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WHAT IS STATISTICS?
a branch of applied mathematics which deals with the collection,
organization, presentation, analysis, and interpretation of data.

a set of individual numbers or numerical facts, or to general or specific

statistical techniques

Statisticians
develop and apply appropriate methods in collecting and analyzing data.

They guide the design of a research study then analyze the results.

interpretation of the results

the basis of the statisticians in making inferences about the population.

a. Data gathering or Collection.

may be done through interview, questionnaires, tests, observation,
registration, and experiments.

b. Presentation of Data.
refers to the organization of data into tables, graphs, charts, or paragraphs.
It may be tabular, graphical, or textual.

c. Analysis of Data.
pertains to the process of extracting from the given data relevant and
noteworthy information and this uses statistical tools or techniques.

d. Interpretation of Data.
refers to the drawing of conclusions or inferences from the analyzed data.

TYPES OF STATISTICS
DESCRIPTIVE (1) simply describing the characteristics of a set of data

INFERENTIAL (2) proceeding from data characteristics to making generalizations, estimates,

forecasts, or judgments based on the data.

Descriptive Statistics.
relates to the gathering, classification and presentation of data and the
collection of summarizing values to describe group characteristics of
data.

The most used summarizing values to describe group characteristics of

data are percentage, measures of central tendency and location,
measures of variability, skewness, and kurtosis.

used only to summarize or describe data.

EXAMPLE — the figure “35%” is a descriptive statistic.

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 Inferential Statistics.
pertains to the methods dealing with making inference, estimates or
prediction about large set of data using the information gathered.

commonly used tools or techniques are testing hypothesis using z-test,

t-text, simple linear correlation, analysis of variance (ANOVA), chi-
squares, regression, and time series analysis.

EXAMPLE — researchers found that only half routinely wore the

PPEs when dealing with patients.

draws conclusions about a population based on data observed in a

sample.

WHY DATA ARE NEEDED

No matter the industry you belong to or what hobbies you have, you've
likely encountered discussions about how “data” is transforming our world.
It may involve research aimed at curing illnesses, increasing a company’s
profits, enhancing a building's efficiency, or contributing to those targeted
advertisements that appear frequently. Data is a crucial and essential
element in all research endeavors. Although research methods in various
fields may differ, every study relies on data that is analyzed and interpreted
to yield insights. Data serves as the fundamental unit in statistical analysis.
Statistical data such as census figures, demographic variables, health
statistics, and records of traffic incidents are all derived from data.

instances in which data are needed:

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 A market researcher needs to assess product characteristics to
distinguish one product from another.

An operations manager wants to monitor an assembly process on a

regular basis to find out whether it follows generally accepted
accounting principles.

A potential investor wants to determine what firms within what

industries are likely to have accelerated growth in a period of economic
recovery.

A student wants to get data on classmates’ favorite rock groups to

satisfy a curiosity.
Six Main Reasons for Data Collection
Reason for Obtaining Data

1. Data are needed to provide the necessary input to a survey.

2. Data are needed to provide the necessary input to the study.

3. Data are needed to measure performance of an ongoing service or

production process.

4. Data are needed to evaluate conformance to standards.

5. Data are needed to assist in formulating alternative courses of action in

a decision-making process.

6. Data are needed to satisfy our curiosity.

Key Data Collection Sources
1. Data may already be published by governmental,
industrial, or individual sources.
Philippine Statistics Authority is responsible for collecting and compiling
data on economic, social, demographic, political affairs, and general
affairs of the people of the Philippines.

2. An experimental may be designed to obtain the

necessary data.
Strict control is exercised over the treatments.

EXAMPLE — the researcher determines which brands in the study are

most effective in cleaning soiled clothes by actually washing dirty
laundry

3. A survey may be conducted.

no control is exercised over the behavior of the people being surveyed.

They are merely asked questions about their beliefs, attitudes,

behaviors, and other characteristics.

Responses are then edited, coded, and tabulated for analysis.

4. An observational study may be conducted.

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 A researcher observes the behavior directly, usually in its natural
setting.

Most knowledge of animal behavior is developed in this way, as in our

scientific knowledge other fields, such as astronomy and geology, in
which experimentation and surveys are impractical if not impossible.
Two Types of Data Collection Sources
1. Primary Sources.
It is measured and gathered by the researcher that published it. They
are the data collectors.

2. Secondary Sources.
It is republished by another researcher or agency. They are the data
compilers.

TYPES OF VARIABLES AND SCALES OF

MEASUREMENT
TYPES OF VARIABLES
Qualitative Variables.
variables associated with people or objects are qualitative in nature,
including that the person or object belongs to a category.

also referred to as attributes, typically involve

counting how many people or objects fall into each category.

we describe the percentage or the number of persons or objects

falling into each of the possible category.

Quantitative Variables.
Yield numerical responses representing an amount or quantity.
Examples are weight, height, umber of children.

a. Discrete Quantitative Variables — produces numerical responses

that arise from a counting process. EXAMPLE— “number of
children”, the response is one of a finite number of integers (
0,1,2,3,…).

b. Continuous Quantitative Variables — produce numerical

responses that arise from a measuring process. EXAMPLE —Height
(5’4, 157cm, 1.5m)
Weight (130.42 kilos, 210lbs, 432 grams)
Temperature (32.50 C, 1120 F)

SCALES OF MEASUREMENT
Assuming a numerical value to a variable is a process called
measurement.

EXAMPLE — reading of 72.5 degrees Fahrenheit or examine a box of

lightbulbs and find that 3 are broken.

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 When a variable is measured, the result will be in one of the four levels,
or scales of measurement:

Nominal Level.
Classifies data into various distinct categories in which no ordering is
implied.

It is the weakest form of measurement because no attempt can be

made to account for differences within a category or to specify any
ordering or direction across the various categories.

Ordinal Level.
Classifies data into distinct categories in which ordering is implied.
Data are ranked from “bottom to top” or “low to high” manner.

Statements of the kind “greater than” or “less than” may be made.

Interval Level.
It is an ordered scale in which the difference between measurements
is a meaningful quantity that does not involve a true zero point.

Ratio Level.
It is an ordered scale in which the difference between the
measurements involves a true zero point as in height, weight, age, or
salary measurements.

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