FUELS

1. INTRUDUCTION: “Fuel is a substance, containing carbon as a main constituent, which

on burning gives large amount of heat, which can be used economically for domestic and
industrial purposes”.
Ex: Wood, coal, kerosene, petrol, diesel, natural gas, producer gas, oil gas etc.
During the combustion process the reactants produce products like CO2, H2O etc. of lower energy. The
energy released during the combustion process is the difference in the energy of the reactants and the
products.
Fuel + O2 Products + Heat
(More energy) (Less Energy)
Classification of fuels
Fuels are classified according to their occurrence as well as their physical state.
1) Natural or primary fuels 2) Artificial or secondary fuels
CHEMICAL FUELS

Primary Fuels Secondary Fuels

(Which are found in nature) (Which are prepared from primary fuels)

Solid Liquid Gaseous Solid Liquid Gaseous

Wood, Petroleum Natural gas Coke, Charcoal Petrol coal gas
Coal, dung Crude Kerosene water gas

Fuels that are found and obtained from nature are natural fuels. E.g: Coal, petroleum etc.
Fuels that are prepared artificially from primary fuels are secondary or artificial fuels.
Eg: Kerosene, producer gas etc.
On the basis of physical state, fuels are classified as solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
2. Characteristics of a good fuel
1. A fuel should possess high calorific value, resulting in large amount of heat per unit mass.
2. It should possess moderate ignition temperature.
3. It should have low moisture content, since high value reduces its heating value.
4. A good fuel should have low content of non-combustible matter and ash.
5. Moderate velocity of combustion is required to prevent loss of heat by radiation.
6. Fuel on burning should not give toxic or poisonous gases like CO, H2S, and SO2 etc.
7. A good fuel should be readily available in bulk at a low cost.
8. The fuel must be easily transported and stored safely.
9. The combustion of a fuel should be easily controllable. The fuel should not undergo spontaneous
combustion without smoke.
Comparison between Solid, Liquid and fuel gases
Solid fuel Liquid fuel Gaseous fuel
1 Combustion is slow Quick combustion Combustion takes place rapidly
2 Transport is sometimes It can easily be It can easily be transported
difficult. transported through pipes. through pipes and containers.
3 Storage is safe There is greater risk in There is the greatest risk
storage. in storing.
4 Calorific value is less. Calorific value is higher. Calorific value is highest.
5 Ash and smoke are produced There is no ash problem but Neither ash nor smoke
and their disposal is a it may produce smoke. are produced.
problem.
6 They cannot be used They can be used in internal They can also be used
in combustion engines as internal combustion engines.
internal combustion engines.
3. Calorific value
.
The heat liberated by fuels on combustion is not same for all fuels. Hence, the efficiency of a
fuel is measured by it’s calorific value. Calorific value is defined as “the total quantity of heat
liberated, when a unit mass (or) volume of the fuel is burnt completely in air or oxygen”.
Units of calorific value:
The unit of calorific value for solid or liquid fuels is cal/g or K.cal/g or B.Th.U/lb. For gaseous fuels it is
K..Cal/ m3 or B.Th.U/ft3.
1. Calorie: It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water through
one degree centigrade.
2. Kilo calorie: The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1000g or one kilogram of
water through one degree centigrade. This is the unit in metric system.
1 Kcal = 1000 cal

3. British Thermal Unit (B.Th.U.) : The amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
pound of water (454g) by one degree fahrenheit. This is the unit in British system.
1 B.Th.U. = 252 cal = 0.252 K.Cal
4. Centigrade Heat Unit (C.H.U.): It is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
one pound of water by one degree centigrade.
1 K.cal = 3.968 B.Th.U = 2.2 C.H.U.
4.1. Higher (or) Gross Calorific Value (HCV or GCV)
It is “the total amount of heat produced, when unit mass or volume of the fuel has been burnt completely
and the products of combustion have been cooled to room temperature”. This value is determined
by bomb calorimeter.
4.1.2. Lower (or) Net Calorific Value (LCV or NCV)
This is “the net heat produced, when a unit mass or volume of the fuel has been burnt completely” and the
products are allowed to escape.

4.2. Bomb calorimeter – Experimental determination of calorific value of a fuel

It is the apparatus used for the determination of calorific values of solid and liquid fuels.

A known mass of the fuel is burnt in an excess supply of oxygen and the quantity of heat is absorbed by
previously weighed water in a copper calorimeter and is measured by method of mixtures.
The apparatus consists of a strong cylindrical stainless steel bomb inside which the fuel sample is placed.
The bomb is an air tight vessel with a heating element connected to a 6V battery. The bomb lid has an
oxygen

inlet valve which extends out of the bomb as outlet. Inside the bomb one of the electrodes has a small
ring attachment to hold a crucible. The sample whose calorific value is to be measured is placed in the
crucible along with a piece of magnesium wire. The terminals of magnesium fuse wire are connected via
the two electrodes to the battery.
The bomb is placed in a copper calorimeter filled with water of known weight. This is protected by an air
jacket and a water jacket to prevent any loss of heat by radiation etc.. The copper calorimeter
whose water equivalent is known, is provided with a Beckmann thermometer and a stirrer. The stirrer
can be electrically operated. The Beckmann’s thermometer can read the temperature difference
accurately.
Experiment: A known mass of the given fuel is taken in to the crucible. The fine magnesium wire
touching the fuel sample is stretched across the electrodes. The bomb lid is tightly screwed and bomb is
filled with oxygen at 25 atmosphere pressure. The bomb is then lowered into the copper
calorimeter, containing a known mass of water. The stirrer is operated and the initial temperature
of the water is noted. The sample is burnt operating the and heat is liberated. Now the maximum
temperature attained after stirring the contents steadily is recorded.
Calculations:
x = Mass of fuel sample taken in crucible.
w = mass of water in the calorimeter.
W = Water equivalent in grams of calorimeter, stirrer, thermometer, bomb etc.
t1 = Initial temperature of water in calorimeter.
t2 = Final temperature of water in calorimeter.
L = Higher calorific value (HCV) in fuel in cal/g

Heat liberated by burning of fuel = x. L

Heat absorbed by water apparatus etc. = (W+w) (t2-t1)
By method of mixtures, heat liberated by the fuel = Heat absorbed by water & apparatus.
Thus x. L = (W+w) (t2-t1)

(HCV of fuel (L) = cal/g or kcal/kg

 4. Analysis of coal
The composition of coal varies from place to place, hence its analysis becomes necessary
for selection of proper coal and fixing the cost. To assess the quality of coal, there are two
types of analyses.
1. Proximate analysis
2. Ultimate analysis
4.1. Proximate analysis: The analysis is proximal and hence the name. It is a
quantitative analysis for the determination of the following parameters.
a) Moisture: About 1g of finely powdered coal is air-dried and weighed in a silica crucible.
The crucible is placed in an electric hot-air-oven, maintained at 105- 110 oC for an hour. The
crucible is then taken out, cooled in a desiccator and weighed for loss in weight, which is reported
as moisture content on percentage basis
.
Loss in weight
Percentageof moisture x 100
Wt.of coalsample
taken
Some percentage of moisture is required to prevent clinkering of coal which prevents free air flow
in to the furnace. But, high percentage of moisture content is undesirable, since it reduces the
calorific value, increases the cost of transport and considerable amount of heat is lost in
evaporation.
b) Volatile matter: The dried sample of coal left in the crucible in (a) is covered with a lid and placed
in a muffle furnace maintained at 9250 200C for 7 minutes. The crucible is cooled in air,

then in desiccator and weighed again. The loss in weight is reported as volatile matter on percentage
basis.
Loss in weight due to removal of volatile matter
Percentageof volatile matter = x

100

Weight of coal sample taken

If this value is high, it causes smoke, long flames and decreases the calorific value. In some cases, the
smoke from volatile matter gives useful by-products.
c) Ash: The residual coal in the crucible in (b) is then heated without lid in a muffle furnace at 700o 50
o
C for half-an-hour. The crucible is then taken out, cooled first in air, then in desiccator and weighed.
Heating, cooling and weighing is repeated, till a constant weight is obtained. The residue is reported
as ash on percentage basis.
 Weight of ash formed
The percentage of ash = x 100

Weight of coal taken

Lower the value of ash content gives better quality of coal. High ash content decreases the calorific
value, favours clinkering and creates problems of disposal of ash.
d) Fixed Carbon: It represents the quantity of carbon in the coal obtained by subtraction of all the
above from 100.
Percentage of fixed carbon = 100 - % of {moisture + volatile matter + ash}
High carbon percentage gives quality coal, increase in its fuel value and is desirable
property.
5. Origin of petroleum
Petroleum (petra = rock, oleum = oil) is a dark green fluorescent mineral oil found well deep in
earth’s crust mainly composed of solid, liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons. There are two main
theories for the origin.
5.1. Carbide theory: This theory is known as inorganic theory of petroleum. According to this theory
the carbides which are formed from a reaction between carbon and metals at high temperature
and pressure, are acted upon by steam to give hydrocarbons.
 Ca + 2C CaC2
Calcium Carbide

3C Al4C3
4 Al +
Aluminium Carbide
CaC2 + H2O Ca (OH)2 + C2H2
Acetylene
Al4C3 + H2O 4 Al(OH)3 + 3CH4
Methane
The unsaturated hydrocarbons which are produced along with the saturated hydrocarbons react
with hydrogen to produce saturated hydrocarbons.
C2 H 2 + H 2 C2H 4 + H2 C2H 6
Acetylene Ethylene Ethane

The unsaturated hydrocarbons also get polymerized in the presence of metals.

Polymerization
3 C2H2 C6H6
Acetylene Benzene
Polymerization
3C2H4 C6H12
Ethylene Hexane
This theory provides us a proof of the inorganic origin of the petroleum, but it does not provide
any satisfactory explanation for the existence of sulphur and nitrogen. The presence of optically
active compounds cannot be visualized on the basis of this theory.

5.2. Engler’s theory: This theory explains the origin of petroleum to be of organic type. According to
this theory, petroleum is generated from animal and vegetable matter (especially aquatic ) under
the influence of high temperature and pressure underneath the crust of earth. The organic theory has been
supported by the geologists because it gives satisfactory explanation for the presence of S and N, optically
active organic compounds, fossils and brine in petroleum deposits. The theory was further supported by
the fact that when the destructive distillation of fish oil and other animal fats under high temperature and
pressure was carried out in laboratory, a petroleum-like liquid containing N, S and optically
active compounds was obtained.
However, the theory fails to account for a) the presence of chlorophyll in the petroleum b) the presence of
coal deposits found near the oil fields and c) the presence of resins in the oil.

The modern theory is an admixture of the two theories proposed above. Due to the pressure
and temperature so developed and radioactivity of various compounds, the bacterial decomposition
resulted in the formation of petroleum. The existence of chlorophyll and resins provide a proof to this
theory.
Composition of petroleum: Crude petroleum obtained from different places has a composition
which varies with in a narrow range. The ultimate analysis shows.
Carbon = 79.5 to 87.1%, Hydrogen = 11.5 to 14.8%
Sulphur = 0.1 to 3.5%, Nitrogen + Oxygen = 0.1 to 0.5%
Metals have been found in the petroleum ash. The most widely occurring metals include silicon, iron,
aluminium, calcium, magnesium, nickel and sodium.
Mining of petroleum: This is done by drilling
holes in the earth’s crust and sinking pipes up to
the oil bearing porous rocks. Oil usually gushes
out itself due to hydrostatic pressure of natural
gas. Alternatively, it may be mechanically
pumped by using either lift pump or air-lift
pump. The later consists of two co-axial pipes,
lowered into the base of oil bed, compressed air
being forced through the outer pipe, where
by crude petroleum comes out through the
inner pipe. The crude oil is conveyed to
refinery by pipelines.

6. Refining of petroleum
The crude oil obtained from the mine is not fit to be marketed. So the crude oil is isolated into various
fractions by fractional distillation and finally converted into the desired products. This process is known as
“refining of crude oil” . The crude is a mixture of solid, liquid and gaseous impurities. It is allowed to
stand undisturbed for some time, when heavy solids settle and gases evaporate. The supernatant liquid is
centrifuged, when solids are removed. The further process involves the following stages.
1. Separation of water (Cottrell’s Process)
2. Removal of harmful sulphur compounds
3. Fractional distillation
6.1. Removal of water (Cottrell’s apparatus): The crude from the oil well is an extremely
stable emulsion of oil and salt water. The process of removal of oil from water consists in allowing the
crude to flow between two highly charged electrodes to destroy the emulsion. The colloidal water
– droplets coalesce to form large drop which separates out from the oil.
6.2. Removal of harmful sulphur compounds: This involves the treatment of crude oil with
copper oxide. The sulphur compounds form insoluble copper sulphide removed by filtration.
 6.3. Fractional distillation: The crude oil is
heated to about 400°C in an iron
retort, where all the volatile constituents
evaporate except the residue asphalt or
coke. The hot vapors are then passed into
a fractionating column, which is a tall
cylindrical tower containing a number of
horizontal steel trays at short distances. Each
tray is provided with a small chimney covered
with a loose bubble cap. As the vapors go up
through the bubble cap, they become
gradually cooler and fractional
condensation takes place at different
heights of the column. Fractions having
higher boiling points condenses first; while
the lower boiling fractions follow
gradually in the stages of the fractionating
column.

The following are the various fractions obtained by the fractionation of crude oil:
S.No Name of the fraction Constituents Temperature
1 Uncondensed gases CH4 – C4H10 0-30 °C
2 Impure gasoline C5H10 – C10H22 30-200 °C
a) Petroleum ether C5H12 – C6H14 Up to 80 °C
b) Gasoline (Petrol) C6H14 – C7H16 80-150 °C
c) Solvent naptha C7H16 – C10H22 150-200 °C
3 Kerosene C11H22 – C16H34 200-300 °C
4 Gas Oil C16H34 – C18H38 Above 300 °C
5 Heavy oil a) Lubricating oil, grease C17H36 – C20H42
b) Paraffin wax C20H42 – C28H58
6 Residue (Asphalt or tar, Petrolem coke) C30 and above

The uncondensed gases are lower hydrocarbons, highly combustible and are used as
domestic fuels. All other products including asphalt etc., are useful in industries and public
purposes. The most important fraction is gasoline, commercially known as petrol is
highly volatile,inflammable secondary liquid fuel with great demand in automobile and
aviation internal combustion engines. It is only available to 20% and is called as straight
run petrol and is insufficient. The rest of 80% to meet the needs is produced by cracking or
from synthesis.
7. Cracking
Cracking may be defined as the process of breaking and converting higher molecular weight long chain
hydrocarbons having high boiling point to lower molecular weight hydrocarbons with low boiling point.
Cracking
C10H22 C5H12 + C5H10
n - decane n - pentane Pentene
The middle and heavy fractions of petroleum distillation products are cracked to get petrol. The petrol
made by cracking has far better characteristics than the ‘straight-run’ petrol, as far as internal
combustion engine is concerned.
There are two methods of cracking in use: i) Thermal cracking ii) Catalytic cracking
7.1. Thermal Cracking
The heavy oils are subjected to high temperature and pressure, when the long chain hydrocarbon
molecules break down to give smaller chain molecules of the paraffins, olefins with a little
hydrogen. This process may be carried out either in ‘liquid-phase’ or in ‘vapor-phase’.
a) Liquid-phase thermal cracking: The heavy oil or gas oil stock is cracked at a suitable temperature of
475-530°C under a pressure of 100kg/cm2. The cracked products are then separated in a
fractionating column. The yield is 50-60% and octane rating of the petrol produced is 65-70.
b) Vapor-phase thermal cracking: The heavy oil is first vaporized and then cracked at about 600-650 °C
and under a low pressure of 10-20kg/cm2. This process is suitable only for those oils, which may
be readily vaporized. It requires less time than the liquid-phase method and petrol obtained from
vapor- phase cracking has better anti-knock properties. However it has poor stability than petrol
from liquid- phase cracking.
7.2. Catalytic cracking
The quality and yield of gasoline produced by cracking can be greatly improved by using a
suitable catalyst like aluminium silicate, Al2SiO5 or alumina, (Al2O3). The catalyst is specific in its
activity.
Advantages:
1. The yield of petrol is higher.
2. The quality of petrol produced is better.
3. The heat required for cracking is derived from the coal embedded in the catalyst. Hence
no external fuel supply is required.
4. A much lower pressure of about 1-5 kg/cm2 is needed in catalytic cracking.
5. The cracking process can easily be controlled, so the desired products can be obtained.
6. The evolution of by –product gases can be minimized, thereby the yield of desired petrol
is increased.
7. The product of cracking contains a higher amount of aromatics and hence the petrol possesses
better anti-knock characteristics.
8. Isomerization to branched-chain compounds (iso-paraffins) occurs, thereby better petrol is
produced.
9. The product contains a very little amount of undesirable S because a major portion of it escapes
out as H2S gas during cracking.
10. The percentage of gum or gum-forming compounds is very low.
11. Catalysts are selective in their action and, therefore, they permit cracking of only the high-boiling
hydrocarbons.
12. In presence of catalyst, cracking is more in naphthenic materials than of paraffinic. So
the products of catalytic cracking are more paraffinic.
13. Decomposition of aromatics removes only the side chains, but none of the ring by itself
is broken.
There are two methods of catalytic cracking . a) fixed bed b) moving bed
a) Fixed-bed catalytic cracking: The block diagram of the process is shown below:

The oil vapors are heated in a pre-heater to cracking temperatures

(420-450°C) and then forced through a catalytic chamber containing artificial clay mixed with zirconium
oxide maintained at 425-450 °C and 1.5 kg/cm2pressure. During their passage through the tower, about
40% of the charge is converted into gasoline and about 2-4% carbon is formed which gets adsorbed on
the catalyst bed. The vapors produced are then passed through a fractionating column, where heavy oil
fractions condense. The vapors are then led through a cooler, where some of the gases are condensed
along with gasoline and uncondensed gases move on. The gasoline containing some dissolved gases is
then sent to a stabilizer, where the dissolved gases are removed and pure gasoline is obtained.
The catalyst, after 8 to 10 hours, stops functioning, due to the deposition of a black layer of
carbon formed during cracking. The catalyst then is re-activated by burning off the deposited carbon.
During the re-activation interval, the vapors are diverted through another catalyst chamber kept as a spare
for use.
b) Moving-bed catalytic cracking: The solid catalyst is very finely powdered, so that it behaves
almost as a fluid, which can be circulated in a gas stream. The vapors of cracking stock (gas oil, heavy
oil, etc.) are mixed with fluidized catalyst and forced up into a large reactor ‘bed’ in which cracking of
the heavier into lighter molecules occurs. Near the top of the reactor, there is a centrifugal
separator (called cyclone separator), which allows the cracked oil vapors alone to pass on to the
fractionating column, but retains all the catalyst powder in the reactor itself. The catalyst powder
gradually becomes heavier, due to coating with carbon and settles down to the bottom, from where it is
forced by an air blast to a regenerator (maintained at 600°C).

In the regenerator, carbon is burnt and the regenerated catalyst then flows through a stand-pipe
for mixing with fresh batch of incoming cracking oil. At the top of the regenerator, there is a
separator, which permits only gases (CO2, etc.) to pass out, but holds back catalyst particles. The catalyst
particles are collected and carbon deposited on their surface is burnt off. The fresh catalyst regenerated is
charged in to the catalyst chamber again.
8.2. Knocking: A mixture of gasoline vapor and air is used as a fuel in an internal combustion engine.
The combustion reaction is initiated by a spark in the cylinder, flame is spread rapidly and
smoothly through the gaseous mixture. The expanding gas drives the piston down the cylinder.
The ratio of the gaseous volume in the cylinder at the end of the suction stroke to the volume at the end of
the compression stroke of the piston is known as “compression ratio”. The efficiency of an internal
combustion engine increases with the increase in the compression ratio which depends on the nature of the
constituents present in the gasoline used. In certain circumstances, the rate of oxidation becomes so large
that the last portion of the fuel – air mixture gets ignited instantaneously, producing an explosive
rattling due to pre-ignition, known as ‘knocking’. The knocking results in the loss of efficiency of the
engine.
The knocking tendency of the hydrocarbons have the following order: straight chain paraffin> branched
chain paraffin (iso paraffins) > olefins >cyclo paraffin (naphthalenes) > aromatics
8.3. Octane Number: The extent of knocking of petrol is measured by octane number. It was found
that n-heptane knocks very badly and hence its anti-knock value has arbitrarily fixed as zero. On
the other hand, iso-octane (2,2,4 – trimethyl pentane), gives very little knocking, so its anti-knocking
value has been given as ‘100’. Thus octane number (or rating) of a gasoline (or any other internal
combustion engine fuel) is the percentage of iso-octane in a mixture of iso-octane and n – heptane, which
matches the fuel under test in knocking characteristics. An ‘80 – octane’ fuel has the same combustion
characteristics as an 80:20mixture of iso-octane and n – heptane. Hence higher the octane number greater
is its anti-
knocking property.

H H H CH3 H CH3 H
H H H H H
H C C C C C H
H C C C C C C C H
H H H H H H H H CH3 H H H
iso-octane
n-heptane (2,2,4 - trimethyl pentane)
(Octane number = 0) (Octane number = 100)
8.4. Improvement of anti-knock characteristics of a fuel: The octane number of fuels can be raised by
the addition of materials such as tetra ethyl lead (C2H5)4Pb or TEL, and diethyl telluride, (C2H5)2Te, etc.
Generally in motor spirit (or motor fuel) about 0.5mL and in aviation fuels, about 1.0 to 1.5mL of TEL per
litreof petrol are added.
TEL is converted into a cloud of finely divided lead oxide particles in the cylinder and these particles
react with any hydrocarbon peroxide molecules formed, thereby slowing down the chain oxidation
reaction and decreasing the chances of any pre-ignition. However, deposit of lead dioxide is harmful to
the engine life as well as causing environmental pollution.
An alternative method of increasing the octane number of petrol is to add high octane compounds like iso-
pentane, iso-octane, ethyl benzene, isopropyl benzene, methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) etc., to the
petrol. MTBE is more preferred, as it contains oxygen in the form of ether group and supplies oxygen
for the combustion of petrol and the extent of peroxy compound formation is reduced. Unleaded petrol is
one where the enhancement of octane rating is accomplished without the addition of lead compounds.
8.5. Diesel engine fuels: In a diesel engine, fuel is exploded not by the spark ignition, but by
the application of high temperature and pressure. Diesel engine fuels consist of longer
chains hydrocarbons than fuels used in internal combustion engine. The main characteristic of this
fuel is that it should ignite easily below compression temperature and there should be a short
induction lag.
The suitability of diesel fuel is determined by its cetane value (or cetane number), which is the
percentage of hexa-decane in a mixture of hexa-decane and 2 – methyl naphthalene, which has the same
ignition characteristics as the diesel fuel in use.
The cetane number of a diesel fuel can be increased by addition of small quantity of certain ‘pre-ignition
dopes’ like ethyl nitrite, isoamyl nitrite, acetone peroxide, etc.,
CH3
CH3 . (CH2)14 . CH3

n-hexa-decane Methyl naphthalene

(Cetane)
Anti - knocking value = 100 Anti - knocking value = 0

Cetane number of a fuel depends on the nature and composition of its hydrocarbon. Ignition quality order
among hydrocarbon constituents of a diesel fuel is as follows:
n-alkanes> naphthalene > alkenes > branched alkanes > aromatics
Hence it can be concluded that a good petrol is a bad diesel and vice – versa.

9. GASEOUS FUELS
The gaseous fuels are most preferred for industrial and domestic fuel needs. It is because:
1. They can be conveyed easily through pipes, eliminating manual labour transportation.
2. They have low ignition temperature, high heat content, low ash content and high calorific values.
3. They can be burnt without heat loss and can be completely combusted without pollution.
4. They burn in slight excess of air supply due to uniform mixing of air and fuel.
However they have the following disadvantages:
1. They require very large tanks for their storage.
2. They are highly inflammable.
3. Their cost is very high when compared to solid and liquid fuels.
9.1. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG): It is a bottled gas or refinery gas obtained as a by –
product, during the cracking of heavy oil from natural gas. It consists of hydrocarbons of such volatility
that they can exist under atmospheric pressure but can be readily liquefied under pressure. The main
constituents are n-butane, iso – butane, butene and propane, with little or no propene and ethane. It is
dehydrated, desulphurized and contains traces of odorous substances (mecaptans) to give warning of gas.
Its calorific value is 27,800 Kcal/m3.
Uses: The largest use of LPG at present is as a domestic fuel, motor fuel and industrial fuel.
Advantages of LPG over other gaseous fuels:
1. It has high efficiency and heating rate. The calorific value is roughly three times more than the
natural gas and seven times than that of coal gas.
2. It is completely combustible without smoke.
3. It can be easily stored and has flexibility to control and portability.
4. It is advantageously used in engines working under high compression ratio.
.
Advantages of LPG over gasoline as motor fuel
1. It is cheaper to gasoline. And highly knock resistant.
2. It gives better manifold distribution and mixes easily with air.
3. It has less contamination and increases the life of an engine.
Disadvantages of LPG over gasoline as motor fuel
1. It has of faint odour, hence its leakage cannot be detected easily.
2. It has to be handled under pressures.
3. Its octane number is quite low and response to blending is very poor.
9.2. NATURAL GAS
It is obtained from the petroleum wells dug in the oil – bearing regions. When it occurs along
with petroleum in oil wells, it is known as “wet gas” and when associated with crude oil, it is called
“dry gas”. The main composition of natural gas is methane (70 - 90%), ethane (5 – 10%), hydrogen (3%),
and the residual gases are CO and CO2 . its calorific value varies from 12,000 to 14,000 kcal/m3.The
major impurities are water, dust, H2S, CO2, N2 and heavier liquefiable hydrocarbons (propane, butane,
butane, etc).
Uses
1. It is an excellent domestic fuel and can be conveyed through very long distances in pipes.
2. It is used in the manufacture of synthetic chemicals by synthetic processes.
3. It is also used a raw material for the manufacture of carbon black.
4. It is used in the manufacture of synthetic proteins (fermentation of methane).
9.3. COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS (CNG)
It is the natural gas compressed to a high pressure of about 1000 atmospheres. A steel cylinder containing
15 kg of CNG contains about 20 m3 of natural gas at 1 atmosphere pressure. It is used as a substitute for
petrol and diesel in automobiles. It causes comparatively less pollution as it does not evolve any gases
containing sulphur and nitrogen. It is also used as a fuel for power generating diesel generators. It is a
preferred fuel over LPG because:
1. It is a much safer fuel, since it ignites at much higher temperature than gasoline and diesel.
2. It is lighter, mixes with air easily and has narrow range of flammability.
3. It does not contaminate with lubricating oils and thus increases the life of internal combustion
engine. It requires more space for storage and has calorific value 900KJ/mole.
4. The operating cost of CNG is much lower compared to gasoline.
5. Combustion of CNG leads to lesser CO emissions than gasoline.