Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No.

112

ARTICLES

The Variation of Soil Properties with

Slope Position in Asir Highlands,
Saudi Arabia

Marei Hussain Al-Qahtani

King Khaled University, Abha,
Saudi Arabia

Abstract:
This study demonstrates quantitatively that the soil of southwest
Asir highlands is generally loamy sand, shallow and somewhat rich in
moisture, organic matter, organic carbon, nitrogen and phosphorus,
but lacking in CaCO3, potassium, electrical conductivity and pH,
compared with the north-east of Asir highlands. In the northeast of
the research area, the soil is mostly sandy loam to sand, deep and very
lacking in moisture, organic matter, organic carbon, nitrogen and
phosphorus. Also, this region is affected by salinity. On the vertical
level, deeper soils were found in the lower slopes whereas shallow soil
is found in the middle and upper slopes. Soil moisture, potassium and
electrical conductivity increase down-slope and decrease in the middle
and upper slopes. Soil organic matter, CaCO3 and pH decrease along
the slope units from top to bottom.

Introduction:
Despite the vast area of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (2,200,518
sq. Km), unfortunately there has so far been few studies on its soils,
which has not attracted the interest of specialists, particularly in the
south-west part where the research area is situated. This may be due to
the lack of agricultural planning and the difficulty of carrying out
research in a tough region such as Asir, which is characterized by its
mountains. However, in 1965, the Ministry of Agriculture and Water
in Saudi Arabia initiated a wide plan for water, soil and agriculture

This paper was received in June 2001 and approved for publication in March 2002.

9
potentiality studies. According to this plan, the Kingdom of Saudi
Arabia was divided into eight areas. Each area was assigned to
international engineering consultants to investigate and report on the
natural potentialities of those areas (Al-Jerash, 1968). Unfortunately,
the deficit of soil information is still found because the results of these
investigations were either very weak or so far have not seen the light of
day.
For the above reasons, the purpose of this study is to investigate
and analyse in detail the soil properties of the research area, in terms of
its formation, morphological types and distribution. These investiga-
tions, and the analyses of soil properties depend on data collected from
300 soil samples taken from the research area. To facilitate full
understanding of these investigations and analyses, a brief account of
the present knowledge of the soil of Saudi Arabia, with special
emphasis on the south-western territory, is presented in the following
paragraphs.
According to the United States system (Department of agricul-
ture), studies of soil genesis indicate that the soils of Saudi Arabia
belong to the broad Entisol and Aridisol hierarchies, except for those
with a humid local climate and older soils that had been developed
under different climatic conditions.
In respect to the latter point, Powers et al. (1966), Chapman
(1978), Sharief (1984) and Youssef (1987) indicated that the Arabian
Peninsula was under a humid climate during the Upper Pleistocene (0.3
million years B.P), Early Pleistocene (1.8 million years B.P) and Late
Pliocene (3.3 million years B.P) periods (Moshrif, 1990). In particular,
the Arabian Shield soils were formed then. After these periods, the soils
of Saudi Arabia then underwent a change in climate to reach their
current condition (arid in most parts and semi-arid in the south-
western mountains).

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 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

In terms of soil classification, only two works have been carried

out in this field so far, namely a soil map (Ministry of Agriculture and
Water, 1981) and the general soil map (Ministry of Agriculture and
Water, 1985) of Saudi Arabia. These works, production of which
depended strongly on both general information and field observations,
both confirmed that the soils of Saudi Arabia are Entisols and
Aridisols and mainly undeveloped.
Concerning the soil of the south-western part of Saudi Arabia,
which includes the research area, the studies of soil in this region have
been either general studies, depending on general information and field
observations, or very specialized studies, conducted in a very small part
of this region. Unfortunately, the results of these studies have, without
any reservation, usually been generalized to the whole region and used
to describe the overall soil properties. However, the results of these
studies have varied, and were at times conflicting. Some of them have
described the soil of this region as being shallow and undeveloped. The
following paragraphs are presented as examples of these discrepancies.
Al Souli et al. (1980: 117) said of the soil of the Arabian shield:
"The soils are often shallow, rocky and occur on relatively steep
slopes. They are grayish brown to yellowish red in color. Local areas of
soil are found in creek positions. Foot slopes, terrace and some nearly
level areas have deeper soils which have medium texture (loams and
sandy loams), are fertile and are suitable for cultivation. The
sedimentary limestone, sandstone and shale areas of shield also have
shallow soils and may, in places, be deeply dissected".
Aba-Husayn et al. (1980: 643), presented a mineralogical
description of the soil of the mountains of Asir region as follows:
"Soils developed on stable landscapes at higher elevation, (>2,000
m) have well-developed profiles, a clay loam texture, about 6% organic
material, and near neutral pH. Soils developed on alluvial terraces near

11
wadi banks at lower elevations (>1,500 m) have a deep but less
developed profile, a loamy sand texture, about 1% organic material, and
higher than neutral pH with carbonate minerals. Quartz, feldspars, and
micaceous minerals are the major components of the silt and sand
fractions of the soil. Clay fractions of the soils are composed mainly of
kaolinite, smectite, vermiculite, mica and chlorite minerals. Kaolinite is
the most abundant clay mineral of the soils developed on well drained
highland areas. On the other hand, smectite is the most abundant clay
mineral in the alluvial soils developed on lower terrace area".
In respect to the research area, there have not been many soil
studies and all writings about it have been at the level of general
information. The only work which can be considered a good
contribution in showing some important aspects of classification and
distribution of the main types of soil is the general soil map of the
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia prepared by the Ministry of Agriculture and
Water in 1985.

The Study Area

Asir highlands occupy a unique position in the southwest of Saudi
Arabia. In terms of geographical location, they lie in the zone between
178 20' and 208 45' N latitudes and between 418 40' and 448 17' E
longitudes (Fig. 1). Geologically, they belong to the greater Afro-
Arabian shield which is a part of the Precambrian crystalline plate
(Schmidt et al, 1973). The elevation of the area ranges between 1000 m
and 3130 m above sea level. It contains mountains, escarpments, deep
valleys, rolling land and rocky hills (Abulfatih, 1981). The area is
distinguished by moderate temperature throughout most months of
the year (Mean annual 17.78C, Summer 228C, Winter 12.78C).
Although there is a decrease in temperature in winter (12.78C), it does
not reach freezing point because Asir highlands are influenced by the
warm marine wind. Asir highlands receive high rainfall (332 mm).
These rains are distributed throughout the year peaking in spring and
summer (Al-Shareef, 1976 & 1994 & Al-Qahtani, 1998).

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 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

Figure 1 Geographical and Regional Location of Asir Highlands.

Methods and Procedures

Sixty transects were selected systematically as profile lines along
eastern slopes of Asir highlands (Fig.1). Each transect started from a
specific measured point on the lower slope and crossed the facing slope
to the edge of Asir highlands. The distance between transects was 5 km.
Each transect was subdivided into five slope units from the ridge to the
toe: summit, shoulder, mid-slope, foot-slope, and toe-slope. These
units cover all the physiographic and physiognomic variations of the
region. Selection of these units, which can be seen everywhere,
depended on variation of slope gradient and form, with soil
uniformity. Sample collection sites were established in the centre of
each slope unit on each transect. In other words, this technique was

13
used to measure, investigate and analyse 300 samples of soil in 300
sites. In each sample, soil depth was measured, and soil moisture,
texture, organic matter, organic carbon, total calcium carbonate,
nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, pH of soil and electrical conductiv-
ity were analysed. This technique has proven to be sufficient and
effective in previous investigations of soil, such as Al-Arifi (1992),
Martz (1992), Derose et al. (1993), Makhnach (1994), Simanton et al.
(1994) And Al-Qahtani (2001). Procedures suggested by Tarzi (1984)
were applied in collecting and preparing soil samples, which were
analysed according to the procedures that were suggested by soil
survey staff (1992), and are applied at the soil laboratories of King
Saud University and the National Agriculture and Water Research
Centre, Saudi Arabia.

Results and Discussion

Soil is an environmental milieu involving the interaction of
physical, chemical and biological processes. This complex interaction
causes all soil properties to be associated with each other, whether
directly or indirectly, to comprise a fully integral system of soil
conditions. From this point of view, it is very natural to find out that
some soil properties are in fact distinctive features and can be used as
important differentiating criteria, while others seem to be of little
pedological significance but are important in relation to crop
production. Selection of these properties is based on their important
role in the formation and production of soil, as well as their direct
relationship with environmental factors, such as slope factors. The
following sections will therefore focus only on those morphological,
physical and chemical properties that are most commonly encountered
in the context of soil-environmental study. The morphological and
physical properties comprise soil depth (thickness), moisture, texture
(sand, silt and clay) and organic matter. The chemical properties

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 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

comprise organic carbon, total calcium carbonate, nitrogen, phos-

phorus, potassium, pH of soil and electrical conductivity. Analysis of
each soil property will start first by examining the summary soil data in
the whole research area, as these are fundamental to an understanding
of soil properties. Secondly, because the research area includes two
regions, a mountainous region and a plateau, which differ greatly in
terms of elevation, morphology, climate and vegetation cover, the
diversity of soil properties between these regions and also between
slope units (toe-slope, foot-slope, mid-slope, shoulder-slope and top-
slope) is examined in the following paragraphs.

Soil Depth
Perhaps it is questionable whether soil depth or thickness of soil
should be considered as an important differentiating property.
However, in most circumstances, the depth of soil is considered as
one of the major indications of soil development. It should be noted
though, that the development of soil can occur in a few centimetres
when the environmental conditions are appropriate (FitzPatrick,
1980). Soil depth or thickness (T) consists of the vertical arrangement
of all the soil horizons down to the parent material (Birkeland, 1984;
Al-Shalash, 1985) and reflects the relative amounts of deepening (D),
upbuilding (U) and removals (R) that occurred during the evolution of
the soil, where T = D + U - R (Johnson, 1985). "Deepening" refers to
the down-migration of the lower soil boundary through leaching and
weathering. Upbuilding refers mainly to surface additions of minerals
and organic material derived from eolian and slope processes.
"Removal" refers mainly to surface-material loss through erosion
and mass wasting. In reference to the relationship T = D + U - R, soil
thinning (or shallowing) occurs when D + U < R, and soil thickening
occurs when D + U > R, D > U - R, or U > D - R (Johnson,
1985).The surface part of soil that extends from the top of the ground

15
to c. 50 centimetres depth is generally the important part that plays a
major role in plant life. Most interactions occur in this zone and reflect
their influence, either negative or positive, on life forms. For the above
reasons, as well as other environmental and research factors, the soil
depth in this study was measured only up to 50 centimetres thickness.
Two methods were utilised to measure the depth of soil, namely
digging the ground and using the auger. As can be seen from Table 1,
the mean depth of soil in the 300 stands surveyed in the research area
was 31.31 centimetres. Values of standard deviation (13.50) and
variance (182.267) as well as range value (40) indicated a somewhat
high variation in soil depths in the research area. Frequency of soil
depth in the 300 sites confirmed this result, with 52% of soil depth
values less than 30 centimetres, 23% between 30 and 50 centimetres
and 25% more than 50 centimetres. From the above results, it is
possible to say that the current soil of research area is rather shallow.
This is due to removal factors (erosion and mass wasting) that exceed
deepening and upbuilding factors (interior and surface additions of
minerals and organic matter).
Comparison of the mean soil depth (30.07) and the standard
deviation (12.58) in the south-west (a mountainous region) with
equivalent values (32.55 and 14.29 respectively) in the the north-east (a
plateau region) of the research area (Table 2) indicates that the soils of
the south-western region are more shallow than the soils of the north-
eastern region (Fig.2). As can be seen from Table 3, the significance of
a difference between the means of soil depth in the south-western and
the north-eastern regions was examined, using the t-test (Independent
samples; t-test model). T-value (- 1.59) and t-probability (p> 0.05)
indicate that the difference between the means of soil depth in these
regions is not insignificant, at least from the statistical standpoint, at
the 95 percent confidence level.

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 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

Table 1 Data Summary of Morphological

and Physical Properties of Soil in Asir Highlands.

Items
Soil properties
std
Mean Variance Range Minimum Maximum
Deviation

Soil depth 31.31 13.50 182.267 40.00 10 >50

Sand 80.14 9.80 95.967 60 36 96

Silt 13.78 7.61 57.838 42 0 42

Clay 6.08 4.01 16.101 32 0 32

Moisture 2.46 2.11 4.437 10.53 0.30 10.83

OM 1.11 1.35 1.814 9.68 0.0130 9.6900

Table 2 Data Summary of Morphological and Physical Properties of

Soil in the South-west and North-east Regions of the Research Area.

Soil South-western region North-eastern region

Soil properties
std. std.
Mean Variance Mean Variance
deviation deviation

Soil depth 30.07 12.58 158.37 32.55 14.29 204.29

Sand 78.64 9.94 98.81 81.64 9.45 89.24

Silt 14.87 7.46 55.59 12.69 7.62 58.09

Clay 6.49 4.32 18.63 5.67 3.65 13.34

Moisture 3.47 2.42 5.84 1.45 1.00 0.99

OM 1.51 1.44 2.06 0.71 1.12 1.25

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 Figure 2 Distribution of Mountainous,
Plateau Regions and Transects In Asir Highlands

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 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

Table 3 T-test of Morphological and Physical Soil Properties Variance

Between the South-west and the North-east Regions of the Research Area.

Mean T T
Soil properties
South-west North-east value probability

Soil depth 30.0667 32.5467 - 1.59 0.112

Texture 5.6533 6.0533 - 2.25 0.025
Moisture 3.4744 1.4461 9.50 0.000
Organic matter 1.5120 0.7074 5.41 0.000

In terms of vertical extent, the mean, standard deviation and

variance of soil depth (thickness) were also computed in each slope unit
(toe-slope, foot-slope, mid-slope, shoulder-slope and summit-slope or
top-slope), and these results are exhibited in Table 4. Comparison of
the mean depth of soil between slope units (44.03, 38.98, 28.35, 24.42
and 20.88 respectively) indicates that the depth of soil increases
downward of slope and decreases upward of slope, while the standard
deviation values (10.04, 11.60, 11.97, 10.01 and 7.87 respectively) and
variance values (100.81, 134.59, 136.30, 10.29 and 61.87 respectively)
show little differences in soil depth within each slope unit. The
differences in soil depth between slope units, shown above, were
examined further by using one way ANOVA. As can be seen from
Table 5 and Fig. 3, the F-value (45.0002) and an F-significance value
(p<0.01) indicate that the differences in soil depth between slope units
are significant. This result is confirmed by Fig. 3. Multiple comparison
tests for the differences in the mean depth of soil in the slope units
(Table 6) indicate that there are significant differences at the level of
0.05 between means of soil depth in most slope units.

19
Table 4 Data Summary of Morphological and Physical Properties
of Soil within Slope Units of the Research Area.

Items
Slope units Soil properties
Mean std. deviation Variance
Soil depth 44.03 10.04 100.81
Sand 79.63 11.36 129.15
Silt 13.63 8.17 66.78
Toe-slope
Clay 6.53 4.61 21.27
Moisture 2.60 2.58 6.66
OM 1.03 1.17 1.38
Soil depth 38.98 11.60 134.59
Sand 79.87 10.30 106.15
Silt 14.23 8.33 69.44
Foot-slope
Clay 5.90 3.67 13.48
Moisture 2.48 2.33 5.45
OM 1.06 1.21 1.47
Soil depth 28.35 11.67 136.30
Sand 79.47 9.64 93.00
Silt 13.80 6.46 41.72
Mid-slope
Clay 6.73 4.72 22.23
Moisture 2.38 1.97 3.89
OM 1.15 1.40 1.95
Soil depth 24.52 10.01 100.29
Sand 81.27 7.91 62.50
Silt 13.00 6.28 39.39
Shoulder-slope
Clay 5.73 3.42 11.72
Moisture 2.33 1.48 2.20
OM 1.16 1.36 1.86
Soil depth 20.88 7.87 61.87
Sand 80.43 9.66 93.30
Silt 14.07 8.55 73.08
Summit-slope
Clay 5.50 3.43 11.75
Moisture 2.53 2.06 4.25
OM 1.15 1.59 2.52

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 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

Table 5 Analysis of Variance of Soil Morphological

and Physical Properties Between Slope Units
(toe-slope, foot-slope, mid-slope, shoulder-slope and top-slope).

Analysis of variance
Soil
properties source of Sum of mean F F
D.F
variance squares squares value sig.

4 23062.8133 5765.7033 45.0002 0.0000

between groups
within groups
Soil depth 295 31497.7333 106.7720

Total 299 54560.5467

4 5.8133 1.4533 0.6007 0.6624

between groups
within groups
Texture 295 713.7333 2.4194

Total 299 719.5467

4 2.7692 0.6923 0.1542 0.9610

between groups
within groups
Moisture 295 1324.4779 4.4898

Total 299 1327.2471

4 0.8985 0.2246 0.1224 0.9744

between groups
Organic within groups
295 541.4570 1.8354
matter

Total 299 542.3555

21
 Figure 3 Amount of Soil Depth Between Slope Units.

Table 6 Multiple Comparisons Test (Least Significant Difference Model)

for the Differences Between the Mean Depth of Soil in the Slope Units.

Shoulder Summit
Slope units Toe-slope Foot-slope Mid-slope
slope slope

Toe-slope * * * *

Foot-slope * * *

Mid-slope * *

Shoulder-slope

Summit-slope

* Significant at 0.05 level.

Soil Texture
Soil texture is one of the important internal characteristics of soil.
The principal property of soil mineral particles in an environmental
context is their size. The mineral fraction of soils consists of particles

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 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

that vary dramatically in size from large boulders (several m in

diameter) through cobbles and pebbles (several cm in diameter) to
sand, slit and clay (less than 2 mm in diameter) (Ellis & Mellor, 1995).
Most studies of soil texture depend upon the proportion of sand, silt
and clay sizes, as based on the inorganic soil fraction that is less than 2
mm in diameter (Birkeland, 1984). The dominant size fraction is used
to describe the texture. If no fraction is dominant, the soil is described
as a loam (Wild, 1994). The commonly-used textural classification
systems are the International System, United States System and British
Standards System (White, 1987). The United States System is used in
this study to classify the texture of soil into sand, silt and clay. In this,
particles of sand range from 0.05 to 2.0 mm in diameter. The individual
particles of silt are microscopic in size (0.002 to 0.05 mm). The
individual clay particles are even more minute (less than 0.002 mm).
The hydrometer method was used as the best method of analysing soil
texture. The texture triangle was used to determine the soil texture
classes. The results of soil texture analysis are reported in the following
paragraphs.

The means of sand, silt and clay in the research area are about
80%, 14% and 6% respectively. Although the range values of sand
(60), silt (42) and clay (32) are very wide, the values of standard
deviation (9.80, 7.61 and 4.01 respectively) and variance (95.967,
57.838 and 16.101 respectively) indicate that the sand, silt and clay
proportions in most samples appear to be homogeneous (Table 1).
Nevertheless, comparison of the mean proportions of sand (78.64), silt
(14.87) and clay (6.49) in the south-western region with the equivalent
values (81.64, 12.69 and 5.67 respectively) in the north-eastern region
of the research area (Table 2) indicates that the sand proportion
increases in the north-eastern region, whereas the silt and clay
proportions decrease. Conversely, the sand proportion decreases in
the south-western region whereas the silt and clay proportions
increase. As can be seen from Table 2, the standard deviation and

23
variance values denote that the sand, silt and clay proportions are
somewhat homogeneous within each region. The importance of
differences in soil texture between the south-western region and
north-eastern region was examined by using t-test (Table 3). The t-
value (- 2.25) and t-probability (p<0.05) indicate that the diversity of
soil texture between the south-western and the north-eastern regions is
significant. Through the slope units (toe-slope, foot-slope, mid-slope,
shoulder-slope and summit-slope) or soil catena, small differences were
noted between the mean proportions of sand (79.63, 79.87, 79.47, 81.27
and 80.43 respectively), silt (13.63, 14.23, 13.80, 13.00 and 14.07
respectively) and clay (6.53, 5.90, 6.73, 5.73 and 5.50 respectively)
(Table 4). The variance of soil texture between slope units, mentioned
above, was also examined via ANOVA (Table 5). As can be seen from
this table, the f-value (0.6007) and f-significance (p>0.05) denote that
the differences in soil texture between slope units are not significant at
the level of 0.05, at least from the statistical point of view. This finding
can be attributed mainly to the short distances between slope segments
and to increased vegetation density in the upper parts of slopes that
reduces migration of fine materials toward the lower parts of slopes.
According to the modern division system of the United States, the
soils of the research area were classified into two types: loamy soils and
sandy soils (Table 7). Loamy soils comprise 31.7% and consist of
sandy clay loam (1%), sandy loam/sandy clay (0.7%), loam (1%),
sandy loam (24.3%) and loam sandy/sandy loam (4.7%). Sandy soils
comprise 68.3% and consist of loamy sand (42%), sandy loam sand
(3.3%)and sand (23%). As can be seen from Fig. 4, the loamy sand
(LS), sandy loam (SL) and sand (S) predominate, accounting for about
89% of the soil texture classes in the research area, whereas the other
classes constitute less than 11%.
In terms of the soil type and texture class within each slope unit,
sandy soils compose most of the stands within each slope unit, covering
about 75%, 70%, 68.3%, 66.6% and 61.7% of top-slope, shoulder-

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 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

slope, mid-slope, foot-slope and toe-slope respectively (Table 8). As

can be seen from this Table and Fig. 5, loamy sand occupies the first
rank in summit-slopes (48.3%), shoulder-slopes (40%), mid-slopes
(53.3%) and foot-slopes (38.3%), and the second rank in toe-slopes
(30%) after sand (31.7%). Some texture classes are not found in some
slope units. Sandy loam/sandy clay and sandy loamy sand are not
found in toe-slopes. Sandy loam/sandy clay and loam sandy/sandy
loam do not appear in foot-slopes. Sandy clay loam is absent from
mid-slopes. Sandy loam/sandy clay, sandy clay loam and loam are not
found in shoulder-slopes. Due to the down migration of fine materials,
via leaching and erosion, particularly in the north-eastern part of the
research area, the last two soil texture classes also are not found in
summit-slopes.

Table 7 Classification of Soil and Soil Texture in the Research Area;

According to the Modern Division of the United States.

Soil type Percent Texture class Percent

Sandy clay loam (SCL) 1.0

Sandy loam / Sandy clay (SL/SC) 0.7

Loamy soils 31.7 Loam (L) 1.0

Sandy loam (SL) 24.3

Loam sandy / Sandy loam (LS/SL) 4.7

Loamy sand (LS) 42.0

Sandy soils 68.3 Sandy loamy sand (S/LS) 3.3

Sand (S) 23.0

Total 100.0 100.0

25
 Figure 4 Proportions of the Texture Class of Soil in the Research Area.
(Source: Table 7)
Key to Texture Classes (see Table 7)
SCL = Sandy clay loam SL/SC = Sandy loam / Sandy clay
L = Loam SL = Sandy loam
LS/SL = Loam sandy / Sandy loam LS = Loamy sand
S/LS = Sandy loamy sand S = Sand

Soil Moisture
Soil moisture is defined as the solvent medium by which minerals
are transported upward to the leaves of plant and sugar is transported
downward to the roots. Soil moisture potential is the total effect of all
types of energy acting on water in the soil, including gravity, capillary,
surface absorption and osmois (Pitty, 1978; Omer & Metwally, 1978;
Ellis & Mellor, 1995). The amount of moisture content in soil depends
basically on its mechanical texture; the smaller the particle size, the
higher the amount of soil moisture and its availability (Migahid et al.
1987). Rainfall is the most important source and in some conditions is
the single source of soil moisture in the research area (Al-Qhatani,
1991&1998).

26
 Table 8 Classification of Soil and Soil Texture within the Slope Units;
According to the Modern Division of the United States.

Toe- Foot- Mid- Shoulder- Summit-

Soil type Texture class
slope % slope % slope % slope % slope %

Loamy soils Sandy clay loam 3.3 1.7 0.0 0.0 0.0

Sandy loam / Sandy clay 0.0 0.0 1.7 0.0 1.7

Loam 1.7 1.7 1.7 0.0 0.0

Sandy loam 26.7 30.0 23.3 21.7 20.0

Loam sandy / Sandy loam 6.7 0.0 5.0 8.3 3.3

Sandy soils Loamy sand 30.0 38.3 53.3 40.0 48.3

Sandy loamy sand 0.0 5.0 1.7 5.0 5.0

Sand 31.7 23.3 13.3 25.0 21.7

Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

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Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112
 Figure 5 Proportions of the Texture Classes of Soil Within Slope Units.
(Source: Table 8)
Key to Texture Classes (see Table 8)
SCL = Sandy clay loam SL/SC = Sandy loam / Sandy clay
L = Loam SL = Sandy loam
LS/SL = Loam sandy / Sandy loam LS = Loamy sand
S/LS = Sandy loamy sand S = Sand

The soil moisture content of the research area samples was

measured in the laboratory, using the weight method. The summarized
results in Table 1 show that the mean moisture of soil is 2.46%.
Comparing this mean with the equivalent value in the humid regions
gives an initial impression that soil moisture in the research area is very
low, but in fact, it may be considered a high value when compared with
other regions in Saudi Arabia, e.g. the moisture content of soil in the
central region of Saudi Arabia is about 1% or less (Youssef & El-Sheikh,
1981). Standard deviation (2.11) and variance value (4.437) as well as the
range value (10.53) denote that soil moisture varies strongly from site to
site. This variation may be related to differences in soil texture, elevation
factor and its relationship with the amount of rainfall, vegetation cover
size, etc. Frequency of soil moisture in the 300 examined samples

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 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

confirmed the inequality of soil moisture throughout the research area:

55% of moisture amount values were less than 2%, 34% were between
2% to 5% and 11% were more than 5%.
As can be seen from Table 2, the standard deviation and variance
values in the south-western region (2.42 and 5.84 respectively) and the
north-eastern region (1.00 and 0.99 respectively) of the research area
indicate that the soil moisture proportion within each region appears
to be homogenous. However, variance is observed between the mean
moisture of soil in the south-western region (3.47%) and the north-
eastern region (1.45%). This variance relates in most conditions to the
differences in elevation, rainfall amount, evaporation amount, vegeta-
tion cover size and soil texture class. The first region lies between 2000
m and 3130 m above sea level. The mean annual rainfall in this region
is more than 300 millimetres, with an annual total of evaporation of
about 2446.2 mm (Abha meteorological station) and an absolute
vegetation density of 3.01/100 m. The second region is located at less
than 2000 metres above sea level. The main annual rainfall of this
region is less than 150 millimetres, with an annual total of evaporation
of about 3893.3 mm (Al-Heifa meteorological station) and an absolute
vegetation density of 2.46/100 m. Furthermore, the soil texture class in
the south-western region is finer than in the north-eastern region.
Reliability of the differences between mean moisture in both regions
was examined, using the t-test (Table 3). The t-value (9.50) and t-
probability (p < 0.01) show that the diversity of soil moisture between
south-west and north-east of the research area is significant.
As can be seen from Table 4 and Fig. 6, the mean moisture of soil
in slope units (toe-slope, foot-slope, mid-slope, shoulder-slope and
summit-slope or top-slope) is 2.60%, 2.48%, 2.38%, 2.33% and 2.53%
respectively. Standard deviation and variance value in toe-slopes (2.58
and 6.66 respectively) and foot-slopes (2.33 and 5.45 respectively)
indicate that the soil moisture within these two units is somewhat
different, whereas it is homogenous in the other units. The ANOVA of

29
mean moisture in slope units (Table 5) indicates that the differences
between these means are not significant, since f-value equals 0.1542
and the significance of F is 0.9610.

Figure 6 Diversity of Soil Moisture Within the Slope Units of the Research Area.

Organic Matter (OM)

Organic matter plays an important initial role in the physical,
chemical and biotic properties of soils. It ranges in most soils between
1% and 7% (Bin Sadig, 1994). Forest soils have organic matter
contents between 5.2% and 10.5% (Pitty, 1978). The percentage of
organic matter in semi-arid region soils is very low, usually around 1%
(Al-Mashhady et al. 1984). The main source of organic matter in the
research area is dead roots, stems, seeds and leaves of vegetation cover.
The second source is animal wastes, particularly in the north-east of
the research area. Wind also plays a major role in carrying organic
matter from source to other areas. Mean organic matter in the research
area is very low (1.11%) (Table1). Organic matter percentages range
between 0.013% and 9.690%. Distribution of these percentages
confirms the lack of organic matter in the research area: 69% of

30
 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

organic matter values are less than 1%, 21% are between 1% and 3%,
and 10% are more than 3%. As can be seen from Table 2, mean
organic matter in the south-west of the research area was found to be
higher than that found in the north-east (1.51% and 0.71%
respectively). The significance of this variance between means of
organic matter in the south-western and the north-eastern regions was
examined, using the t-test. T-value (5.41) and t-probability (p<0.01))
(Table3) confirmed the significance of this variance. The increased
proportion of organic matter in the south-west of the research area
related mainly to the greater vegetation cover there. As illustrated in
Table 4, organic matter in the upper slopes was found to be a little
higher than that found in the lower slopes, with the means of organic
matter in top-slopes (1.5%), shoulder-slopes (1.16%) and mid-slopes
(1.15%) being higher than those in foot-slopes (1.06%) and toe-slopes
(1.03%). Despite these differences in organic matter between slope
units, the f-value (0.2246) and f-significance (0.9744) (Table 5)
resulting from ANOVA between means of organic matter in these
units indicated that these differences are not important, at least from
the statistical standpoint.

Organic Carbon (OC)

The organic carbon content of soil may be reported directly as
percentage of C; or calculated as organic matter by multiplication by a
factor. The conventional carbon to organic matter factor of long
standing is 1.724, based on the assumption that soil organic matter is
58 percent C. The importance of carbon lies in its major contribution
to the formation of humus, as well as the fact that fungi reform about
20% to 60% of carbon and divert it to protoplasm (Migahid et al.
1987). As expected in a semi-arid land, the soil of the research area has
a low OC content, ranging from 0.0075% to 5.62%. About 79% of OC
values are below 1.0% and 21% are between 1.0% and 5.62%. As can
be seen from Table 9, the mean OC content in the surface soil of the
research area is 0.64%. Although the values of standard deviation

31
(0.78) and variance (0.606) (Table 9) gave an initial impression that the
values of OC content are somewhat homogeneous, however, in fact,
there is a great variance between the means of OC in both the south-
west and the north-east of the research area. Mean OC increases to
0.88% in the south-western region and drops to less than half that
percentage in the north-eastern region (Table 10). Examination of this
variance, using the t-test (Table 11) indicates that the difference
between the means in both regions is quite significant at a level of 0.05,
with t-value equal to 5.48 and t-probability, p <0.01. This variance in
OC content between the two regions can be attributed mainly to
differences between them in vegetation cover size, organic matter
content, texture class and climatic conditions. Along the slope catena,
slight variations can be observed between means of OC content in
slope units (Table12), where mean OC content increases with elevation
toward the top-slopes. This variation relates mainly to the augmenta-
tion of organic matter in upper slope units (refer to Table 4).

Table 9 Data summary of chemical properties of soil in the research area.

Items
Soil Properties
std
Mean Variance Range Minimum Maximum
Deviation

OC 0.64 0.78 0.606 5.61 0.0075 5.6200

CaCO3 2.85 2.58 6.633 18.29 0.72 19.01

N 361.72 484.60 234834.965 3883.16 7.56 3890.72

P 48.52 28.25 797.989 215 1 216

K 115.93 105.36 11101.367 917.08 2.92 920

pH 8.26 0.50 0.252 5.52 3.88 9.40

EC 0.39 1.60 2.582 24.85 0.05 24.90

32
 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

Table 10 Data summary of chemical properties of soil in south-west and

north-east regions of the research area.

South-western region North-eastern region

Soil properties
std. std.
Mean Variance Mean Variance
deviation deviation

OC 0.88 0.83 0.69 0.41 0.65 0.41

CaCO3 2.09 1.39 1.94 3.60 3.20 10.22

N 496.03 533.68 284809.14 227.42 387.45 150117.85

P 54.03 27.87 776.47 43.02 27.64 763.89

K 91.41 67.87 4606.31 140.45 128.30 16460.26

pH 8.12 0.40 0.16 8.40 0.55 0.30

EC 0.27 0.61 0.37 0.51 2.19 4.78

Table 11 T test of chemical soil properties variance between south-west

and north-east regions of the research area with degree of freedom 298.

Mean T T
Soil properties
South-west North-east value probability

OC 0.8767 0.4060 5.48 0.000

CaCO3 2.0907 3.6003 - 5.30 0.000
N 496.0316 227.4171 4.99 0.000
P 54.0267 43.0200 3.43 0.001
K 91.4087 140.4515 - 4.14 0.000
pH 8.1160 8.4005 - 5.11 0.000
EC 0.2710 0.5097 - 1.29 0.200

33
 Table 12 Data summary of chemical properties
of soil in slope units of the research area.

Items
Slope units Soil properties
Mean std. deviation Variance
OC 0.59 0.67 0.45
CaCO3 2.97 2.98 8.87
N 318.93 385.74 148796.93
Toe-slope P 51.62 30.65 939.26
K 146.73 139.05 19334.62
pH 8.21 0.46 0.21
EC 0.96 3.47 12.05
OC 0.61 0.70 0.49
CaCO3 2.46 1.41 2.00
N 352.07 550.52 303072.87
Foot-slope P 50.12 26.88 722.31
K 146.58 147.29 21695.53
pH 8.24 0.69 0.47
EC 0.35 0.58 0.34
OC 0.67 0..81 0.64
CaCO3 2.44 1.54 2.37
N 357.84 438.49 192273.75
Mid-slope P 46.87 27.11 735.17
K 108.30 78.78 6205.57
pH 8.23 0.47 0.22
EC 0.31 0.53 0.28
OC 0.67 0.79 0.62
CaCO3 3.12 3.21 10.28
N 351.89 414.34 171673.86
Shoulder-slope P 49.42 33.17 1100.42
K 96.31 56.80 3226.01
pH 8.32 0.43 0.18
EC 0.16 0.16 0.02
OC 0.67 0.92 0.85
CaCO3 3.24 3.09 9.53
N 428.64 608.10 369787.80
Summit-slope P 44.60 22.70 515.33
K 82.05 46.88 2197.97
pH 8.31 0.44 0.19
EC 0.17 0.07 0.01

34
 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

Total Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)

The content of soil from calcium carbonate (CaCO3) varies with
the soil type, parent material and climatic conditions. In most soils,
CaCO3 is distinct from other nutrients in being originally derived from
the weathering of primary minerals, and occurring in significant
quantities in exchangeable form. It occurs in highly variable amounts,
ranging from traces of less than 0.05% to quantities amounting to over
a quarter of the bulk of some soils in arid areas (Pitty, 1978). The
natural sources of soil calcium carbonate are boulders, rocks and the
primary and minor minerals (Al-Niemi, 1987).

Table 13 Analysis of Variance (One-Way)

of Soil Chemical Properties Between Slope Units
(Toe-slope, Foot-slope, Mid-slope, Shoulder-slope and Top-slope)

Analysis of variance
Soil
properties source of Sum of mean F F
D.F
variance squares squares value sig.
4 0.3346 0.0836 0.1364 0.9688
between groups
OC within groups 295 180.9066 0.6132
Total 299 181.2412

4 33.4688 8.3672 1.2659 0.2835

between groups
CaCO3 within groups 295 1949.8234 6.6096
Total 299 1983.2922

4 390819.8078 97704.952 0.4120 0.7999

between groups
N within groups 295 69950707.63 237121.04
Total 299 70341527.44

4 1862.5533 465.6383 0.5802 0.6772

between groups
P within groups 295 236736.2833 802.4959
Total 299 238598.8367

35
 Table 13 (cont'd) Analysis of Variance (One-Way)
of Soil Chemical Properties Between Slope Units
(Toe-slope, Foot-slope, Mid-slope, Shoulder-slope and Top-slope)

Analysis of variance
Soil
properties source of Sum of mean F F
D.F
variance squares squares value sig.
4 208755.2013 52188.800 4.9553 0.0007
between groups
K within groups 295 3106922.300 10531.940
Total 299 3315677.501

4 0.5845 0.1461 0.5728 0.6826

between groups
pH within groups 295 75.2503 0.2551
Total 299 75.8348

4 26.0650 6.5163 2.5654 0.0384

between groups
EC within groups 295 749.3142 2.5400
Total 299 775.3792

The soils of the research area appear to be marginally calcic with

CaCO3 contents ranging from 0.72% to 19.01%. However, most of the
values were between 0.72% and 4.27%. About 91% of the values were
less than 5%, whereas 9% of the values were between 5% and 19.01%.
Although the mean calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the research area
was 2.58% (Table 9), this percentage decreases to 2.09% in the south-
west of the research area, and increases to 3.60% in the north-east
(Table 10). Augmentation of calcium carbonate in the north-east of the
research area relates mainly to the parent material type, airborne
calcium, a low level of organic matter (0.71%) and the arid climate,
where the temperature is very high and the rainfall is limited, so that
the removal of carbonate by rainfall is negligible. The variation
between mean values of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the south-west
and in north-east of the research area (2.0907% and 3.6003%
respectively) was examined, via the t-test (Table 11). T-value (- 5.30)

36
 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

and t-probability (p < 0.01) indicate that this variation is significant.

As can be seen from Table 12, values of total calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) in the upper slopes were found to be higher than those found
in lower slopes, where mean CaCO3 in summit-slopes (3.24%) and
shoulder-slopes (3.12%) was greater than those in the mid-slopes
(2.44%), foot-slopes (2.46%) and toe-slopes (2.97%). However, results
of ANOVA (Table 13) between mean values of CaCO3 within slope
units denote that the differences in means of CaCO3 are not
significant, at least from the statistical viewpoint, with an f-value of
1.2659 and f-significance of 0.2835.

Nitrogen Content (N)

According to Campbell (1989) and Al-Niemi (1987), nitrogen is
the most important element in soil organic matter, when considered
from the economic standpoint. The other nutrients are also important
but nitrogen is required in much larger amounts and accordingly is
more likely to be deficient. About 97.82% of nitrogen is present in
rocks (in the lithosphere), 1.96% is in the atmosphere and only 0.02%
in the biosphere. About 86.7% of the biosphere nitrogen is relatively
inert and only slowly made available to plants by microbial degrada-
tion. The lithosphere nitrogen is of very low concentration and not
available to plants (Campbell, 1989). The amount of nitrogen exceeds
1% in some soils that are rich in organic matter, but it decreases to less
than 0.03% in arid and semi-arid soils (Al-Niemi, 1987).
The surface soil of the area under study appears to be variable in
respect of nitrogen with nitrogen contents ranging from 7.56 ppm
(sample 196 in the eastern part of the research area) to 3890.72 ppm
(sample 55 in the western part of the research area). About 42% of
nitrogen values are less than 100 ppm, 50% are between 100 ppm and
1000 ppm and 8% are more than 1000 ppm. As can be seen from Table
9, although the mean nitrogen amount in soil of the research area is
361.72 ppm, the values of standard deviation (484.60) and variance
(234834.965) as well as the range value (3883.16) indicate that the

37
nitrogen amounts are not homogeneous in the research area. Hetero-
geneity of nitrogen amounts also appears to be obvious between the
south-west and the north-east of the research area, where mean
nitrogen amount is 496.03 ppm in the first region and 227.42 ppm in
the second region. The difference between mean nitrogen amounts in
both regions was examined via the t-test (Table 11). T-value (4.99) and
t-probability (p <0.01) indicate that the difference is very significant.
These differences between mean nitrogen amounts in the two regions
relate mainly to differences in their organic matter content (1.51% and
0.71% respectively), climate conditions and, to some extent, to the
broad differences in soil type. As can be seen from Table 12, due to the
augmentation of organic matter and decreasing of temperature, the
amount of N in the upper slopes was found to be higher than that
found in lower slopes, where mean N in summit-slopes (428.64 ppm) is
more than the equivalent in toe-slopes (318.93%). The mean N in foot-
slopes, mid-slopes and shoulder-slopes is 352.07 ppm, 357.84 ppm and
351.89 ppm respectively. However, the result of ANOVA (Table 13)
between the mean N amounts in slope units mentioned above denotes
that the differences between these means are not significant, where the
f-value equals 0.4120 and f-significance is 0.7999.

Phosphorus Content (P)

Phosphorus is an essential nutrient element for plant life; indeed it
is called the key to life. It plays a major role in storing and transferring
the energy in soil and plants (Omer & Metwally, 1978). The amount of
phosphorus in most soils ranges between 0.02% (or 200 ppm) and
0.15% (or 1,500 ppm), and it is concentrated mainly in the surface
layer of soils. However, this amount may decrease to less than 0.02%
in soil that contains only small amounts of organic matter (Al-Niemi,
1987).
The soils of the research area are variable in phosphorus content,
with a mean phosphorus amount of only 48.52 ppm (or 0.005%)
(Table 9). Although the phosphorus values in the samples analysed

38
 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

ranged between 1 ppm and 216 ppm , P values in most samples (95%)
ranged between 1 ppm and 100 ppm., which is less than the desirable
level for plant growth (Al-Niemi, 1987). Phosphorus deficiency is
common in arid and semi-arid regions as a result of soil formation
factors, the interaction of soil chemical properties, a coarse soil texture
and the deficiency of organic matter. The values of standard deviation
(28.25) and variance (797.989) of P in the research area indicate that
the P amount in soil is somewhat homogeneous. However, moderate
differences can be noted between mean P amounts in the south-west
(54.03 ppm) and north-east (43.02 ppm) of the research area (Table
10). These differences could be related to variations in the amount of
organic matter and texture class as well as the temperature rate in both
regions. The significance of the difference between mean P amount in
the south-west and north-east of the area under study was tested, using
the t-test (Table 11). T-value (3.43) and t-probability (p < 0.01)
confirm that the difference is very important. As shown in Table 12,
due to the decrease in silt and clay on the upper slopes, the phosphorus
amount also decreases toward the upper slopes, with mean P values in
toe-slopes, foot-slopes, mid-slopes, shoulder-slopes and summit-slope
of 51.62 ppm, 50.12 ppm, 46.87 ppm, 49.42 ppm and 44.60 ppm,
respectively. The importance of the diversity in P amounts between
slope units was examined via ANOVA (Table 13). As can be seen from
this Table, f-value (0.5802) and f-significance (0.6772) indicate that the
variation is not important.

Potassium Content (K)

Potassium is an important element in soil fertility and plant
nutrition. The main sources of potassium are rocks that contain the
primary potassium minerals, such as feldspar, muscovite and biotite.
According to Al-Niemi (1987), potassium is widespread in the earth's
crust, particularly in the fine soil texture, and its average in most soils is
about 1.5% (or 15,000 ppm). The larger proportion of this potassium
is fixed by most soil clay minerals in a form not available to plants,

39
because the potassium ion fits precisely and is held in the hexagonal
holes in the oxygen sheet of the silicate layers (Pitty, 1978).

The soil of the research area has low potassium levels, ranging
from 2.92 ppm to 920 ppm. About 55% of potassium values are less
than 100 ppm and 34% are between 100 ppm to 200 ppm, whereas only
11% are more than 200 ppm. As can be seen from Table 9, the mean
potassium content in surface soil of the research area is 115.93 ppm,
but the values of standard deviation (105.36) and variance (11101.367)
as well as the range (917.08) between minimum and maximum values
indicate that the potassium amounts are not identical in most analysed
samples. This variation in the soil content of potassium is clearly
evident in the mean K values in the south-west and north-east of the
research area (Table 10), and also between the mean K values among
slope units (Table 12). The importance of differences in the mean
potassium amount in the south-west (91.41 ppm) and north-east
(140.45 ppm) of the research area was examined, using the t-test (Table
11). T-value (4.14) and t-probability (p <0.01) confirm that the
difference between potassium amount in both regions is quite
significant. This difference in the potassium amount can be attributed
to the augmentation of washing and leaching processes in the south-
western region as a result of the higher rainfall there. Due to the
washing of potassium from the upper slopes toward the lower slopes,
the mean potassium amount decreases in the upper slope units and
increases in the down slope units, giving mean potassium values in toe-
slopes, foot-slopes, mid-slopes, shoulder-slopes and top-slopes of
146.73 ppm, 146.58 ppm, 108.30 ppm, 96.31 ppm and 82.05 ppm
respectively (Table 12 and Fig. 7). As can be seen from Table 13, the f-
value (4.9553) and f-significance (0.0007), resulting from ANOVA
analyses between mean potassium amounts within the slope units
confirms that the differences are quite significant. Multiple comparison
tests (Table 14) indicate that there are significant differences in mean
potassium between most slope units at a level of 0.05. These differences

40
 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

can be attributed mainly to the washing and erosion of potassium from

the upper slope segments, as well as the increase in vegetation density
in these segments, which led to increase of absorption of potassium
from the soil. Moreover, the augmentation of organic matter, and a
decrease of temperature, in the upper slope segments, further
contributed to the decrease in the amount of potassium there (Al-
Niemi, 1987).

Figure 7 Diversity of Potassium Amount

Within the Slope Units of the Research Area.

Table 14 Multiple Comparisons Test (Least Significant Difference Model)

for the Differences Between Means of Potassium within Slope Units.

Shoulder Summit
Slope units Toe-slope Foot-slope Mid-slope
slope slope
Toe-slope * * *
Foot-slope * * *
Mid-slope
Shoulder-slope
Summit-slope

* Significant at 0.05 level.

41
Soil pH
Soil pH is dependent on the ionic content and concentration in
both the soil solution and the exchangeable action complex the surface
of colloids (Birkeland, 1984). The pH scale ranges from 1.0 at the most
acidic extreme to 14.0 at the alkaline extreme, with a value of 7.0 at
neutrality (Ellis & Mellor, 1995). Good soils for plant growth have a
value around 6.0 to 7.0 (Al-Niemi, 1987). The pH values in the soil of
the research area range from 3.88 to 9.40. However, more than 99% of
pH values are slightly to strongly alkaline in reaction, ranging from
7.10 to 9.40. Only 2 of 300 soil samples were found to be not alkaline.
One of them is neutral (6.80) and the other sample is acidic (3.88),
found in a foot-slope in Al Qawba. As can be seen from Table 9, the
values of standard deviation (0.50) and variance (0.252) denote that the
values of pH are somewhat homogeneous around the mean pH (8.26).
However, a slight difference can be noted between mean pH values in
the south-west (8.12) and the north-east (8.40) of the research area
(Table 10). The significance of this difference was examined via the t-
test (Table 11). T-value (-5.11) and t-probability (p<0.01) indicate that
this difference is significant at the 0.05 level. Augmentation of pH
values in the north-eastern region may relate to the reduction of
organic matter and washing processes there, resulting from a scattered
vegetation cover and a low rainfall amount, as well as an increase in
evaporation processes. As can be seen from Tables 12 and 13, no
considerable changes in pH values were observed through slope
catenas; mean pH values in toe-slopes, foot-slopes, mid-slopes,
shoulder-slopes and top-slopes are 8.21, 8.24, 8.23, 8.32 and 8.31
respectively.

Electrical Conductivity (EC)

EC is a good indicator for measuring the degree of soil salinity.
Electrical conductivity analysis of soil samples collected from the

42
 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

research area indicates that the soil has a very low quantity of soluble
salts, ranging between 0.05 mmhos/cm and 24.90 mmhos/cm. About
95% of the electrical conductivity values lies between 0.05 mmhos/cm
and 0.96 mmhos/cm. Only 1 of the 300 samples exceeds 7.38 mmhos/
cm, at 24.90 mmhos/cm. As can be seen from Tables 10, 11, and 13, the
only noticeable differences in electrical conductivity values are those
between slope units, particularly between toe-slope units and the other
units (foot-slope, mid-slope, shoulder-slope and summit-slope) (Table
15 and Fig. 8). According to the US Salinity Laboratory Staff scale,
and as Ellis & Mellor (1995) have defined it, the soils of the research
area are Nonsaline-Alkali soil; 99% of the electrical conductivity of the
saturated extract is less than 4 mmhos/cm at 258C and the pH values
range between 3.88 and 9.40. The low quantities of salt in the majority
of soil samples can be related, in addition to the primary minerals
found in the soil, to the high rates of leaching with the reasonable
permeability of the soil, particularly after rainfall, in the upper slope
units.

Table 15 Multiple Comparisons Test

(Least Significant Difference Model) for the Differences
Between Means of Electrical Conductivity within Slope Units.
Shoulder Summit
Slope units Toe-slope Foot-slope Mid-slope
slope slope
Toe-slope * * *
Foot-slope * * *
Mid-slope
Shoulder-slope
Summit-slope
* Significant at 0.05 level.

43
 Figure 8 Diversity of Mean Electrical Conductivity Values
Within the Slope Units of the Research Area

Conclusions
The most important properties of soil of Asir highlands were
examined under morphological, physical and chemical headings, using
original data, and using different scales(e.g. the south-western region
and the north-eastern region on the horizontal level, and slope
segments on the vertical level). Morphological properties have
included soil depth. Physical properties have included those relating
to the basic constituents of soil, such as soil texture, moisture and
organic matter. The chemical characteristics of soil cover a wide range
of the common elements and compounds in soil-environmental studies,
such as organic carbon (OC), total calcium carbonate (CaCO3),
nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), soil pH and electrical
conductivity (EC).
In terms of soil properties, it is obvious that various environ-
mental factors have played a major role in the formation and
composition of soil attributes in the research area. The impact of

44
 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

these factors in the formation of soil properties appears conspicuous

on two levels, namely the horizontal level and the vertical level. On the
horizontal level and according to the examined soil characteristics, the
research area can be divided into two distinct regions, the mountainous
region and the plateau region.
The mountainous region covers the south and west of the area
under study. This region has high variation in morphology rising to
elevations between about 2000 m and 3130 m above sea level,
elevations which ensure low temperature as well as abundant rainfall.
The soil texture of this region is generally loamy sand. However,
gravels and stones are encountered in abundance, particularly in the
bare lands. The upper parts of the wadis mostly have coarse mountain
materials; in the soils of the alluvial plains, and where the valleys
widen, fine grain-size soils are encountered including silt and clay, and
these become gradually coarser as wadi beds are reached. In view of the
steep-slopes and the abundance of gravels and stones, the depth of soil
is generally slight and shallow. The soil is somewhat rich in moisture,
organic matter, organic carbon, N and P, whereas the values of
CaCO3, K, EC and pH in these soils are considered low compared with
the plateau region.
The plateau region covers the north and east of the research area.
Elevations in this region range from about 1000 m to 2000 m above sea
level. The temperature rises to higher levels than in the mountainous
region, while rainfall is less both in intensity and frequency. This region
is arid with sparse vegetation. Sedimentation is more marked, so that
wide, deep alluvial plains, extensive scree, river terraces and piedmont
deposits are encountered. The soil always has coarse and mostly sandy
loam to sand and has good depth. Soil contents of moisture, organic
matter, organic carbon, N and P are very low. Although this soil
suffers from deficiency of the above elements, it is also affected by
salinity problems, as well as increasing of pH values.
On the vertical level and through the catenas, the slope and

45
vegetation factors have played the most distinct role in formulation of
soil properties. This role has varied from one site to another and also
from one attribute to another. Soil properties were examined in
relation to the main slope segments (toe-slope, foot-slope, mid-slope,
shoulder-slope and summit-slope) from toe to ridge, and the following
results can be reported.
a - Although soil depth does not exceed 50 cm, two distinct
thicknesses can be noted; namely, somewhat deeper soil in toe-
slopes (44 cm) and foot-slopes (39 cm) and shallow or thin soil in
mid-slopes (28 cm), shoulder-slopes (25 cm) and top-slopes (21
cm). These differences in soil depth between slope units, have
resulted in due to removal factors (erosion and mass wasting)
exceeding deepening and upbuilding factors (interior and surface
additions of minerals and organic matter) in mid-slopes,
shoulder-slopes and top-slopes.
b - Due to the augmentation of fine fractions (silt and clay), washing
of potassium from the upper slopes toward the lower slopes and
the high rates of leaching with the reasonable permeability of the
soil, particularly after rainfall, in the upper slope units, the soil
moisture, potassium (K) and electrical conductivity (EC)
increase down-slope (on the toe-slopes and foot-slopes) and
decrease in the middle and upper slopes.
c - Little difference can be observed in soil texture classes, organic
carbon (OC) and phosphorus content (P) along the slope
segments. These results can be attributed mainly to the short
distances between slope segments and to increased vegetation
density in the upper parts of slopes that reduces migration of fine
materials toward the lower parts of slopes and weakness of
variation in organic matter and soil texture along the slope
segments.
d - Due to the increase of vegetation density, boulders, rocks and
washing processes in the upper slope segments, soil organic
matter, CaCO3 content and pH values decrease along the slope
units from the top to the bottom.

46
 Journal of the Gulf and Arabian Peninsula Studies - No. 112

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Marei Hussain Al-Qahtani, Ph.D in environmental

sciences, Hull university 1998. Associate professor, De-
partment of Social Sciences, Faculty of Arabic and Social
Sciences, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia.
His research interests are in the field of environmental of
sciences and pollution.

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