Oxford Resources for IB

Diploma Programme

2 0 2 4 E D I T I O N

S PO R TS , EXERCISE

AND H E A LT H SCIENCE

CO U R S E CO M PA N I O N

John Sproule
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Oxford Resources for IB

Diploma Programme

2 0 2 4 E D I T I O N

S PO R TS , EXERCISE

AND H E A LT H SCIENCE

CO U R S E CO M PA N I O N

John Sproule
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Contents

A.1 Communic ation .............................................. 2 Tony Turner, Olivia Murray,

ydob namuh eht fo noitirtun
dna ygoloisyhp esicrexE

A.1.1 Inter-system communic ation ................................. 3 L aura Sproule & John Sproule

A.1.2 M aintaining homeostasis ....................................22

A.1.3 Transport ..........................................................58

A.2 Hydration and nutrition ................................. 78 D ave S aunders, Jody Phillips,

A.2.1 Water and electrolyte balance .............................79 D an Tao, Julien Baker & John

A.2.2 Fuelling for health and performance ....................92 Sproule

A.2.3 Energy systems ............................................... 126

A.3 Response ................................................... 148 Shaun Phillips, Sean Sproule,

A.3.1 Q ualities of training .......................................... 149 D avid Stensel & John Sproule

A.3.2 Benets to health of being active ....................... 176

A.3.3 F atigue and recovery .......................................206

B.1 Generating movement in the body ................ 252 Georgios M achtsiras, Olivia

B.1.1 Anatomic al position, planes and movement .........253 Murray & John Sproule

B.1.2 Structure and function of connective tissues and joints 269

scinahcemoiB

B.1.3 Muscular function ............................................ 281

B.1.4 Levers in movement and sport ...........................300

B.2 Forces, motion and movement ..................... 308 Georgios M achtsiras, Murray

B.2.1 Newton’s laws of motion ...................................309 Craig & John Sproule

B.2.2 Fluid mechanics ..............................................334

B.2.3 Movement analysis and its applic ations ..............359

B.3 Injury ........................................................ 366 Mark Sanderson, Linda Linton &

B.3.1 C auses of injury ............................................... 367 John Sproule

B.3.2 Interventions related to injury ............................386

C.1 Individual dierences .................................. 398 Alan M acPherson, Amanda

gninra el rotom dna ygolohcysp stropS

C.1.1 Personality .......................................................399 Martindale, Anne MacDonald &

C.1.2 Mental toughness ............................................ 421 John Sproule

C.2 Motor learning ........................................... 444 Howie Carson, Ray Bobrownicki,

C.2.1 Motor learning processes .................................445 Terry McMorris, Shirley Gray,

C.2.2 Attentional control .......................................... 476 Russell Martindale & John Sproule

C.3 Motivation ................................................ 492 Neil Buchanan, Kevin Morgan,

C.3.1 Achievement motivation ...................................493 John Wang & John Sproule

C.3.2 Self-determination ..........................................504

C.3.3 Motivational climate ........................................ 516

C.4 Stress and coping ....................................... 524 Hugh Richards & John Sproule

C.4.1 Arousal and anxiety ..........................................525

C.4.2 Coping ..........................................................548

C.5 Psychologic al skills ..................................... 572 Amanda M artindale, Russell

C.5.1 Goal setting .................................................... 573 M artindale & John Sproule

C.5.2 Imagery .........................................................590

Mathematic al tools........................................... 598 Terry McMorris, Tony Turner &

Inquiry process ................................................ 605 John Sproule

Internal assessment (IA) and practic al work .......... 620 Trevor Hayes, Pat L ac asse &

Preparing for your exams .................................. 628 John Sproule

Glossary ......................................................... 639

Index.............................................................. 644

Answers: www.oxfordsecondary.com/ib-sport-support

iii
 Introduction

The aim of the International Bacc alaureate Sports, exercise and health science (SEHS) syllabus is to

integrate concepts, topic content and the nature of science (NOS), through inquiry. The course is divided

into three themes, each explored through the dual lenses of health and performance, with the syllabus

content organized into topics and subtopics. Students and teachers are encouraged to personalize their

approach to the syllabus according to their circumstances and interests.

Nature of science

The eective pursuit of modern scientic work and its theories depends on the nature of science. Scientists

act as observers, looking for patterns and trends. Patterns lead to a possible explanation, formulated as a

hypothesis, which may be tested through experiments. Measurements c an be qualitative or quantitative,

but it is always important to know the limitations of data. Sometimes the observations in experiments are

unexpected and lead to serendipitous results or new models. Scientists learn to be sceptic al and require

claims to be tested and theories to be supported by evidence. Peer review is an essential tool to verify the

research methods of knowledge claims. The global scientic community is responsible to society for the

consequences of its work and must communic ate ndings to the public honestly and clearly.

From the author

Writing this course companion would not have been possible without a team approach. I gratefully

acknowledge my dedic ated and talented co-authors and colleagues at the University of Edinburgh who

gave graciously of their time for one purpose: to try to provide an excellent resource to our next generation

of IB DP SEHS students. I would like to thank the sta at , and a special thanks to

Alice for her patience and insightful feedback. Also, I am extremely grateful to the expert reviewers who

oered insightful suggestions for improvement. They have contributed generously and with enormous

goodwill in supporting my enthusiasm and interest in the educ ation of IB students globally.

Historically, the value of SEHS in schools has received less recognition than other curricular areas. Fortunately,

this has changed and, backed by research, SEHS now has the same recognition as other subjects. SEHS

is situated in meaningful contexts for teaching and learning to address the needs and challenges of young

people today. The study of SEHS has traditionally been approached from a mono-disciplinary point of

view, but improving performance for those who participate in sports, exercise and health-related activity

is complex. This can comprise many interacting variables, such as physiological tness, psychological

preparedness, functional anatomy and physical development, and perceptual-cognitive-motor skill. This is

one reason why shiing SEHS to an interdisciplinary approach that involves the integration and application

of knowledge from dierent sub-disciplines within SEHS is of great importance pedagogically, and for the

study of SEHS to be relevant in the lives of IB DP students. An interdisciplinary study of SEHS will enable

students to achieve a range of knowledge, skills, and competencies that is much broader than that aorded

by approaches centred only on physical performance and sports.

I dedicate this book to those who have had the greatest impact in my life: my parents, my wife Bee Leng (Maggie),

and our two children of whom we are immensely proud: Sean (a doctor specialising in anaesthetics) and

Laura-Beth (a Geography teacher at Gordonstoun School). Their patience and support are sincerely appreciated.

Hopefully, we continue to take forward Alec Peterson’s vision for the IBO. A message to our IB DP SEHS students:

The greatest glory in living lies not in never falling, but in rising every time we fall.

Nelson M andela

This book, like any course book, isn’t perfect, and I would be most grateful to have feedback (good or bad)

from the people who matter most: you.

John Sproule, Professor of Physic al Educ ation, University of Edinburgh.

iv
Course book denition The IB learner prole

The IB Diploma Programme course books are resource The aim of all IB programmes is to develop

materials designed to support students throughout internationally minded people who work to create

their two-year Diploma Programme course of study a better and more peaceful world. The aim of the

in a particular subject. They will help students gain an programme is to develop this person through ten

understanding of what is expected from the study of learner attributes, as described below.

an IB Diploma Programme subject while presenting

Inquirers: They develop their natural curiosity. They

content in a way that illustrates the purpose and aims of

acquire the skills necessary to conduct inquiry and

the IB. They reect the philosophy and approach of the

research and show independence in learning. They

IB and encourage a deep understanding of each subject

actively enjoy learning and this love of learning will be

by making connections to wider issues and providing

sustained throughout their lives.

opportunities for critic al thinking.

Knowledgeable: They explore concepts, ideas and

The books mirror the IB philosophy of viewing the

issues that have loc al and global signic ance. In so

curriculum in terms of a whole-course approach; the use

doing, they acquire in-depth knowledge and develop

of a wide range of resources, international mindedness,

understanding across a broad and balanced range of

the IB learner prole and the IB Diploma Programme core

disciplines.

requirements, theory of knowledge, the extended essay,

Thinkers: They exercise initiative in applying thinking

and creativity, activity, service (CAS).

skills critic ally and creatively to recognize and approach

E ach book c an be used in conjunction with other

complex problems, and to make reasoned, ethic al

materials and, indeed, students of the IB are required

decisions.

and encouraged to draw conclusions from a variety

Communic ators: They understand and express

of resources. Suggestions for additional and further

ideas and information condently and creatively in

reading are given in each book and suggestions for

more than one language and in a variety of modes of

how to extend research are provided.

communic ation. They work eectively and willingly in

In addition, the course companions provide advice

collaboration with others.

and guidance on the specic course assessment

Principled: They act with integrity and honesty, with

requirements and on ac ademic honesty protocol.

a strong sense of fairness, justice and respect for the

They are distinctive and authoritative without being

dignity of the individual, groups and communities.

prescriptive.

They take responsibility for their own actions and the

IB mission statement consequences that accompany them.

The International Bacc alaureate aims to develop

Open-minded: They understand and appreciate their

inquiring, knowledgeable and c aring young people

own cultures and personal histories, and are open to the

who help to create a better and more peaceful world

perspectives, values and traditions of other individuals

through intercultural understanding and respect.

and communities. They are accustomed to seeking and

evaluating a range of points of view, and are willing to

To this end, the organization works with schools,

grow from the experience.

governments and international organizations to

develop challenging programmes of international

C aring: They show empathy, compassion and respect

educ ation and rigorous assessment.

towards the needs and feelings of others. They have

a personal commitment to service, and to act to make

These programmes encourage students across the

a positive dierence to the lives of others and to the

world to become active, compassionate and lifelong

environment.
learners who understand that other people, with their

dierences, c an also be right.

Risk-takers: They approach unfamiliar situations and

uncertainty with courage and forethought, and have the

v
 independence of spirit to explore new roles, ideas and based resources, CDs and works of art) and providing

strategies. They are brave and articulate in defending full information as to how a reader or viewer of your

their beliefs. work c an nd the same information. A bibliography is

compulsory in the Extended Essay.

Balanced: They understand the importance of

intellectual, physic al and emotional balance to achieve

What constitutes malpractice?

personal well-being for themselves and others.

M alpractice is behaviour that results in, or may result in,

Reective: They give thoughtful consideration to their

you or any student gaining an unfair advantage in one

own learning and experience. They are able to assess

or more assessment components. M alpractice includes

and understand their strengths and limitations in order

plagiarism and collusion.

to support their learning and personal development.

Plagiarism is dened as the representation of the ideas

or work of another person as your own. The following

A note on academic integrity

are some of the ways to avoid plagiarism:

It is of vital importance to acknowledge and

appropriately credit the owners of information when • words and ideas of another person to support one’s

that information is used in your work. Aer all, owners arguments must be acknowledged

of ideas (intellectual property) have property rights.

• passages that are quoted verbatim must

For a piece of work to be authentic, it must be based be enclosed within quotation marks and

on your individual and original ideas with the work of acknowledged

others fully acknowledged. Therefore, all assignments,

• email messages, websites on the internet and any

written or oral, completed for assessment must use your

other electronic media must be treated in the same

own language and expression. Where sources are used

way as books and journals

or referred to, whether in the form of direct quotation

• the sources of all photographs, maps, illustrations,

or paraphrase, such sources must be appropriately

computer programs, data, graphs, audio-visual and

acknowledged.

similar material must be acknowledged if they are

How do I acknowledge the work of others? not your own work

The way that you acknowledge that you have used the
• when referring to works of art, whether music, lm

ideas of other people is through the use of footnotes

dance, theatre arts or visual arts and where the

and bibliographies.
creative use of a part of a work takes place, the

original artist must be acknowledged.

Footnotes (placed at the bottom of a page) or endnotes

(placed at the end of a document) are to be provided

Collusion is dened as supporting malpractice by

when you quote or paraphrase from another document

another student. This includes:

or closely summarize the information provided in

• allowing your work to be copied or submitted for

another document. You do not need to provide a

assessment by another student

footnote for information that is part of a ‘body of

knowledge’. That is, denitions do not need to be • duplic ating work for dierent assessment

footnoted as they are part of the assumed knowledge. components and/or diploma requirements.

Bibliographies should include a formal list of the Other forms of malpractice include any action that

resources that you used in your work. ‘Formal’ means gives you an unfair advantage or aects the results of

that you should use one of the several accepted forms another student. Examples include taking unauthorized

of presentation. This usually involves separating the material into an examination room, misconduct during

resources that you use into dierent c ategories (e.g. an examination and falsifying a CAS record.

books, magazines, newspaper articles, internet-

vi
Take learning online

with Kerboodle

What is Kerboodle? Find out

more and

Kerboodle is a digital learning platform that works alongside your print

sign up for
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a free trial!
international curricula, Kerboodle helps you save time and reinforces student

learning with a range of supportive resources.

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Enable learning anywhere with online and oline access to digital books

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vii
 How to use this book

The aim of this book is to develop conceptual understanding, aid in skills

development, provide opportunities to reect upon your learning and cement

knowledge and understanding through practice.

Feature boxes and sections throughout the book are designed to support these

aims, by signposting content relating to particular ideas and concepts, as well as

opportunities for practice. This is an overview of these features:

Developing conceptual understanding

Guiding questions

At the start of every topic, a guiding question gives a sense of what is

covered in the topic and acts as a prompt for inquiry.

Linking questions

Within each chapter, you will nd examples of linking questions followed by

prompts for consideration. The linking questions help you view the course

content through a dierent lens.

Nature of Science

These illustrate NOS using issues from both modern science and science history,

and show how the ways of doing science have evolved over the centuries. There

is a detailed description of what is meant by NOS and the dierent aspects of

NOS on page iv of this book and in the subject course guide.

TOK

This is an important part of the IB Diploma course. It focuses on critical thinking

and understanding how we arrive at our knowledge of the world. The TOK

features in this book pose questions for you that highlight these issues.
LHA

Content marked as additional higher level is required for HL students only.

viii
Developing skills

ATL Approaches to learning

The approaches to learning (ATL) framework seeks to promote skills that will

support your learning processes in a way that is useful to all of your IB subjects

and in your academic career following your study of the IB. The framework

consists of ve general skill categories: thinking skills, communication skills, social

skills, research skills and self-management skills. Throughout the text, there are

examples of how the SEHS course can support ATL skill development.

Reecting

Summary

Summary sections provide a rec ap of the key learning at the end of each

chapter.

Check your understanding

Use this feature to reect upon the understanding you have developed

throughout the chapter.

Practising

Activity

Throughout each chapter, activities provide opportunities to apply your

learning and deepen your understanding.

Self-study questions

At the end of each chapter, these questions allow you to check your

understanding and reect upon your learning.

Data-based questions

D ata-based questions have been included at the end of each chapter.

These allow you to practise the skills of data presentation, processing and

analysis.

Practice questions

Use these questions to practise answering exam-style questions. M any of

these are past SEHS exam questions.

ix
A .1

Communic ation

How does the body send and receive information

about its internal environment to maintain optimal

functioning conditions?

The endocrine and nervous systems work together to

control all of the physiological processes that support

exercise. This topic begins with a focus on how the

nervous system controls and generates movement,

before progressing to consider the endocrine system,

which helps to control the body’s activities by releasing

hormones. Homeostasis is the interplay of the body’s

regulatory processes to maintain equilibrium in the

body’s internal environment, for example, during

exercise or when adapting to stressful environments

(such as heat, humidity, cold or altitude). The topic

concludes with the cardiovascular and respiratory

systems and their important functions in the body,

such as the transport of oxygen to and the removal of

carbon dioxide from all tissues of the body.

 A.1.1 Inter-system communic ation

Syllabus understandings

A.1.1.1 The nervous system senses both internal and external conditions to

coordinate the responses of the body’s physiologic al systems eectively.

A.1.1.2 The endocrine system, made up of the body's glands and hormones,

regulates all biologic al processes in the body.

Introduction

The nervous system is a complex, highly organized network of billions of

neurons. It inuences all functions within the human body in some way. The

nervous system c arries out a range of tasks, such as producing speech, regulating

internal organs and providing signals that control body movements. Nerves are

the wiring through which electric al impulses are sent to—and received from—

tissues of the body.

The brain acts as a central computer. It integrates incoming information, selects

an appropriate response, and signals for organs and tissues to take action.

Activities of the nervous system c an be grouped into three basic functions.

• Sensory function—detecting internal stimuli, such as an increase in

blood acidity.

• Integrative function—analysing (and storing some) sensory information and

making decisions for responses.

• Motor function—responding to integration decisions; in other words, motor

(or eerent) neurons c arry information from the brain towards the spinal cord

(or from the brain and spinal cord to, for example, muscle bres).

The nervous system allows communic ation, coordination and interaction of the

tissues and systems in the body, as well as between the body and the external

environment.

During exercise and exposure to extreme environments, the body must make

physiologic al adjustments. For example, c ardiovascular and respiratory function

adjust to match the demands placed on body systems as the body transitions

from resting to an active state. For example, the rate of metabolism increases to

provide energy during exercise.

Although the nervous and endocrine systems act together to coordinate

functions of all body systems, their means of control are dierent. The nervous

system acts through nerve impulses to control body activities, whereas the

endocrine system controls body activities by releasing hormones. A hormone

(ancient Greek hormon = to excite or get moving) is a molecule that is released in

one part of the body but regulates the activity of cells in other parts of the body.

The circulating blood delivers hormones to cells throughout the body. Responses

of the endocrine system are oen slower than responses of the nervous system—

some hormones act within seconds, but most take several minutes to c ause

a response. The endocrine and nervous systems work together to control all

3
 Inter-system communic ation

physiologic al processes that support exercise. The eects achieved by activating

the nervous system are generally quicker but briefer (that is, short-lived, loc al

eects), whereas the endocrine system responds more slowly but has broader,

longer-lasting eects.

Structure and functions of the nervous system

The nervous system:

• inuences all functions in the human body

• senses internal and external conditions

• allows communic ation, coordination and interaction:

of tissues within the body (such as muscle and tendon tissue to move limbs)

of systems within the body (such as c ardiovascular and respiratory systems

to supply the muscle tissue with oxygen)

between the body and the external environment

• is divided into two main divisions:

the central nervous system (CNS)

the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

The CNS

The CNS consists of the brain and the spinal cord.

The brain acts as a central computer for both conscious and unconscious nervous

activity. It is responsible for processing and interpreting sensory information, initiating

and coordinating movements, and regulating the body’s physiological functions.

The spinal cord enables information to travel between the brain and the rest of

the body.

The CNS is key in maintaining a relatively stable and constant internal environment

through the processes of homeostasis by responding to changes in the

environment and regulating body functions, such as respiration and heart rate.

You will study homeostasis in more detail in chapter A.1.2.

The PNS

The PNS consists of all the nerves outside of the CNS.

It is divided into sensory (or aerent) nerves and motor (or eerent) nerves.

Sensory nerves inform the CNS about what is going on within the body and

outside the body (for example, “it is hot”). In response to signals coming in from

the sensory division, motor nerves send information from the CNS to tissues,

organs and systems of the body.

The motor nerves of the PNS are further divided into:

• the somatic nervous system, which controls voluntary movements of the

skeletal muscles

• the autonomic nervous system, which regulates involuntary bodily

functions, such as heart rate, digestion and breathing.

4
 Inter-system communic ation

The autonomic nervous system is further divided into:

• the sympathetic nervous system, which activates the “ght-or-ight” response

• the parasympathetic nervous system, which has a major role in c arrying

out processes such as digestion, urination, glandular secretion and

conservation of energy—it is the body’s “housekeeping system”.

Two examples of the eects of sympathetic stimulation are:

• peripheral vasodilation of blood vessels to increase blood ow to active

Key terms
skeletal muscles during exercise

• vasoconstriction in most other tissues (such as liver and kidneys) to divert

Vasodilation The widening of

blood to the active muscles, where it is needed most.

blood vessels (c aused by relaxation

of the smooth muscle in the wall of

The organization of the nervous system is shown in Figure 1.

the blood vessel).

Central nervous system

Vasoconstriction The narrowing

(brain and spinal cord)

of blood vessels (c aused by

contraction of the smooth muscle in

Peripheral nervous system the wall of the blood vessel).

Sensory (afferent) Motor (efferent)

nerves nerves

Autonomic Somatic nervous

nervous system system

Sympathetic Parasympathetic

nervous system nervous system

▲ Figure 1 The organization of the nervous system

The brain and the spinal cord

The brain consists of four major parts: the brain stem, cerebellum, cerebrum

and diencephalon (Figure 2).

Cerebrum

Diencephalon

(containing

hypothalamus

and thalamus)

Brain stem

Cerebellum

Figure 2 The four main regions of the brain: brain

stem, cerebellum, cerebrum and diencephalon

5
 Inter-system communic ation

The brain stem connects the brain and the spinal cord. Nerve messages (sensory

and motor) pass through the brain stem and relay information in both directions

between the brain and the spinal cord.

The cerebellum governs balance and coordinates skilled movements.

The cerebrum is composed of two connected hemispheres that communic ate

with each other. The cerebral cortex is the outermost layer of the cerebrum

(about 2–4 mm thick). The cerebral cortex is the conscious brain, allowing

athletes to think, be aware of sensory stimuli and voluntarily control their

movements.

The diencephalon contains the thalamus (very important for motor control) and

the hypothalamus (control centre for homeostasis).

The hypothalamus is responsible for maintaining homeostasis. This is done by

regulating processes that aect the body’s internal environment, including:

• blood pressure • appetite control and food intake

• heart rate and stroke volume • sleep-wake cycles

• respiration • body temperature.

• digestion, thirst and uid balance

Figure 3 shows the role of the hypothalamus in controlling body temperature.

Increased

blood and internal

37°

temperature

Vasodilation occurs

in skin blood vessels

so more heat is lost

Impulses go to across the skin

hypothalamus

Body
37°

temperature

decreases

Sweat glands

become more

active, increasing

evaporative

heat loss

▲ Figure 3 The role of the hypothalamus in controlling body temperature

The autonomic nervous system

The autonomic nervous system consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic

nervous systems. It controls the body’s involuntary internal functions. Functions

key to sport, exercise and physic al activity include heart rate, blood pressure,

blood distribution and lung function.

Sympathetic nervous system

Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system with its “ght-or-ight” response is

important during sport and exercise. Some of the eects of sympathetic nervous

system stimulation are shown in Table 1.

6
 Inter-system communic ation

▼ Table 1 Some of the eects of sympathetic nervous system stimulation and their

importance during sport and exercise

Target Eect of sympathetic stimulation Importance during sport and exercise

heart ↑ increased heart rate and strength of contraction ↑ increased c ardiac output

↑ dilation of coronary blood vessels ↑ increased blood supply to the heart muscle

blood vessels ↑ dilation of peripheral blood vessels ↑ increased blood ow to active skeletal muscles

↑ vasoconstriction in tissue not essential for ↑ increased blood ow to active muscle

activity

↓ reduced blood ow to, for example, kidneys

circulatory system ↑ increased blood pressure ↑ increased blood ow through muscle

c apillaries

↑ increased ow of venous blood returning to

the heart

lungs ↑ dilation of bronchi and bronchioles in lungs ↑ increased ventilation

↑ increased exchange of O and CO gas

2 2

metabolism ↑ increased metabolic rate ↑ increased ability to meet demands of physic al

activity

brain ↑ increased mental activity ↑ increased concentration on performance

liver ↑ increased glucose from liver to blood ↑ increased availability of energy source

skin ↑ increased sweat gland activity ↑ sweating helps thermoregulation

Parasympathetic nervous system

The parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for regulating the body’s

involuntary functions. This plays an important role in processes such as digestion,

urination and glandular secretion. It contributes to maintaining homeostasis by

promoting rest, relaxation and the conservation of energy. Some of the eects of

the parasympathetic nervous system are shown in Table 2.

▼ Table 2 Some eects of the parasympathetic nervous system on various body targets

Target Parasympathetic eects Importance during

rest and conservation

of energy

heart ↓ decreased rate of contraction ↓ decreased heart rate

of heart muscle

↑ increased vasoconstriction of ↓ decreased blood

coronary blood vessels pressure

lungs ↑ constriction of bronchi and ↓ decreased ventilation

bronchioles in lungs

digestive system ↑ peristalsis ↑ increased digestion

and absorption of

↑ glandular secretion relaxes

nutrients

sphincters

pupils ↑ increased constriction of pupils ↓ decreased light

entering eye

bladder ↑ contraction of bladder ↑ urine removed from

the body

7
 Inter-system communic ation

The role of the nervous system in controlling

heart rate

The he art is the main pump for circulating blood through the c ardiovascular

system. The he art has two atria that act as receiving chambers, and two

pumping chambers (the right and le ventricles). The right atrium contracts and

blood ows to the right ventricle. The right ventricle contracts and pumps the

blood into the lungs for reoxygenation. Aer the blood is oxygenated in the

lungs, the blood ows to the le atrium, which contracts to move the blood

into the le ventricle. The le ventricle contracts and blood is distributed to the

systemic circulation. C ardiac muscle has the unique ability to generate its own

electric al signal, which allows it to contract without any external stimulation.

This is known as intrinsic excitation. The impulse for he art contraction is

initiated in the sinoatrial (SA) node loc ated in the wall of the right atrium. The

electric al impulse generated by the SA node spre ads through both atria and

re aches the atrioventricular (AV) node loc ated in the right atrial wall ne ar the

centre of the he art. The atria contract, and the AV node conducts the electric al

impulse from the atria into the ventricles. From the AV node, the electric al

impulse enters the bundle of His. This is the only site where electric al impulses

c an conduct from the atria to the ventricles. Aer moving along the bundle of

His, the electric al impulse is conducted by Purkinje bres from the apex of the

he art upwards to the ventricles. The ventricles contract, pushing the blood to

the systemic circulation. Refer to chapter A.1.2 for a diagram of the he art.

The heart initiates its own electric al impulse, but both the heart rate and the force

of contraction c an be altered by three extrinsic factors:

• the parasympathetic nervous system

• the sympathetic nervous system

• the endocrine system (hormones).

Within the parasympathetic nervous system, stimulation of the vagus nerve leads

to slower electric al conduction, which c auses a decrease both in heart rate and in

the force of heart muscle contraction.

Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system, which has the opposite eect

of faster electric al conduction, leads to increases in both heart rate and force of

contraction.

As we will see later in this chapter, hormones released by the endocrine system

also stimulate the heart, increasing both heart rate and force of contraction—

similar to the action of the sympathetic nervous system.

How does a sensory stimulus bring about a

motor response?

To be able to participate in sport, exercise and physic al activity, the body’s

sensory and motor systems need to be coordinated. For example, when

someone is taking part in a cross-country running event, how do the muscles in

the legs coordinate to move the weight of the whole body upwards (ight phase

of running) and forwards?

8
 Inter-system communic ation

To coordinate a response, the sensory and motor systems must communic ate

with each other.

Consider the runner in Figure 4:

• a sensory stimulus is received (their foot contacts the ground)

• this information travels along sensory nerves to the CNS

• the CNS selects an appropriate response

• the CNS sends a message along the motor nerves to the skeletal muscles

• a motor response occurs (for example, eccentric contraction in the

quadriceps muscles to control the runner ’s body on impact with the ground,

followed by concentric contraction in the quadriceps muscles to propel the

runner upwards and forwards).

Sensory stimulation travels along sensory nerves to the spinal cord. This c an then

terminate at the spinal cord or travel on up via sensory pathways to dierent parts

of the brain (brain stem, cerebellum, thalamus or the cerebral cortex). Table 3

outlines some examples of how this sensory input is interpreted and linked to

▲ Figure 4

motor response(s).

▼ Table 3 Parts of the CNS and linked motor responses

Part of CNS where Type of motor Example of motor response

the sensory signal response

terminates

spinal cord reex pulling a nger away from a

hot surface

brain stem subconscious postural control (sitting,

standing, moving)

cerebellum coordination contracting muscle groups

to perform the desired

movement

thalamus consciousness distinguishing between

various sensations

cerebral cortex loc ation of sensory knowing where parts of

input from skin, muscles, the body are, relative both

tendons and joints to each other and to our

surroundings

As shown in Table 3, a sensory stimulus c an be received and lead to a motor

response that starts at dierent levels of the CNS. Simple reex movements (for

example, mistakenly touching and immediately pulling a nger away from boiling

water) have their level of control at the spinal cord. However, motor responses

for more complic ated movements—ones that require you to think and make

decisions about complex movement patterns—come from the cerebral cortex

and the cerebellum in the brain.

9
 Inter-system communic ation

For example, the mountain biker in Figure 5 is attempting to quickly (but safely)

navigate their way down a tree-lined, constantly changing route. They must make

appropriate decisions and coordinate postural adjustments to maintain balance,

keep control of their bicycle and avoid crashing into a tree!

Proprioceptors, chemoreceptors and

baroreceptors

Information about sensory stimuli is provided by specialized receptor cells.

Proprioceptors are specialized cells loc ated in muscles, tendons, joints and

the inner ear. They provide information about body position, muscle length

and tension, position and movement of joints, and help maintain balance (and

equilibrium). For example, proprioceptors allow us to monitor:

• where our head and limbs are loc ated and how they are moving without

▲ Figure 5 looking at them

• the degree to which muscles are contracted

• the amount of tension on tendons

• the positions of joints

• the orientation of the head relative to the ground and head position

during movement.

The brain is continually receiving nerve impulses related to the position of

dierent body parts and makes adjustments to ensure coordination. Additionally,

proprioceptors communicate the rate of movement of one body part relative to other

body parts—this allows us to do things without using our eyes, such as walk or put on

socks. Proprioceptive sensations help us decide the correct amount of muscular eort

needed to perform a task, whether it is liing a spoon to eat, performing a “clean and

jerk” Olympic weightliing movement or changing direction while skiing (Figure 6).

Proprioceptors also provide an important stimulus for the quick rise in heart rate

when starting physic al activity. For example, as exercise begins, proprioceptors

monitor the position of limbs, and muscles send an increased frequency of nerve

messages to the c ardiovascular centre in the brain (the part of the nervous system

responsible for regulation of heart rate).

Additionally, chemoreceptors and baroreceptors provide input to the

c ardiovascular centre in the brain. Chemoreceptors monitor chemic al changes

▲ Figure 6

in the blood. Baroreceptors monitor stretching c aused by blood in major arteries

and veins. These factors work together with the intrinsic mechanisms controlling

heart rate (chapter A.1.2).

Chemoreceptors detect chemicals in the mouth (taste), nose (smell) and

body uids. For sports science, the chemoreceptors that monitor the chemical

composition of blood are especially interesting. These are located in dierent parts

of the body including the neck (carotid bodies) and the aorta (aortic bodies).

Chemoreceptors detect changes in levels of oxygen (O ), c arbon dioxide (CO )

2 2

and hydrogen ions (H ) in the blood. Hypoxia (lowered O availability), acidosis

2

(an increase in H concentration) or excess CO stimulate the chemoreceptors

2

to send messages to the brain to do something about this disturbance to

homeostasis. For example, these chemoreceptors provide input to the

respiratory centre in the brainstem, which c an respond by adjusting how quickly

and how deeply we breathe.

10