16ECT72 - RF AND MICROWAVE ENGINEERING

Unit IV – Microwave Tubes and Measurements

Microwave Measurements

Course Handling Faculty

Ms.S.Thilagavathi
Assistant Professors
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Dr.Mahalingam College of Engineering and Technology
Pollachi-642003
[email protected]

Department of ECE RFME - Unit IV – Microwave Tubes and Measurements

 Course Outcome 4
Explain the operation of Microwave Tubes and
CO4
Measuring Techniques

Learning Outcome 1
Measure the characteristics of Microwave
LO2
devices

Department of ECE RFME - Unit IV – Microwave Tubes and Measurements

MICROWAVE MEASUREMENTS
Transmission line characteristics
➢ Transmission Line- In the microwave frequency region, power is
considered to be in electric and magnetic fields that are guided from
place to place by some physical structure. Any physical structure
that will guide an electromagnetic wave place to place.

➢ Transmission lines are distributed devices. RLCG type models are

commonly used to approximate the distributed behavior of a
transmission line.
RLCG Model for Single Transmission Line

The single transmission

line shown below can be
modeled by a network
consisting of a series
resistance and
inductance with parallel
capacitance and
conductance.
• R Resistive loss of the conductor (transmission line trace).
Determined by the conductance of the metal, width, height, and
length of the conductor.
• L Inductive part of the circuit resulting from the layout of the
conductors.
• C Capacitive part of the circuit resulting from the layout of the
conductors. Determined by the permittivity and thickness of the
board material and the area of the conductor.
• G Shunt loss of the dielectric. Determined by the layout of the
conductors, permittivity, loss tangent and thickness of the board
material.
General Characteristics of Transmission Line
• Propagation delay per unit length (T0) {time/distance} [ps/in] Or
Velocity (v0) {distance/ time} [in/ps]

• Characteristic Impedance (Z0)

• Per-unit-length Capacitance (C0) [pf/in]

• Per-unit-length Inductance (L0) [nf/in]

• Per-unit-length (Series) Resistance (R0) [W/in]

• Per-unit-length (Parallel) Conductance (G0) [S/in]

Transmission Line Equations Propagation
equation

 = ( R + jL)(G + jC ) =  + j

 is the attenuation (loss) factor

 is the phase (velocity) factor
Characteristic Impedance
equation

( R + jL)
Z0 =
(G + jC )
Characteristics of transmission line
A: Terminated in Zo
Zs
Vs
Zo Zo r = Zo - Zo = 0
Zo + Zo

B: Short Circuit
Zs
- Zo
Vs
Zo r= 0 = -1
0- + Zo

C: Open Circuit
Zs  - Zo
Vs R= =1
 + Zo
 The Reflection and Transmission
Losses
• When the resistive load termination is not equal to the
characteristic impedance, part of the power is reflected back and
the remainder is absorbed by the load
• . The amount of voltage reflected back is called voltage reflection
coefficient.

Γ = Vi/Vr The reflection coefficient is also

given by :
where Vi is incident
Γ = (ZL - ZO)/(ZL + ZO)
voltage and vr is reflected
voltage.
VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO
(VSWR)
• A standing wave is • Voltage Standing Wave
formed by the addition Ratio:
of incident and
reflected waves and
has nodal points that VSWR = Vmax/Vmin
remain stationary with
time.
 • The maximum impedance of
the line is given by:
• Zmax = Vmax/Imin
Voltage standing wave
ratio expressed in
• The minimum impedance of
decibels; the line is given by:
SWR (dB) = 20log10VSWR • Zmin = Vmin/Imax

or alternatively:
• Zmin = Zo/VSWR
• Relationship between VSWR and Reflection Coefficient:

VSWR = (1 + | Γ |)/(1 - | Γ |)

Γ = (VSWR – 1)/(VSWR + 1)
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
EQUIPMENTS
TYPES OF MEASUREMENT
➢ Wavemeter s (absorption, transmission or reaction).
➢ Slotted lines.
FREQUENCY-DOMAIN
➢ Spectrum analyzer, frequency sweepers and frequency counters.

➢ Sampling oscilloscope.
DISPLAY OF TIME-DOMAIN
➢ Oscilloscope.

➢ Slotted lines ( direct method or double minimum method)

VSWR
➢ Power meters.

POWER ➢ Detectors with oscilloscopes.

➢ Spectrum analyzers.

WAVELENGTH ➢ Coaxial and waveguide slotted lines

NOISE ➢ Noise meters.
➢ Network analyzer – multifunctional test equipment.
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF INSTRUMENT IN MICROWAVE TESTING

MICROWAVE
SOURCE

POWER VSWR
METER INDICATOR
ISOLATOR

ATTENUATOR WAVEMETER DIRECTIONAL SLOTTED LINE TUNER TERMINATOR

COUPLER
FUNCTION OF EACH BLOCK
MICROWAVE SOURCE – generates microwave source in X-band (8
– 12 GHz);
e.g klystron, magnetron or TWT

ISOLATOR /CIRCULATOR - Allow wave to travel through in one

direction while being attenuated in the other direction or it is used to
eliminate the unwanted generator frequency pulling (changing the
frequency of the generator) due to system mismatch or discontinuity.
(to prevent reflected energy from reaching the source)
➢ ATTENUATOR - Control the amount of power level in a fixed
amount, variable amount or in a series of fixed steps from the from
the microwave source to the wavemeter.
➢ WAVEMETER - Used to select / measure resonant cavity
frequencies by having a plunger move in and out of the cavity thus
causes the the cavity to resonate at different frequencies.
➢ DIRECTIONAL COUPLER - Samples part of the power
travelling through the main waveguide and allows part of its
energy to feed to a secondary output port. Ideally it is used to
separate the incident and reflected wave in a transmission line.
➢ SLOTTED LINE - Used to determine the field strength through
the use of a detector probe that slides along the top of the
waveguide.
• VSWR INDICATOR - Denotes the value of VSWR measured by the
slotted line.

 TUNER - Allows only the desired frequency to appear at the output.

Any harmonic frequencies that appear at the output are reduced to an
acceptable level.

 TERMINATOR - May range from a simple resistive termination to

some sort of deep-space antenna array, active repeater or similar
devices. 3 special cases of transmission line i.e short circuit, open
circuit, match impedance.
FREQUENCY MEASUREMENT
• The frequency meter used has a cavity which is coupled to the
waveguide by a small coupling hole which is used to absorb only a tiny
fraction of energy passing along the waveguide.
• Adjusting the micrometer of the Frequency Meter will vary the plunger
into the cavity. This will alters the cavity size and hence the resonance
frequency.
• The readings on the micrometer scales are calibrated against
frequency. As the plunger enters the caviy, its size is reduced and the
frequency increases.
• The wavemeter is adjusted for maximum or minimum power meter readings
depending on whether the cavity is a transmission or absorption type device.
• With the transmission-type device, the power meter will be adjusted for a
maximum. It only allows frequency close to resonance to be transmitted through
them.
• Other frequencies are reflected down the waveguide. The wavemeter acts as a
short circuit for all other frequencies.
• For the absorption-type wavemeter, the power meter will be adjusted for a
minimum. Its absorp power from the line around resonant frequency and act as a
short to other frequencies.
• The absorbing material used is to absorb any unwanted signal that will cause
disturbance to the system.
VSWR ( VOLTAGE STANDING WAVE RATIO ) MEASUREMENT

• Used to determine the degree of mismatch between the source and

load when the value VSWR ≠ 1.
• Can be measured by using a slotted line. Direct Method
Measurement is used for VSWR values upto about 10. Its value can
be read directly using a standing wave detector .
• The measurement consists simply of adjusting attenuator to give an
adequate reading, making sure that the frequency is correct and then
using the dc voltmeter to measure the detector output at a maximum
on the slotted section and then at the nearest minimum.
The ratio of the voltage maximum to the minimum gives the
VSWR i.e

VSWR = Vmax / Vmin

ISWR = Imax / Imin

= k (V max)2 / k (V min)2
= ( V max / V min)2
= VSWR2

VSWR = √ ( Imax / Imin ) = √ ISWR

• Methods used depends on the value of VSWR whether it is high or
low. If the load is not exactly matched to the line, standing wave
pattern is produced.

• Reflections can be measured in terms of voltage, current or power.

Measurement using voltage is preffered because it is simplicity.

• When reflection occured, the incident and the reflected waves will
reinforce each other in some places, and in others they will tend to
cancel each other out.
DOUBLE MINIMUM METHOD
MEASUREMENT ( VSWR > 10)
• ‘Double Minimum’ method is usually employed
for VSWR values greater than about 10.

E2MAX d

2E2MIN SWR PATTERN

E2MIN λ/2

d/2
distance along the
line
• The detector output (proportional to field strength squared) is
plotted against position. The probe is moved aling the line to
find the minimum value of signal.

• It is then moved either side to determine 2 positions at which

twice as much detector signal is obtained. The distance d
between these two positions then gives the VSWR according to
the formula :
S = √ 1 + 1/Sin2(πd/λ)
POWER MEASUREMENT
• Power is defined as the quantity of energy dissipated or stored per
unit time.
• Methods of measurement of power depend on the frequency of
operation, levels of power and whether the power is continuous or
pulsed.
• The range of microwave power is divided into three categories :-
i. Low power ( < 10mW @ 0dBm)
ii. Medium power ( from 10 mW - 10 W @ 0 – 40 dBm)
iii. High power ( > 10 W @ 40 dBm)
• The microwave power meter consists of a power sensor, which
converts the microwave power to heat energy.
• The sensors used for power measurements are the Schottky barrier
diode, bolometer and the thermocouple.
SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE
• A zero-biased Schottky Barrier Diode is used as a square-law
detector whose output is proportional to the input power.
• The diode detectors can be used to measure power levels as low
as 70dBm.
BOLOMETERS
• A Bolometer is a power sensor whose resistance changes with
temperature as it absorbs microwave power.
• Are power detectors that operate on thermal principles. Since the
temperature of the resistance is dependent on the signal power absorbed,
the resistance must also be in proportion to the signal power.
• The two most common types of bolometer are, the barretter and the
thermistor. Both are sensitive power detectors and is used to indicate
microwatts of power. They are used with bridge circuits to convert
resistance to power using a meter or other indicating devices.
BOLOMETER
BARETTERS
• Are usually thin pieces of wire such as platinum. They are
mounted as terminating devices in a section of transmission line.
The section of transmission line with the mounting structure is
called a detector mount.
• The increase of temperature of the baretter due to the power
absorbed from the signal in the line causes the temperature of the
device to increase.
• The temperature coefficient of the device causes the resistance to
change in value in proportion to the change in temperature of the
device (positive temperature coefficient i.e the resistance increases
with increasing temperature; R α t).
BARETTER
THERMISTOR
• Are beads of semiconductor material that are mounted
across the line. They have a negative temperature
coefficient i.e the resistance decreases with increasing
temperature; R α 1/ t.

• The impedance of baretters and thermistors must match

that of the transmission so that all power is absorbed by
the device.
Thermistor mount
• Variations in resistance due to thermal-sensing devices must
be converted to a reading on an indicating device such as a
meter. This can be done accurately using a balanced bridge
arrangement as shown below:-

DC VOLTAGE
R1

DETECTORS
• With no power to the detector that contains the sensor element, the sensor-line R1 is
adjusted to zero reading through the meter M1 and the bridge circuit is balanced.

• When signal is applied to the sensor element, causing its temperature to change, the
sensor resistance changes, causing the bridge to become unbalanced.

• Resistor R1 is adjusted to balance meter M1. The change in the reading of meter M2
in the sensor element leg is a direct measure of the microwave power.
THERMOCOUPLES
• Are used as power monitors in the low-to-medium power regions and
are very sensitve.
• Is a thin wire made of two disimilar metals. Hence there will be two
junctions (hot & cold).
• When the temperature at two junctions are different, a voltage is
developed across the thermocouple (i.e across both junctions). This
developed voltage is proportional to the difference between the two
junction temperatures.
• When the temperature at both junctions are the same, the difference
in voltage = 0.
Thermocouple
MICROWAVE CRYSTALS
• Are non-linear detectors that provide current in proportion
to the power. It is limited to making low-power
measurements.
• The current is proportional to the power due to the square-
law characteristic of the crystal. This square-law
characteristic only occurs for small signal levels.
• At larger signal levels the relationship is linear, as with any
diode. Therefore the proportional relationship between
power and current output is only true at power levels below
10mW.
Microwave Crystal
CALORIMETERS
• The calorimeters are the most accurate of all instruments
for measuring high power.
• Calorimeters depend on the complete conversion of the
input electromagnetic energy into heat.
• Direct heating requires the measurement of the heating
effect on the medium, or load, terminating the line.
CALORIMETERS
• Indirect heating requires the measurement of the heating
effect on a medium or body other than the original power-
absorbing material.
• Power measurement with true calorimeter methods is based
solely on temperature, mass, and time.
• Substitution methods use a known, low-frequency power to
produce the same physical effect as an unknown of power
being measured.
• Calorimeters are classified as STATIC (non flow) types and
CIRCULATING (flow) types.
CALORIMETER
References:
❖ Liao, S.Y., “Microwave Devices and Circuits”, Prentice Hall of India,
2006

❖ Annapurna Das and Sisir K Das, “Microwave Engineering”, Tata

McGraw Hill Inc., 2009

❖ David M Pozar, “Microwave Engineering”, 3rd Edition John Wiley

and Sons, Inc., 2005
Department of ECE RFME - Unit IV – Microwave Tubes and Measurements
 THANK YOU…

Department of ECE RFME - Unit IV – Microwave Tubes and Measurements