CPP IMP’s

UNIT I

CH- 1

Q.1] What is OOP’s? Explain basic concepts of OOP’s.

Object-oriented programming (OOP) is a way of thinking about and designing

computer programs. Unlike traditional programming that focuses on functions
and logic, OOP revolves around objects. These objects are self-contained
entities that model real-world things or concepts.

Here's a breakdown of the key concepts in OOP:

Objects: An object is like a blueprint for a data structure. It holds data,

typically called attributes or properties, and the instructions for working with
that data, known as methods or functions. Imagine a car object. It would have
properties like color, make, and model, and methods like accelerate, brake,
and turn.

Classes: A class is a template or blueprint that defines the properties and

methods that objects of a certain kind will have. Going back to the car
example, the car class would define the blueprint for all car objects, specifying
the properties and methods they will share.

Encapsulation: This concept is about bundling data and methods together

within an object and restricting direct access to the data. An object's methods
control how the data can be accessed and modified, protecting the data
integrity and promoting data security.

Inheritance: Inheritance allows you to create new classes (subclasses) that

inherit properties and methods from existing classes (superclasses). This
promotes code reusability and simplifies the creation of related objects. For
instance, a race car class could inherit all the properties and methods from
the car class, and add specific methods like activate turbo boost.

Polymorphism: Polymorphism refers to the ability of objects of different

classes to respond to the same message (method call) in different ways. This
allows for flexible and dynamic programming behavior. For example, a
"makeSound" method might produce a meow for a cat object and a bark for a
dog object.

Q.2] Write benefits of OOP’s.

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP) offers several advantages that make it a

powerful paradigm for software development. Here are some of the key
benefits:
Modularity: OOP breaks down programs into smaller, self-contained units
called objects. These objects encapsulate data (attributes) and the code that
manipulates that data (methods). This modularity makes code easier to:

Understand: By isolating functionalities within objects, the code becomes

more understandable for developers working on different parts of the system.

Maintain: Changes made to an object's internal workings are less likely to

impact other parts of the program, making maintenance easier.

Debug: If there's an issue, you can often isolate it to a specific object,

simplifying debugging efforts.

Reusability: OOP promotes code reuse through inheritance. Inheritance

allows you to create new classes (subclasses) that inherit properties and
behaviors from existing classes (superclasses). This saves time and effort by
avoiding redundant code. Imagine you have a class for Car and need a class
for ElectricCar. Inheritance allows you to reuse the Car code and just add
electric car specific functionalities in the ElectricCar class.

Flexibility: Polymorphism allows objects of different classes to respond to the

same message in different ways. This makes code more flexible and
adaptable. For example, you might have a draw() method for both a Shape
class and a Circle class, but they would draw different shapes.

Maintainability: OOP principles like data hiding (restricting direct access to

an object's data) and encapsulation (bundling data and methods together)
improve code maintainability. Changes made to an object's internal workings
are less likely to impact other parts of the program.

Better problem-solving: By modeling real-world entities as objects, OOP

encourages a more natural way of thinking about problems and designing
solutions. This can lead to more intuitive and well-structured code.

Q.6] Features of C++.

C++ is a powerful and versatile programming language known for its blend of
high-level features and control over low-level resources. Here are some of its
key features:

Object-Oriented Programming (OOP): A core feature of C++. It allows you

to create classes, objects, inheritance, polymorphism, and encapsulation,
promoting code modularity, reusability, and maintainability.

Procedural Programming: C++ also supports procedural programming,

allowing you to structure your code using functions, procedures, and control
flow statements. This provides flexibility for different programming needs.
Strong Typing: C++ is a statically typed language, meaning variable types
are declared upfront and enforced by the compiler. This helps catch errors
early in the development process and improves code reliability.

Rich Standard Library: C++ provides a vast collection of pre-written

functions and classes that you can leverage for common tasks like
input/output, string manipulation, memory management, and more. This saves
development time and promotes code consistency.

Mid-Level Language: C++ sits between high-level languages (like Python)

and low-level languages (like Assembly). It offers a balance between
abstraction and control over system resources.

Q.7] Explain basic structure of C++.

#include <iostream> // Preprocessor directive

// Optional namespace declaration
int main() { // Main function
// Variable declarations with data types
int number;
double decimal;
// Statements and control flow
// ... your program logic here ...
return 0; // Indicate successful program termination
}
// Optional function definitions

The basic structure of a C++ program is built around several key

components:

1. Preprocessor Directives: (Lines starting with #)

These are instructions for the preprocessor, a separate program that runs
before the actual compilation.

Common directives include:

#include: Used to include header files containing function and class definitions
from the C++ standard library or your own custom headers. For
instance, <iostream> is included for basic input/output operations.

2. Functions:

Reusable blocks of code that perform a specific task.

Every C++ program must have a main function, which is the entry point where
program execution begins.
Functions can take arguments (inputs) and return values (outputs).

3. Variables and Data Types:

Variables store data during program execution.

C++ offers various data types to specify the type of data a variable can hold
(e.g., int for integers, double for floating-point numbers, char for single
characters).

4. Statements and Control Flow:

Statements are instructions that the program executes.

Control flow statements determine the order in which statements are executed.
These include:

Conditional statements (e.g., if, else if, switch) for making decisions based on
conditions.

Looping statements (e.g., for, while, do-while) for repeated execution of code
blocks.

5. Comments: (Lines starting with // or /* */)

Explanatory text ignored by the compiler but included for human

understanding of the code.

CH- 2

Q.1] What are basic data types in C++. Explain in brief.

In C++, basic data types are the fundamental building blocks for storing
different kinds of data. They represent the simplest data categories a program
can handle. Here's a breakdown of some common basic data types:

1. Integer Types:

Represent whole numbers (no decimals).

Common examples:

int: Typically 4 bytes, stores integers within a specific range (e.g., -

2147483648 to 2147483647 on a 32-bit system).

short int or short: Often 2 bytes, for smaller integer values.

long int or long: Can be 4 or 8 bytes, for larger integer ranges.

2. Floating-Point Types:

Represent numbers with decimal points.

Examples:

float: Usually 4 bytes, for single-precision decimal numbers.

double: Typically 8 bytes, for double-precision decimal numbers with higher

precision.

3. Character Type:

Represents a single character.

char: Typically 1 byte, stores an ASCII character value.

4. Boolean Type:

Represents logical values.

bool: Often 1 byte, can hold either true or false.

5. Void Type:

Represents the absence of a value.

void: Used in function declarations to indicate the function doesn't return a

value.

Q.2] Short note on variable in C++.

In C++, a variable acts like a named storage location in memory that holds a
value. It allows you to store and manipulate data during program execution.
Here's a quick summary:

1. Declaration: You define a variable by specifying its data type

(e.g., int, double) and giving it a name. This informs the compiler about the
memory to be allocated for the variable.

Example: int age; declares an integer variable named age.

2. Initialization (Optional): You can optionally assign an initial value to the

variable during declaration (e.g., int age = 25;).

3. Data Types: Variables must have a specific data type to determine the kind
of data they can store (integers, floating-point numbers, characters, etc.).
4. Scope: The lifetime and accessibility of a variable depend on its scope
(where it's declared). Variables declared inside a function are local to that
function, while global variables are accessible throughout the program.

5. Modification: The value stored in a variable can be changed throughout

the program using assignment statements (e.g., age = 30;).

Q.3] Difference between local & static variable.

Both local variables and static variables are used in C++, but they have
distinct characteristics regarding their scope, lifetime, and behavior:

A. Local Variables:

1. Scope: Local variables are declared within a function, block, or loop. They
are only accessible within that specific code block.

2. Lifetime: Local variables come into existence when the code block they
are declared in starts executing and cease to exist (memory is deallocated)
when the block execution finishes.

B. Static Variables:

1. Scope: Static variables are also declared within functions or blocks, but
they have a static lifetime.

2. Lifetime: A static variable retains its value between function calls. It's
initialized only once when the program starts and persists throughout the
program's execution.

3. Behavior: Because they retain their values, static variables can be used to
track information across multiple function calls.

Q.7] Difference between implicit & explicit.

A. Implicit:

Automatic: Occurs behind the scenes without the programmer explicitly

writing code for it. The compiler or interpreter handles the action based on the
language's rules.

Examples:

1. Type conversion: In some cases, the compiler might automatically convert

a value from one data type to another (e.g., assigning an integer to a floating-
point variable).
2. Function call argument promotion: Some languages might implicitly
promote arguments to a function to match the expected parameter types.

3. Object member access: Accessing an object's member variable might

involve implicit member lookup by the compiler.

B. Explicit:

Programmer-controlled: Requires the programmer to write specific code to

perform the action. This provides more control and clarity in the code.

Examples:

1. Type casting: You can explicitly cast a value from one data type to another
using casting operators (e.g., int x = (int)floatingPointValue;).

2. Function call argument conversion: You can explicitly convert

arguments before passing them to a function to ensure they match the
expected types.

3. Member function call: You explicitly call a member function of an object

using the dot operator (e.g., object.memberFunction()).

CH- 3

Q.1] What are conditional statements if - if-else - else?

if statement:

Used to execute a block of code if a specified condition is true.

Syntax:
if (condition) {
// code to be executed if the condition is true
}

if-else statement:

Provides an alternative block of code to execute if the condition in

the if statement is false.

Syntax:
if (condition) {
// code to be executed if the condition is true
} else {
// code to be executed if the condition is false
}

else if statement:

Allows you to check multiple conditions sequentially. It's used within

an if statement block to provide an alternative if the original if condition is false.
You can chain multiple else if statements.

Syntax:
if (condition1) {
// code to be executed if condition1 is true
} else if (condition2) {
// code to be executed if condition1 is false and condition2 is true
} else {
// code to be executed if all conditions are false
}

Example:

int number = -5;

if (number > 0) {
std::cout << "The number is positive." << std::endl;
} else if (number < 0) {
std::cout << "The number is negative." << std::endl;
} else {
std::cout << "The number is zero." << std::endl;
}

Q.4] What is For Loop? Draw flowchart of For loop. Explain with

example.

For Loop
A for loop is a powerful control flow statement in C++ that allows you to
execute a block of code repeatedly a predetermined number of times. It's
particularly useful for iterating through collections of data or performing tasks
a specific number of times.

Flowchart:
Explanation:

1. Initialization: An initial value is assigned to a loop counter variable (often

named i, j, or a descriptive name).

2. Condition: The loop continues to execute as long as the specified

condition remains true. This condition typically involves the loop counter
variable.

3. Body: The code block containing the statements you want to repeat is
executed. This is where your core logic resides.

4. Increment/Update: The loop counter variable is incremented or updated

by a specific value (usually +1) to prepare for the next iteration.

5. Condition Check: The condition is checked again. If it's still true, the loop
repeats from step 3. If it's false, the loop exits.

Example:
#include <iostream>
int main() {
for (int i = 1; i <= 5; i++) { // Initialization, condition, increment
std::cout << i << " "; // Body: Print the current value of i
}
std::cout << std::endl;
return 0;
}

Q.5] What is While Loop? Draw flowchart of While loop. Explain with

example.

While Loop

A while loop is another essential control flow statement in C++ that allows you
to execute a block of code repeatedly as long as a specified condition remains
true. Unlike for loops, which iterate a predetermined number of times, while
loops continue executing until the condition becomes false.

Flowchart:
Explanation:

1. Condition: The loop starts by evaluating the condition. If the condition is

true, the loop proceeds; if it's false, the loop exits.

2. Body: If the condition is true, the code block containing the statements you
want to repeat is executed. This is where your core logic resides.

3. Condition Check (Again): After the body executes, the condition is

checked again.

4. Iteration: If the condition remains true, the loop repeats from step 2 (body
execution). If the condition becomes false, the loop exits.

Example:

// C++ Program to print numbers from 1 to 5

#include <iostream>

using namespace std;

int main() {

int i = 1;

// while loop from 1 to 5

while (i <= 5) {

cout << i << " ";

++i;

return 0;

Q.7] What is Array? Explain it’s types with example.

An array in C++ is a fundamental data structure that stores a collection of

elements of the same data type under a single variable name. Each element
in the array has a unique position or index, starting from 0, which allows you
to access and manipulate elements individually.

Arrays are fixed-size in C++. Once declared, you cannot change the size of
the array during program execution.
When declaring an array, you specify the number of elements it can hold
within square brackets [] after the data type and variable name.

Out-of-bounds access (trying to access an element outside the valid index

range) can lead to undefined behavior or program crashes. Be cautious when
working with array indices.

Types of Arrays:

C++ primarily supports one-dimensional and two-dimensional arrays, but you

can technically create arrays with more dimensions using nested arrays. Here
are the common types:

One-dimensional Array:

A simple array that holds elements in a single row, like a list.

Example:

int numbers[5] = {10, 20, 30, 40, 50}; // Declaring and initializing an array

// Accessing elements using index:

std::cout << numbers[2] << std::endl; // Output: 30

Two-dimensional Array (Matrix):

Represents a grid-like structure with rows and columns, storing elements in a

tabular format.

Example:

int matrix[2][3] = {{1, 2, 3}, {4, 5, 6}}; // Declaring and initializing a 2x3 matrix

// Accessing elements using row and column indices:

std::cout << matrix[0][1] << std::endl; // Output: 2 (element at row 0, column 1)

Q.9] Applications of arrays.

Arrays are a versatile data structure with numerous applications in C++

programming. Here are some key areas where they're commonly used:

1. Storing Collections of Similar Data:

Arrays are ideal for storing collections of elements with the same data type.
This can represent various real-world scenarios:
Lists of numbers (e.g., storing student grades, sales figures)

Collections of characters (e.g., representing a string, storing names)

Arrays of objects (e.g., storing information about products, customers)

2. Implementing Matrices and Tables:

Two-dimensional arrays (matrices) are perfect for representing tabular data or

mathematical matrices.

Image processing (storing pixel values)

Game development (representing game boards, maps)

Linear algebra calculations

3. Sorting and Searching Algorithms:

Arrays serve as the foundation for many sorting and searching algorithms in
C++. Common algorithms like:

Bubble sort, selection sort, insertion sort

Linear search, binary search

4. Frequency Counting:

You can use arrays to keep track of how many times a particular value
appears in a dataset. This is useful for:

Character frequency analysis in text processing

Counting occurrences of items in a list

5. Simulating Linear Data Structures:

While C++ offers more advanced data structures like linked lists and vectors,
arrays can be used to simulate simpler linear structures for learning or specific
use cases.

Stack implementation (using a fixed-size array to push and pop elements)

Queue implementation (using a circular array to enqueue and dequeue

elements)
Q.10] Advantages and Disadvantages of array.

Advantages of Arrays in C++

1. Efficient Memory Usage: Arrays store elements contiguously in memory,

making access and retrieval of individual elements faster compared to data
structures like linked lists where elements might be scattered in memory. This
can be particularly beneficial for large datasets.

2. Random Access: You can directly access any element in an array using
its index, allowing for efficient retrieval and modification of elements at specific
positions. This is a significant advantage for scenarios where you need to
frequently access elements by their order.

3. Simplicity: Arrays are a fundamental data structure with a straightforward

concept. They are relatively easy to learn and understand, making them a
good starting point for programmers new to data structures.

4. Cache Locality: Due to contiguous memory allocation, processors can

often fetch multiple array elements in a single cache operation, improving
performance for sequential access patterns.

5. Direct Manipulation: You can directly access and modify individual

elements within an array using their indices, providing fine-grained control
over the data.

Disadvantages of Arrays in C++

1. Fixed Size: Once declared, the size of an array cannot be changed during
program execution. This can be a limitation if you don't know the exact size of
the data you need to store beforehand.

2. Wasting Memory: Arrays might allocate memory for elements even if they
are not used. This can lead to memory waste if the array is sparsely
populated or if the data size is dynamic.

3. Out-of-Bounds Access: If you try to access an element outside the valid

index range of the array (0 to size-1), it can lead to undefined behavior or
program crashes. Careful attention is required to avoid such errors.

4. Limited Functionality: Arrays offer basic functionality for storing and

retrieving elements. For more complex operations like insertion, deletion, or
resizing in the middle of the array, other data structures like linked lists or
vectors might be more suitable.

5. Inefficient Insertion and Deletion: Inserting or deleting elements in the

middle of an array can be complex and time-consuming, as it often involves
shifting other elements to accommodate the change. Linked lists or vectors
might be better suited for frequent insertions and deletions.
Q.11] What is string? Explain the string function.

In C++, a string is not an array of characters in the strictest sense. It's a

sequence of characters treated as a single unit, typically terminated by a null
character (\0) to indicate the end of the string. However, strings share some
similarities with character arrays.

Representation: Strings are typically stored as character arrays, but they

behave differently with built-in string functions.

Null Terminator: The null character (\0) marks the end of the string and is not
considered part of the actual string content.

String Literals: Strings can be defined using double quotes (") or single
quotes ('). The characters within the quotes, excluding the null terminator,
form the string content.

Example: std::string greeting = "Hello, world!";

String Functions

C++ provides a rich set of functions in the <string> header file for
manipulating strings. Here are some common ones:

std::string::length(): Returns the length of the string (excluding the null

terminator).

Example: int stringLength = greeting.length();

std::string::empty(): Checks if the string is empty (has a length of 0).

Example: if (greeting.empty()) { ... }

std::string::append(str): Appends the content of another string (str) to

the end of the current string.

Example: greeting.append(" How are you?");

std::string::substr(start, length): Extracts a substring from the current

string, starting at a specified index (start) and including a certain
number of characters (length).

Example: std::string subStr = greeting.substr(7, 5); // "world"

std::string::find(str): Searches for the first occurrence of a substring (str)

within the current string and returns its starting index.
Returns std::string::npos (a special value) if not found.

Example: int index = greeting.find("world"); // 7

std::string::compare(str): Compares the current string with another
string (str) lexicographically (character by character). Returns 0 if equal,
a negative value if the current string is less, and a positive value if it's
greater.

Example: if (greeting.compare("Hello, Mars!") < 0) { ... }

CH- 4

Q.3] What is Class Diagram? Explain in brief.

A class diagram is a blueprint used in software engineering to visually

represent the structure and relationships between different parts of a system.
It's like a map that shows the building blocks and how they connect. Here's a
quick breakdown:

Part of UML: Class diagrams are built using the Unified Modeling Language
(UML), a standard way to design software systems.

Focuses on Classes: The main elements it shows are called classes, which
are basically templates for creating objects. Imagine a class as a cookie cutter
shape - it defines the properties (attributes) and functionalities (methods) that
all similar objects will have.

Relationships Matter: Class diagrams don't just show the individual classes,
they also show the connections between them. These connections represent
how the different parts of the system interact with each other.

Q.4] Benefits of Class Diagram or Object Diagram.

Clear Communication: They act as a visual language that everyone involved

in the project can understand, from developers to designers and even non-
technical stakeholders. This promotes better communication and avoids
misunderstandings.

Improved Design: By visualizing the system upfront, you can identify

potential issues early on, like redundant functionalities or missing connections.
This leads to a more efficient and well-organized design.

Reduced Maintenance Time: A class diagram serves as a documented

roadmap of the system's structure. When someone needs to modify the code
later, they can easily refer to the diagram to understand how different parts
interact, saving time and effort.
Efficient Code Generation: Class diagrams can be used for a process called
"forward engineering" where the diagram is used to automatically generate
the code for the system. This can be a big time saver for large projects.

Strong Foundation: Class diagrams are the foundation for creating other
UML diagrams, such as component diagrams and deployment diagrams,
providing a comprehensive overview of the entire system.

Q.5] What is Object Diagram? Explain in brief.

An object diagram is another type of UML diagram that builds on top of class
diagrams. Here's how they relate:

Class Diagram as Blueprint: Imagine a class diagram as a blueprint for a

house. It shows the overall structure, rooms, doors, and windows (classes,
attributes, and methods).

Object Diagram as Snapshot: An object diagram, on the other hand, is like a

snapshot of a particular house built from that blueprint. It shows specific
instances (objects) of the classes, their current state (attribute values), and
the connections between them at that moment.

Here are some key points about object diagrams:

Focuses on Instances: Object diagrams deal with objects, which are actual
running entities created from class templates. Each object has its own unique
set of attribute values.

Relationships Between Objects: Similar to class diagrams, object diagrams

show how objects are linked together. These connections represent how the
objects interact and collaborate to achieve a specific functionality.

Captures a Moment: Unlike class diagrams that depict a general structure,

object diagrams represent a system's state at a specific point in time. This
helps visualize how objects work together during program execution.
Q.8] Difference between Data member & Member function.

Q.10] What is a Function? Explain it's types with example.

In programming, a function is a block of code designed to perform a specific

task. It's like a mini-program within a program that promotes code reusability
and modularity. Here's a breakdown:

Reusability: Once a function is defined, you can call it multiple times from
different parts of your code, eliminating the need to write the same code
repeatedly.

Modularity: Functions break down complex programs into smaller,

manageable chunks, making code easier to understand, maintain, and test.

Types of Functions:

There are various ways to categorize functions, but here are some common
types:

Built-in functions: These are functions that come pre-defined with the
programming language you're using. For example, Python has built-in
functions like print() to display output and len() to find the length of a list.

User-defined functions: These are functions that you create yourself to

perform specific tasks in your program. You define the function's name,
parameters (inputs), and the logic it executes.

Functions with parameters: These functions accept values as arguments,

allowing you to customize their behavior each time you call them. The
parameters act like placeholders that you fill with specific data when calling
the function.

Functions with return values: These functions not only perform actions but
also return a value as output. This allows you to use the function's output in
other parts of your code.
Q.11] Explain the scope and visibility of variable in a function.

The scope and visibility of a variable in a function are interrelated concepts

that define where and how you can use that variable within your code.

Scope:

Refers to the part of your program where a variable is accessible.

Imagine it as the area of authority for a variable name.

A variable can only be used within its scope.

Visibility:

Determines whether a variable within its scope can be directly referenced or

used.

Think of it as seeing a variable within its designated area.

Even if a variable is in scope, it might not be visible due to specific

programming rules.

Here's a breakdown of how scope and visibility work together in functions:

Local Variables:

These variables are declared inside a function.

Their scope is limited to the function body (everything between the curly
braces {}).

They are only visible within the function and cannot be accessed from outside
the function.

Global Variables:

These variables are declared outside of all functions, usually at the beginning
of the program.

Their scope is global, meaning they can be accessed from anywhere in the
program, including inside functions.

However, their global access can lead to naming conflicts and make code
harder to maintain, so it's generally recommended to use local variables
whenever possible.
Q.12] Short note on Global variable with examples.

int global_count = 0; // Global variable

void increment_count() {

global_count++;

void print_count() {

std::cout << "Global count: " << global_count << std::endl;

int main() {

increment_count();

print_count();

return 0;

CH- 5

Q.1] Difference between Abstraction & Encapsulation.

Q.2] Explain the Abstraction method in C++ with example.

In C++, there isn't a concept specifically called an "abstraction method."

Abstraction is achieved through a combination of techniques, primarily using:
Abstract Classes: These are classes that cannot be directly instantiated
(creating objects). They act as blueprints that define the interface (functions)
subclasses must inherit and potentially implement. Abstract classes often
contain at least one pure virtual function, which has no definition in the base
class and forces subclasses to provide their own implementation.

Interfaces: C++ doesn't have built-in interfaces like some other languages,
but you can mimic similar behavior using abstract classes with pure virtual
functions. These functions define the operations a class must support without
specifying how they are implemented.

Example:

#include <iostream>

class Shape {

public:

// Pure virtual function - subclass must define its implementation

virtual double getArea() const = 0;

};

class Square : public Shape {

public:

double side;

Square(double s) : side(s) {}

double getArea() const override {

return side * side;

};

int main() {

// You cannot create an object of the abstract class 'Shape'

// Shape s; // This will cause an error

Square sq(5.0);

std::cout << "Area of square: " << sq.getArea() << std::endl;

 return 0;

Q.3] Explain the Encapsulation method in C++ with example.

Encapsulation in C++ is achieved primarily through access specifiers, which

control the visibility and access of data members (member variables) and
member functions (methods) within a class. Here's a breakdown:

Access Specifiers:

Public: Members declared as public are accessible from anywhere in the

program, including outside the class.

Private: Members declared as private are only accessible within the class
itself. This is the default access specifier for members if none is explicitly
mentioned.

Protected: Members declared as protected are accessible within the class

itself and by subclasses that inherit from the class.

Example:

class PiggyBank {

private:

int amount; // Secret! How much money is inside (private data

member)

public:

void addMoney(int money) { // Hole to put money in (public setter)

amount += money;

int getBalance() const { // Hole to see how much is there (public

getter)

return amount;

};
int main() {

PiggyBank myBank;

myBank.addMoney(10); // Put money in through the hole

int balance = myBank.getBalance(); // Look through the hole to see

balance

std::cout << "Balance: " << balance << std::endl;

// You can't directly access the amount variable because it's private!

// myBank.amount = 100; // This would cause an error

UNIT II

CH- 6

Q.1] What is constructor? Explain it's types. Explain with example.

In C++, a constructor is a special member function that is automatically called

whenever an object of a class is created. It's essentially a blueprint for
initializing the object's data members (attributes) with starting values or
performing any necessary setup tasks when the object comes into existence.

Here are some key characteristics of constructors:

Same name as the class: The constructor shares the same name as the
class it belongs to.

No return type: Constructors don't specify a return type (not even void). They
are responsible for initializing the object internally.

Automatic invocation: The constructor is invoked automatically whenever

you create an object using the new operator or during object declaration.

Benefits of using constructors:

Proper initialization: Ensures objects are initialized with appropriate values

right from the start, preventing potential issues with uninitialized data.

Custom object setup: Allows you to perform any custom actions needed
during object creation, such as allocating memory or validating initial values.
Example:

class Point {
public:
int x;
int y;
// Default constructor (no arguments)
Point() {
x = 0;
y = 0;
}
// Constructor with arguments to initialize x and y
Point(int xVal, int yVal) {
x = xVal;
y = yVal;
}
};
int main() {
// Default constructor is called, initializing x and y to 0
Point point1;
// Constructor with arguments is called, initializing x to 5 and y to 3
Point point2(5, 3);
return 0;
}

Q.5] Explain the destructor with code.

In C++, a destructor is a special member function that is automatically called

when an object goes out of scope or is explicitly deleted using the delete
operator. It's responsible for cleaning up any resources that the object has
allocated, such as memory or file handles.

Here's a breakdown of destructors with code:

Syntax:

class MyClass {
public:
// Constructor (optional)
 MyClass() {
// Allocate resources here (if needed)
}

~MyClass() {
// Destructor: Deallocate resources here
}

// Other member functions

};

Explanation:

The destructor has the same name as the class, but prefixed with a tilde (~).

It cannot have any return type or parameters.

There can only be one destructor per class.

Purpose:

Destructors are crucial for preventing memory leaks and ensuring proper
resource management in your programs.

They help avoid dangling pointers (pointers that point to deallocated memory)
and other potential issues.

CH- 8

Q.1] Explain the accessor - mutator method in C++.

In C++, accessor and mutator methods are a fundamental concept for object-
oriented programming. They provide a controlled way to interact with the
private data members of a class, ensuring data encapsulation and promoting
code maintainability.

Accessor Methods (Getters):

Also known as getters.

Purpose: Allow controlled access to the values of private data members within
an object.

They typically:

Have a public return type (often the same as the data member type).
Do not take any arguments (or may take arguments to specify which data
member to access).

Return the value of the requested data member.

Mutator Methods (Setters):

Also known as setters.

Purpose: Allow controlled modification of the values of private data members

within an object.

They typically:

Have a void return type (as they don't directly return a value).

Take one or more arguments corresponding to the data members to be

modified.

Update the values of the specified data members within the object.

Q.2] Difference between static data & static function.

Q.4] What is Polymorphism? Explain it's types.

Polymorphism, a cornerstone of object-oriented programming (OOP), allows

objects of different classes to respond differently to the same message
(function call or operator). It promotes code flexibility and reusability.

Compile-Time Polymorphism (Function Overloading):

Occurs at compile time when the compiler decides which function to call
based on the number and/or types of arguments provided.

Involves functions with the same name but different parameter lists.
The compiler selects the most appropriate function definition based on the
arguments used in the function call.

Runtime Polymorphism (Virtual Functions and Inheritance):

Occurs at runtime when the decision of which function to call is made based
on the actual object type at runtime, even if the function is called through a
base class pointer or reference.

Relies on virtual functions and inheritance.

A virtual function is a member function declared with the virtual keyword in the
base class. Derived classes can override the virtual function to provide their
own implementation.

Q.5] What is function overloading? Explain with code.

Function overloading is a feature in C++ that allows you to define multiple

functions with the same name but different parameter lists. The compiler
selects the appropriate function to call based on the number and/or types of
arguments provided during the function call.

Only the parameter list (number and/or types of arguments) differentiates

overloaded functions. The return type can be the same or different.

Function overloading cannot be achieved by simply changing the return type.

You can overload functions with different numbers of arguments as well

(e.g., print(int) and print(std::string)).

Example:

#include <iostream>
// Function to add two integers
int add(int a, int b) {
return a + b;
}
// Function overloaded to add two doubles
double add(double a, double b) {
return a + b;
}
int main() {
int num1 = 5, num2 = 3;
double dec1 = 2.5, dec2 = 1.7;
std::cout << num1 << " + " << num2 << " = " << add(num1, num2) <<
std::endl;
std::cout << dec1 << " + " << dec2 << " = " << add(dec1, dec2) << std::endl;
return 0;
}

Q.6] What is operator overloading? Explain with code.

In C++, operator overloading allows you to redefine the behavior of standard

operators (like +, -, *, /) for user-defined data types (classes and structs).

This enables you to use these operators in a natural way with your custom
objects, making your code more intuitive and readable.

Operator overloading is achieved by defining member functions or friend

functions of the class that take appropriate arguments and have the desired
operator symbol as part of the function name (e.g., operator+, operator*).

You can overload most arithmetic operators ( +, -, *, / ), comparison operators

( ==, !=, <, >, <=, >= ), and other operators depending on your class's
functionality.

Be cautious when overloading operators to ensure the behavior is intuitive

and consistent with their standard meanings for built-in types.

UNIT III

CH- 9

Q.1] What is Inheritance? Explain it’s types.

Inheritance is a powerful mechanism in object-oriented programming (OOP)

that lets you create new classes (derived classes) based on existing classes
(base classes). It promotes code reusability, reduces redundancy, and helps
organize your code in a hierarchical way. Here's a breakdown of inheritance
and its different types in C++:

Concept of Inheritance:

A derived class inherits the properties (data members) and behaviors

(member functions) from its base class.
The derived class can add its own unique properties and behaviors,
specializing the functionality inherited from the base class.

This creates a parent-child relationship between classes, where the base

class is the parent and the derived class is the child.

1. Single Inheritance:

The most common and straightforward type.

A derived class inherits from one base class.

2. Multilevel Inheritance:

A derived class inherits from another derived class, which in turn inherits from
a base class.

Creates a chain of inheritance where a class inherits from multiple parent

classes indirectly.

3. Multiple Inheritance:

A derived class inherits from multiple base classes directly.

Can be more complex to manage due to potential ambiguity (the "diamond

problem") if base classes have the same member names.

4. Hierarchical Inheritance:

Multiple derived classes inherit from a single base class.

Useful for modeling class hierarchies where derived classes share some
common functionality from the base class but specialize in their own ways.

Q.4] Advantages and Disadvantages of Inheritance.

Advantages:

Code Reusability: Inheritance allows you to reuse existing code from the
base class in derived classes. This saves development time and effort, as you
don't need to rewrite common functionalities.

Maintainability: Changes made to the base class propagate to all derived

classes that inherit from it. This simplifies maintenance, as you only need to
update the base class to reflect changes in core functionality.
Extensibility: Derived classes can extend the functionality of the base class
by adding new features or overriding existing behaviors. This promotes
flexibility and allows you to create specialized classes for specific purposes.

Code Organization: Inheritance helps organize code in a hierarchical

manner, reflecting real-world relationships between concepts. This improves
code readability and understandability.

Disadvantages:

Tight Coupling: Inheritance creates tight coupling between base and derived
classes. Changes in the base class might require modifications in derived
classes, potentially causing ripple effects throughout the codebase.

Complexity: With multiple levels of inheritance, the code can become

complex and difficult to understand, especially for someone new to the
codebase.

The "Diamond Problem" (Multiple Inheritance): When a class inherits from

multiple base classes that share a common base class, ambiguity can arise if
both base classes have the same member name. This requires careful
handling with virtual functions and understanding resolution techniques.

Increased Potential for Errors: Improper use of inheritance can lead to

errors like accidentally hiding base class members or introducing unintended
behavior through virtual function overrides.

Q.5] Applications of Inheritance.

1. Modeling Class Hierarchies:

Inheritance excels at representing real-world entities with inherent hierarchical

structures. You can create a base class to capture common properties and
behaviors, then derive specialized classes for more specific types.

2. Promoting Code Reusability and Maintainability:

Inheritance allows you to encapsulate common functionalities within a base

class. Derived classes can inherit these functionalities, eliminating the need
for redundant code. This promotes reusability and simplifies maintenance.
Changes made to the base class automatically propagate to derived classes,
reducing the effort required to keep the codebase consistent.

3. Extending Functionality through Specialization:

Inheritance enables you to create derived classes that inherit core

functionalities from a base class and add specialized behaviors. This
promotes code organization and reduces complexity.
4. Enabling Polymorphism:

Inheritance plays a crucial role in achieving polymorphism, a fundamental

concept in OOP. Polymorphism allows objects of different derived classes to
respond differently to the same message (function call) at runtime. This
enhances flexibility and makes your code more adaptable to various
scenarios. Virtual functions are often employed in conjunction with inheritance
to implement polymorphism effectively.

Q.6] Features of Inheritance.

Inheritance in C++ offers several key features for building object-oriented

programs:

Base & Derived Classes: Base classes provide a blueprint for derived
classes, which inherit members and can add specializations.

Inheritance Access Specifiers: Public, private, and protected inheritance

control member visibility in derived classes.

Member Inheritance: Derived classes inherit non-static members (data and

functions) from the base class.

Virtual Functions & Polymorphism: Virtual functions enable runtime

polymorphism, allowing derived classes to provide unique responses to the
same function call.

Overriding & Hiding: Derived classes can override virtual functions to

specialize behavior and hide inherited non-virtual functions with the same
name.
Mix

4 draw

flowchart for switch case

if -if-else- else-if flowchart

4 code imgs