BUILDING THE • A researcher must have a nonjudgmental

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN orientation. He/she must be conscious of what he/she

MODULE 7 observes, interprets, setting aside personal biases and
prejudices
ETHNOGRAPHY
• ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH is a qualitative research
method that aims to gain a holistic understanding of a
specific group, society,
institution, or culture.
• Researchers study the culture of a certain group by
immersing themselves in the group.
• Requires three important things: a detailed description
of the group being studied; an analysis of the group
based on collected data; and characterization of the
group based on the interpretations of processed data. HISTORICAL RESEARCH
• To gain deeper understanding of your subjects and to
compose a detailed description about them, you must • As defined by Fraenkel and Wallen (2010), historical
obtain first hand information about them through research is a systematic collection and evaluation of
immersion. data to describe, explain, and understand past
events.
FRANKEL AND WALLEN (2010) listed down some • It seeks to probe certain events that happened in the
important concepts to remember when conducting past in order to understand how they have influenced
ethnographic research: the present.
• Seeks to establish relationships, trends, and patterns
• Culture – sum of a group’s customs and throughout time.
behaviors.

• Holistic perspective – As a researcher, you are

expected to observe their everyday activities and
behavior and understand how and why they do certain
things.

• Contextualization of data means looking at what is

seen, heard, and observed from a larger
perspective. It can be done by providing a thick
description of the subject under study.

• Emic perspective – insider’s perspective of a In conducting a historical research study, the

culture that focuses on its intrinsic elements that are researcher categorizes whether the documents
significant to the members of a culture. collected are primary or secondary sources.

• Etic perspective – outsider’s point of view on • Primary sources consist of first hand accounts of
culture. eyewitnesses which have been recorded closest to the
time and place of a specific historical event.
FRAENKEL AND WALLEN (2010) listed down some
important concepts to remember when conducting • Secondary sources are those compiled by
ethnographic research:
someone who was not directly involved or has not members of the sample have a common
directly witnessed said historical event. characteristic or trait.

CASE STUDY 4. Theoretical sample – considered to help the

• A documented study of a particular person, group, researcher understand a new concept or theory.
institution, or event intended to analyze constructs
or themes. Constructs and themes are labels and 5. Extreme Case Sample – considered if all the members
names for key concepts generated from the data of the group do not fit with the general pattern or display
collected. extreme characteristics.
• Creswell (2013) defines a case study as a qualitative
approach in which the researcher investigates a 6. Opportunistic Sample – chosen while the study is
bounded system (or a case) over a specified period in progress to take advantage of new conditions or
of time. circumstances that have arisen.

• It can be done if you want to focus on one particular 7. Confirming Sample – obtained to validate initial
issue. You can study someone or a selected group of findings.
people who has experienced something related to the
case you are studying 8. Maximal Variation Sample – selected to represent
wide perspectives or characteristics.
One if its main advantages is that you are focused on
only one person or group, thus enabling you to perform 9. Snowball Sample – selected based or referrals or
an in-depth investigation of your subject. However, it is participants selected for the study. This process is also
difficult to get the full cooperation of your subject. called chain sampling.

Sampling Procedures in Qualitative Research

Other Sampling Methods
SAMPLE 1. Stratified sampling – employed if characteristics
• A subset of individuals from a larger population. are determined for each sampling criterion’s
• The sample is the representative of the population subgroup; entails comparison.
2. Convenience sampling - a researcher is working
PURPOSIVE SAMPLING on a tight budget or limited period of time. This is
• Used when participants are grouped according done when no criteria were defined in a
to a set of criteria specified in a research. selection process and the researcher
• A group of non-probability sampling techniques considered only those who are readily available
in which units are selected because they have or accessible.
characteristics that you need in your sample

Planning the Data Collection Strategy

NINE TYPES OF PURPOSIVE SAMPLING Module 8
Creswell (2005) cited in Fraenkel and Wallen, 2010)
OBSERVATION
1. Typical Sample – the typical representative of that •Conducting observation will enable you to witness
being studied. several relevant to your study.
•It will allow you to collect data that would otherwise
2. Critical Sample or Deviant case – considered go undetected through other data
exceptional or highly unusual. gathering processes such as interviews

3. Homogenous sample – considered if all the

FOUR DIFFERENT TYPES OF OBSERVATION •This can also referred to as survey interviews,
1. PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION – involves which displays both features of survey and
an intense interaction between researcher interview.
and the subjects or participants of the
study. 2. SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS
❑ Overt Participant Observation – the •The researcher prepares open-ended questions to
identity and purpose of the researcher are which the participants are free to respond in any
known to the group being studied. way they see fit.
❑Covert Participant Observation – the
participants of the study are unaware that 3. INFORMAL INTERVIEW
they are being observed for research •done to determine how the participants act during
purposes. certain situations.
•conducted without a specific sequence of questions
•2. NONPARTICIPANT OBSERVATION or form of questioning.
– the researcher does not participate in the
activities of the group being observed. 4. RETROSPECTIVE INTERVIEW
• done to recall and reconstruct something that
3.NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION happened in the past.
– commonly used by psychologists, other
social science researchers and natural scientists, TYPES OF INTERVIEW QUESTIONS
involves observing the subjects under Patton (1990)
study in their natural environment.
1. BACKGROUND QUESTIONS
4. SIMULATIONS - are routine questions relevant to the background
– the researcher recreates a situation, environment or of the participants.
system, and observes the subjects under study in the - obtain personal information about the interviewee.
said simulated environment.
2. KNOWLEDGE QUESTIONS
To facilitate the data collection process through • a participant’s actual knowledge about the research
observation, you may do the following: topic.
1.Take photographs and collect available artifacts •the interviewee could be a known expert in the field
2.Record videos. and the questions raised are for the purpose of
3.Gather documents such as annual reports or obtaining information directly from the perspective of
minutes of meetings. an expert.
4.Write a summary of your observations•It will allow
you to collect data that would otherwi 3. EXPERIENCE QUESTIONS
-focused on what the participant is doing at the
present moment, what he or she has been doing, or
INTERVIEW what he or she did in the past.
-done to validate the information recorded in an -These questions are asked primarily to situate an
Observation. interviewee’s experience in the context of the
- considered one of the most important data collection objectives of your study.
strategies in qualitative research
4. OPINION QUESTIONS
FOUR TYPES OF INTERVIEWS - are asked to participant thinks about certain topics
1. STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS or issues.
•The researcher has a specific set of questions elicit what a
designed to elicit responses from theparticipants.
5. FEELING QUESTIONS DOCUMENTARY ANALYSIS / CONTENT ANALYSIS
•require responses emanating from the •A technique to study human behavior indirectly by
emotions of the participants that may analyzing relevant documents which may include
have arisen based on their experience(s). books, journals, magazines, artwork, songs,
pictures, among other things
6. SENSORY QUESTIONS
• focus on what the respondent has seen , tasted,
heard touched, or smelled.

DURING THE INTERVIEW

Fraenkel and Wallen (2010) listed a set of
expectations during interviews:
• Respect the culture of the group being studied.
Always make it a point to observe ethical standards
when conducting your interview.
• Respect the individuals being interviewed.
• Act naturally and confidently.
• Develop rapport with the participants.
• Ask the same question in different ways.
• Ask interviewees politely to repeat their answers
whenever their responses seem vague.

Fraenkel and Wallen (2010) listed a set of

expectations during interviews:
• Do not monopolize the conversation.
• Avoid leading questions like “You really want that?”
instead, you may ask, “What are the things that you
would like to do?”
• Do not ask dichotomous questions.
• Ask questions one at a time.

INFORMED CONSENT
•a document signed by the participant signifying
his or her free will to participate in the study.

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSION

• A data gathering method which involves interviewing
a small group of people to obtain data on a certain
topic.
• Ask several groups of people (normally 6-10 people
per group) what they think or feel about a certain topic
or issue.
• The participants are seated together, forming a circle,
and can hear what the other members of the group
have to say about the issue