neolithic stone
celts or hatchets, the Neoeric iron tomahawks; fragments of fragile
earthenware, mixed and moulded by the prehistoric potter, and bits
of modern decorated porcelain made by some pale-faced patterner of
Palissy; ornaments of stone, bone and shell; trinkets of brass and
beads of glass, intermingled in confusion and profusion. These
numerous relics of different peoples and periods, showing, as they
do, diverse stages of culture and advancement, warrant the opinion
that Atchison county, with its many natural advantages, was a
favorite resort of successive peoples from time immemorial.
Favorably situated at the great western bend of the Missouri river
and at the outskirts of which was one of the richest Indian hunting
grounds in the great wild West, embracing and surrounded by every
natural advantage that would make it the prospective and wonted
haunt of a wild-race, it was a prehistoric paradise, as it is today, a
modern Arcadia.
 State Orphans’ Home, Atchison, Kan.

The writer has personally examined hundreds of ancient Indian

village, camp and workshop sites, and opened a number of mounds
in Atchison county. The first ancient mounds ever opened in the
county were on a very rugged hill known as the “Devil’s Backbone,”
bordering Owl creek, and overlooking the Missouri river, in 1891.
There were two of them, and they contained stone sepulchers in
which the Indians had cremated their dead. Other stone grave
mounds have been opened on the farms of John Myers, on
Independence creek, in the northeastern part of the county; Maurice
Fiehley, on Stranger creek, near Potter; George Storch, on Alcorn or
Whiskey creek, just south of Atchison, and in several other places.
The most interesting mound ever excavated in the county, however,
was what is known as the Ingalls Mound, on land belonging to the
estate of the late United States Senator John J. Ingalls, on a bluff of
the Missouri river, at the mouth of Walnut creek, about five miles
below Atchison. This mound was discovered by Senator Ingalls at an
early day, and opened by the writer in 1907. It was fifteen feet in
diameter, and was composed of alternate layers of stone and earth
one on top of the other, the remains of several Indians being
imbedded in the earth between the layers of stone. These remains
were in a bad state of decay, most of the bones crumbling while being
removed. The bones of each person had been placed in the mound in
compact bundles, which seems to indicate that they had been
removed from some temporary place of interment, perhaps from
dilapidated scaffold burials, and deposited here in final sepulture. In
some of the layers not only the bones but the rocks and earth were
considerably burned, indicating incendiary funeral rites, while in
others there were not the least marks of fire. The undermost layer,
about three feet from the top, was a veritable cinder pit, being a
burned mass or conglomerate of charcoal and charred and calcined
human remains, showing no regularity or outline of skeletons, but all
in utter confusion. A solitary pearl bead was the only object that
withstood the terrible heat to which the lower tier of remains had
been subjected. In one of the upper tiers were the bones of two
infants. With one of them was a necklace of small shells of a species
not native here. With another bundle of bones were two small, neatly
chipped flint knives, a flint scraper, a bone whistle or “call,” several
deer horn implements, and a large flint implement of doubtful usage,
known to archaeologists as a “turtle-back,” because of its shape. With
another bundle of bones, and which they seemed to be clasping, were
several mussel shells, badly decomposed. One small ornament of an
animal or bird claw, several flint arrowheads, and some fragments of
pottery, were also found. In one of the skulls was embedded the flint
blade of a war-club. Thirty-one yards northwest of this mound was
found another of less prominence. It contained a burned mass of
human remains, covered with a layer of about six inches of clay,
baked almost to the consistency of brick. Lack of space forbids a
mention of many other interesting archaeological discoveries made
in this county from time to time. Suffice to say that there is ample
evidence that within the borders of Atchison county there lived and
thrived and passed away a considerable aboriginal population.
 CHAPTER III.
INDIAN HISTORY.

HARAHEY, AN INDIAN PROVINCE OF CORONADO’S TIME—

THE KANSA NATION—BOURGMONT’S VISIT IN 1724—
COUNCIL ON COW ISLAND IN 1819—THE KICKAPOO
INDIANS.

There is nothing definite to show that Coronado ever reached

the confines of what is now Atchison county in 1541, as some
historical writers have seen fit to state, but there is a probability that
the Indian province of Harahey, which the natives thereof told him
was just beyond Quivira, embraced our present county and most of
the region of northeastern Kansas. Mark F. Zimmerman, an
intelligent and painstaking student of Kansas archaeology and
Indian history, has given this matter much consideration, and is
confident that the Harahey chieftain, Tatarrax, immortalized in
Coronado’s chronicles, ruled over this territory nearly four centuries
ago. Until this fact is established, however, it remains that the Indian
history of what is now Atchison county begins with the Kansa
Indians in the early part of the eighteenth century. At the time of the
Bourgmont expedition in 1724, and for some time before, this nation
owned all of what is now northeastern Kansas, and maintained
several villages along the Missouri river, the principal one being near
the mouth of Independence creek, or at the present site of Doniphan.
Here they had a large town. The writer made a careful examination
and fully identified the site of this old town in 1904. The results of
this exploration are given in a pamphlet entitled “An Old Kansas
Indian Town on the Missouri,” published by the writer in 1914.
Another important village of the Kansa was located at the mouth of
what is now Salt creek, in Leavenworth county. Both of these historic
villages were situated right near and at about the same distance from
the present borders of Atchison county. There were several old
Indian villages within the confines of Atchison county, as already
stated in the preceding pages, but whether they belonged to the
Kansa or to the Harahey (Pawnee) is yet a matter of conjecture.
One of these old Kansa towns, evidently the one at Salt creek,
was the site of an important French post. Bougainville on French
Posts in 1757, says: “Kanses. In ascending this stream (the Missouri
river) we meet the village of the Kanses. We have there a garrison
with a commandant, appointed as in the case with Pimiteoui and
Fort Chartres, by New Orleans. This post produces one hundred
bundles of furs.” Lewis and Clark, in 1804, noted the ruins of this old
post and Kansa village. They were just outside of the southern
borders of Atchison county, near the present site of Kickapoo.
The Independence creek town, or what is generally referred to
by the early French as “Grand village des Canzes,” seems to have
been a Jesuit Missionary station as early as 1727, according to Hon.
George P. Morehouse, the historian of the Kansa Indians, who
recently found in some old French-Canadian records of the province
of Ontario an interesting fact not before recognized in Kansas
history, that the name “Kansas” was a well known geographical term
to designate a place on the Missouri river, within the present borders
of our State, where the French government and its official church,
nearly 200 years ago, had an important missionary center. Mr.
Morehouse says: “It is significant as to the standing of this Mission
station of the Jesuits at Kanzas, away out in the heart of the
continent, that in this document it was classed along with their other
important Indian Missions, such as the Iroquois, Abenaquis, and
Tadoussac, and that the same amount per missionary was expended.
It was ‘Kansas,’ a mission charge on the rolls of the Jesuit Fathers,
for which annual appropriations of money were made as early as
1727. Here some of the saintly, self-sacrificing missionary pioneers of
the Cross must have come from distant Quebec and Montreal, or
from the faraway cloisters of sunny France. What zeal and sacrifice
for others! Is it any wonder that the Kansa Indians always spoke
reverently of the ‘black robes,’ who were the first to labor for their
welfare in that long period in the wilderness.”
 Just when the Kansa Indians established themselves at the
“Grand Village” at Doniphan, or at “Fort Village” at Kickapoo, is not
known. The first recorded mention of a Kansa village along this
section of the Missouri river is by Bourgmont in 1724. Onate met the
Kansa on a hunting expedition on the prairies of Kansas in 1601, but
does not state where their villages were located. The “Grand Village”
was an old one, however, at the time of Bourgmont’s visit.
Bourgmont does not mention the “Fort Village” at Salt creek, as he
surely would had it been in existence at that time, and it is believed
that it was established later, as it was in existence in 1757, as stated
by Bourgainville.
As is a well known historical fact the Spanish attempted to
invade and colonize the Missouri valley early in the eighteenth
century. The French had come into possession of this region in 1682,
and M. de Bourgmont was commissioned military commander on
the Missouri in 1720, the French government becoming alarmed at
the attempted Spanish invasion. Establishing friendly relations with
the Indians of this region in order to have their assistance in
repelling any further Spanish advance was the object of the
Bourgmont expedition to the Kansa and Padouca Indians in 1724.
Bourgmont’s party, consisting of himself, M. Bellerive, Sieur
Renaudiere, two soldiers and five other Frenchmen, besides 177
Missouri and Osage Indians in charge of their own chiefs, marched
overland from Fort Orleans, on the lower Missouri, and arrived at
the “Grand village des Cansez” on July 7, 1724. Here they held a
celebration of two weeks, consisting of pow-wows, councils, trading
horses or merchandise, and making presents to the Indians, several
boat loads of the latter, in charge of Lieutenant Saint Ange, having
arrived by river route. On July 24 they “put themselves in battle
array on the village height, the drum began to beat, and they
marched away” on their journey to the Padoucas. The incidents of
their march across what is now Atchison county, and other facts
pertaining to this expedition will be found in the chapter on early
explorations in this volume.
According to a tradition handed down from prehistoric times the
Kansa, Osage, Omaha, Ponca and Kwapa were originally one people
and lived along the Wabash and Ohio rivers. In their migrations they
arrived at the mouth of the Ohio where there was a separation. Those
who went down the Mississippi became known as the Kwapa, or
“down stream people,” while those going up were called Omaha, or
“up stream people.” At the mouth of the Missouri another division
took place, the Omaha and Ponka proceeding far up that stream. The
Osage located on the stream which bears their name, and the Kansa
at the mouth of what is now the Kansas river. Later they moved on
up the Missouri and established several villages, the most northern
of which was at Independence Creek. At about the close of the
Revolutionary war they were driven away from the Missouri by the
Iowa and Sauk tribes, and they took up a permanent residence on the
Kansas river, where Major Long’s expedition visited them in 1810.
They continued to make predatory visits to the Missouri, however.
They committed many depredations on traders and explorers
passing up the river and even fired on the United States troops
encamped at Cow Island. It was to prevent the recurrence of such
outrages that Major O’Fallon arranged a council with the Kansa
Nation. This council was held on Cow Island August 24, 1819, under
an arbor built for the occasion. Major O’Fallon made a speech in
which he set forth the cause of complaint which the Kansa had given
by their repeated insults and depredations, giving them notice of the
approach of a military force sufficient to chastise their insolence, and
advising them to seize the present opportunity of averting the
vengeance they deserved, by proper concessions, and by their future
good behavior to conciliate those whose friendship they would have
so much occasion to desire. The replies of the chiefs were simple and
short, expressive of their conviction of the justice of the complaints
against them, and of their acquiescence in the terms of the
reconciliation proposed by the agent.
There were present at this council 161 Kansa Indians, including
chiefs and warriors, and thirteen Osages. It was afterwards learned
that the delegation would have been larger but for a quarrel that
arose among the chiefs after they had started, in regard to
precedence in rank, in consequence of which ten or twelve returned
to the village on the Kansas river. Among those at the council were
Na-he-da-ba, or Long Neck, one of the principal chiefs of the Kansas;
Ka-he-ga-wa-to-ning-ga, or Little Chief, second in rank; Shen-ga-ne-
ga, an ex-principal chief; Wa-ha-che-ra, or Big Knife, a war chief, and
Wam-pa-wa-ra, or White Plume, afterwards a noted chief. Major
O’Fallon had with him the officers of the garrison of Cow Island, or
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