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Subject: GEOINFORMATICS

Unit : Introduction to GIS

Akash Bhutada
COEP

What is GIS

• “Computer system capable of assembling, storing,

manipulating, and displaying geographically referenced
information…”

• “A smart map. A combination of a graphic display and a

database. The map and the database are intimately linked so
when you click on the map, the information about that point
is highlighted on the screen.”

It is described as: “An organized collection of computer hardware, software, geographic data
and personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update, manipulate, analyze, and display
all forms of geographically referenced information”.

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Geographic Information System

The major elements of GIS are geography-the actual location, information- the description
of the location, and the system to integrate and perform the required GIS functions.

i. Geographic: The system is concerned with data relating to geography and geographic
scales of measurement. This is referenced by some coordinate system to locations on the
surface of the earth.

ii. Information: The system allows for the storage and extraction of specific and meaningful
attributes information. These data are connected to some geography and are organized
around a model of the real world. Spatial and non-spatial queries are made possible.

iii. System: An automated system should include an integrated set of procedures for the
input, storage, manipulations and output of geographic information.

Introduction to GIS
Geographic
The term geographic, which implies a spatial component to the
system, are also characterized with two additional crucial
properties
– The reference to geographic space, which means the data are
registered to a geographical coordinate system
– The representation at geographic scale, which means the data are
normally recorded at small scales and may be generalized and
symbolized.

Information System
An information system is established to achieve the objectives of
collecting, storing, analyzing, and presenting information
in a systematic manner

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What does GIS do

Represent the real world by processing data and applying it in map
form

Allows geographic features in real world locations to be digitally

represented so they can be presented in map form and manipulated
to address some problem

GIS stores the locations of geographic features as geometric entities

The geographic features (geometric entities) are linked to a database

Information about various entities can be obtained by selecting them

or various analyses can be run on the entities

What does GIS do

A GIS allows a user to
overlay a series of
layers, each of which
represents some real-
world feature, to
digitally view any given
area.

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Why GIS

• Information can be easily shared between different groups

• Complex information can be presented in a variety of formats

that are easily read by an audience

• Return investment on data; data can be applied for other

purposes

• Improved decision making

Geographic Information System

In the highly dynamic and complex world 'information' has become a critical resource for
effective and efficient management of organization.

Information Technology in its various forms is enabling organizations to churn raw data into
meaningful information for effective decision making.

One such form of Information Technology (IT) is Geographic Information System (GIS).

It is described as: “An organized collection of computer hardware, software,

geographic data and personnel designed to efficiently capture, store, update,
manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of geographically referenced
information”.

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Geographic Information System

GIS includes not only computing capability and data, but also manages the users, and
organizations within which they function and institutional relationships that govern their
management and use of information.

Geographic Information System

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Geographic Information System

GIS is an integrated single platform of three areas viz.

i. the relational database management system to store spatial and non-spatial data

ii. cartographic capabilities to depict, graph and plot geographic information

iii. spatial analytical capabilities to facilitate manipulation and spatial analysis.

Components of GIS

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Components of GIS

There are four components of GIS:

(1) data
(2) hardware
(3) Software
(4) users

The components must be integrated to support the management and analysis of spatial or
mapped data.

Data tends to be at the center of any GIS system, while the computer components of the
system support the data management and analysis.

Computer fundamentals for GIS

Hardware is Computer on which GIS software runs. Some of the
hardware components are: Motherboard, Hard driver, processor,
graphics card, printer and so on. These all component function
together to run a GIS software smoothly.

Next component is GIS software which includes programme required

to drive various functions of GIS, which provide tools to run and edit
spatial information. It uses RDBMS (Relational Database Management
System) to store the data.

Few GIS software list: ArcGIS, ArcView 3.2, QGIS, SAGA GIS.

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Components of GIS

Components of GIS : Data

GIS components are dynamic; there has been rapid change in the computing industry as well
as turnover of personnel involved in GIS projects.

For this reason, GIS developers are often encouraged to adopt a data-centered approach.

Simply stated, a data-centered approach views data as the central resource in the GIS.

Though data may be shared among multiple users and multiple hardware/software
environments, the data is collected and compiled by a person or organization to support the
goal of that user.

The other components provide the support needed to process that data.

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Components of GIS : Data

All data in a GIS are either spatial data or attribute data.

Spatial data tells us where something occurs. Attribute data tells what occurs; it tells us the
nature or characteristics of the spatial data.

Every GIS provides the ability to store and manipulate both the spatial data and the
associated attribute data.

Spatial data includes information pertaining to location of objects of interest, their

distribution and extent, adjacency, proximity and connectivity, verses, attribute data, or
observations about features.

Components of GIS : Users

The final component required for a true GIS is users. The term "user" may refer to any
individual who will use GIS to support project or program goals, or to an entire organization
that will employ GIS in support of its overall mission. GIS users are often envisioned as hands-
on computer processing people. While this is in part true, we choose to define a broader
spectrum of GIS users. One classification scheme classifies users into two groups: system
users and end users.

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Components of GIS : Users

System users are those persons who have actual hands-on use of the GIS hardware and
software. These persons have advanced technical skills in the application of GIS to problem
solving. System users tend to be responsible not only for the day-to-day use of the system,
but also for system maintenance and upkeep. End users are those persons who do not have
actual hands-on use of the system but who do make use of the information products
generated via the GIS. End users do not necessarily have to possess hands-on technical skills.
However, they must be able to communicate effectively and interact with system users in
order to make requests for information products, and must also understand the limitations
and requirements of GIS-based processing.

Functions of GIS

Conceptually, a GIS can be envisioned as a stacked set of map layers, where each layer is
aligned or registered to all other layers.

Typically, each layer will contain a unique geographic theme or data type.

The GIS database stores both the spatial data (where something occurs) and the attribute
data (characteristics of the spatial data) for all of the features shown on each layer.

These themes may include, for example, topography, soils, land-use, cadastral (land
ownership) information, or infrastructure such as roads, Traffic Analysis Zones (TAZ),
pipelines, power lines, or sewer networks.

By sharing mutual geography, all layers in the GIS can be combined or overlaid in any user-
specified combination.

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Conceptualization of GIS

Functions of GIS : Data Compilation

As stated earlier in the chapter: a GIS is a computerized, integrated system used to compile,
store, manipulate, and output mapped data. This section will examine each of these
functions.

1. Data Compilation

Data compilation involves assembling all the spatial and attributes data that are to be stored
in a computerized format within the GIS.
Map data with common projections, scales, and coordinate systems must be pulled together
in order to establish the centralized GIS database.
Data must also be examined for compatibility in terms of content and time of data collection.
Ultimately, the data will be stored in a GIS according to the specific format requirements set
by both the user and the chosen GIS software/hardware environment.

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Functions of GIS : Data Compilation

When all of the common data requirements are set by the GIS user, a "base map" has been
established.

A base map is a set of standard requirements for data.

It provides accurate standards for geographic control, and also defines a model or template
that is used to shape all data into a compatible form.

A base map is not necessarily a map; rather, it is a comprehensive set of standards

established and enacted to ensure quality control for the spatial and attribute data contained
in the GIS.

Functions of GIS : Data Compilation

Once the data are assembled and base map parameters are set; the user must translate the
map and attribute data into computer-compatible form.

This conversion process referred to as "conversion" or "digitizing" converts paper maps into
numerical digits that can be stored in the computer.

Digitizing can be performed using various techniques. Scanning is one technique. Another
technique of digitization uses a tablet and a tracing stylus.
Digitizing simplifies map data into sets of points, lines, or cells that can be stored in the GIS
computer.

Each GIS software package will impose a specific form and design on the way that these sets
of points, lines, and cells are stored as digital map files.

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Functions of GIS : Digitization

Digitization is a simplification process that converts all spatial data to a point (e.g., traffic
intersection), a line (e.g., a transport link), a polygon formed by a closed, complex line [e.g.,
Traffic Analysis Zone (TAZ)], or a grid cell. Digitization reduces all spatial entities to these
simple forms because they are easy to store in the computer. A GIS database cannot readily
recognize features or entities as human map users do. For example, we cannot enter the
entity "TAZ" into a GIS. Rather, we enter the spatial data coordinates for the TAZ's boundary
as a polygon. Later, the attributes of the TAZ will be entered into the GIS database and will be
associated with the polygon.

Functions of GIS : Digitization

Following the digitization of map features, the user completes the compilation phase by
relating all spatial features to their respective attributes, and by cleaning up and correcting
errors introduced as a result of the data conversion process. The end result of compilation is
a set of digital files each accurately representing all of the spatial and attributes data of
interest contained on the original map manuscripts. These digital files contain geographic
coordinates for spatial objects (points, lines, polygons, and cells) that represent mapped
features.

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Functions of GIS : Storage

Once the data have been digitally compiled, digital map files in the GIS are stored on
magnetic or other (e.g., optical) digital media. Again, different GIS software packages will
employ different storage formats. In most cases, however, data storage will be based on a
generic data model that is used to convert map data into a digital form. The two most
common types of data models are raster and vector. Both types are used to simplify the data
shown on a map into a more basic form that can be easily and efficiently stored in the
computer.

Functions of GIS : Storage

Raster Image

The raster approach for storing map data in a GIS is perhaps the most intuitive. Figure 1.8
shows the essential step involved in converting a map to a raster format. First, a gridded
matrix is registered to and overlaid on the original map manuscript. The row and column
coordinates of each cell define location in the grid. To encode the map data for each cell in
the raster format, three pieces of data are recorded: the row coordinate, the column
coordinate, and the attribute. Thus a triplet of data is recorded for each cell in the array,
which is termed a raster. After map data are stored in a raster format, each cell in the raster
corresponds to a location on the map and each cell's location in the raster is identified by
row and column coordinates. By assigning a value to each cell, the corresponding attribute
data for that location are also stored. The end result of this conversion process is a set of
cells, each with a specified location and an attribute value. These data can then be entered
into a computer-compatible file and stored in the GIS database.

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Functions of GIS : Storage

Vector Image

A vector data structure is very different from a raster data model. Whereas the raster data
model uses sets of grid cells to record all data, a vector model stores all spatial data as a
point, line, or polygon. These three types of spatial data are referred to as features, and a
vector GIS can be termed a “feature-based technology”. Figure 1.9 shows an example of a
vector data model. When a vector model represents an entity as a point (e.g., a traffic
intersection or a bus stop location), a single coordinate pair is used to specify its location. A
feature represented as a line (e.g., a road or rail link) uses a linked set of coordinates, and a
feature represented as a polygon, which is an alternative form of a line (e.g., a TAZ), must
have the same beginning and ending point coordinates. In a raster model, a point is a single
cell, a line is a linked set of cells, and a polygon is a group or neighborhood of similarly
encoded cells. For all three types of features stored in a vector GIS, an attribute code is
entered into the GIS files to identify the object. For example, a TAZ would be vectorized
(added to the database as a vector map) as a polygon by storing the linked set of coordinates

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Functions of GIS : Manipulation

Once data are stored in a GIS, many retrieval, analysis, and output options are available to
users. These functions are often available in the form of "toolkits." A toolkit is a set of generic
functions that a GIS user can employ to manipulate and analyze geographic data. Toolkits
provide processing functions such as data retrieval, measuring area and perimeter, overlaying
maps, performing map algebra, and reclassifying map data. A GIS usually includes a basic set
of computer programs or "tools." The functions provided by the toolkit vary with the
software package. Figures 1.10 and Fig 1.11 provides an overview of various tool functions.
Data manipulation tools include coordinate change, projection, and edge matching, which
allow a GIS to reconcile irregularities between map layers or adjacent map sheets called
"tiles." Query and windowing are spatial retrieval tools. Query provides a way to retrieve
user-specified data from the database. Windowing allows the user to select a specified area
from a map displayed on the monitor to examine it in greater detail as shown in Figure 1.10.

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Functions of GIS : Manipulation

Data analysis tools shown in Figure 1.11 include aggregation, classification, measurement,
overlay, buffering, networks, and map algebra. Aggregation helps the user in interpreting the
data, classification allows the user to classify areas within a map, and measurement can be
used to determine the size of any area. The overlay function allows the user to "stack" map
layers on one another. Buffering examines an area that surrounds a feature of interest such
as a point. Network functions examine the movement of objects along an interconnected
pathway (e.g., traffic flow along a map of highway segments). Map algebra utilities allow the
user to specify mathematical relationships between map layers.

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Functions of GIS : Output

The final functional task of a GIS is to generate output; usually a map. GIS-generated maps
are compiled from the many data sets contained in the digital GIS and match exact user
specifications. Map output may employ several color and symbology schemes, and will be
sized and scaled to meet user needs. These output products resemble hand-drafted maps
and fulfill essentially the same purposes. However, it is incorrect to refer to GIS simply as a
mapping system. Although GIS is able to generate high-quality map output, its ability to
perform analysis and management sets it apart from the more limited computer-mapping
packages. Another form of output from a GIS is tabular or reports information. Data
summarized according to user-defined classes or within user-defined areas can readily be
generated in a textual format. This output may also be routed to another computer
application such as a statistical analysis package or a graphing package for subsequent
analysis and display.

Common Terms in GIS

i) Map: Usually a two-dimensional representation of all or part of the earth‟s surface.
ii) Map Projection: The basic system of coordinates used to describe the spatial distribution
of elements in a GIS.
iii) Layer: A logical separation of mapped information according to theme. Many geographical
information systems and CAD/CAM systems allow user to choose and work on a single layer
or any combination of layers at a time.
iv) Mosaic: Process of putting various parts of the study area together, or the result of putting
various parts together.
v) Overlay: A record on a transparent medium to be superimposed on another record.
vi) Thematic map: A map displaying selected kinds of information relating to specific themes,
such as land use, population, vehicle ownership, and so on.
vii) Topology: The way in which geographical elements are linked together and relate to one
another in space. Topological structure essentially maintains the spatial relationships
inherent in the terrain data and that is obvious to the human mind when visually examining a
graphic representation of data.
viii) Network: In general, this term refers to a set of components connected by channels. In
the context of transportation, it normally refers to a network of highways, arterial roads,
public transport, rail etc.

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