UNIT- 01

1. Explain Types of Wireless communication Systems.

Types of Wireless Communication Systems

Wireless communication systems use electromagnetic waves to transmit information without

physical connections. Here are the major types:
Satellite Communication

• Coverage: Global reach, including remote areas

• Applications: Television broadcasting, long-distance telephony, GPS, internet in

remote locations

• Characteristics: High latency, line-of-sight transmission, weather sensitivity

• Examples: Iridium, Inmarsat, Starlink

Cellular Networks

• Architecture: Geographic areas divided into cells with base stations

• Generations: 2G (GSM), 3G (UMTS), 4G (LTE), 5G

• Applications: Mobile phones, mobile internet, IoT connectivity

• Characteristics: Handover between cells, varying data rates based on generation

Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)

• Standards: IEEE 802.11 family (a/b/g/n/ac/ax)

• Range: Typically 30-100 meters

• Frequencies: 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz bands

• Applications: Home/office networking, public hotspots, IoT devices

Bluetooth
• Range: Short-range (typically 10-100 meters)

• Versions: Evolving from 1.0 to 5.2, with LE (Low Energy) variants

• Applications: Wireless headphones, computer peripherals, medical devices, smart

watches

• Characteristics: Low power consumption, device pairing

RFID (Radio-Frequency Identification)
 • Types: Passive, semi-passive, and active tags

• Range: Few centimeters to several meters

• Applications: Supply chain management, access control, payment systems, inventory

tracking

• Characteristics: No line-of-sight required, varying read ranges

NFC (Near Field Communication)

• Range: Very short (usually <4cm)

• Applications: Contactless payments, electronic ticketing, data exchange between
devices
• Characteristics: Very low power, high security due to proximity requirement

Zigbee and Z-Wave

• Purpose: Low-power mesh networking for smart homes and industrial control

• Characteristics: Low data rate, low power consumption, mesh topology

• Applications: Home automation, industrial monitoring, smart energy

LoRaWAN (Long Range Wide Area Network)

• Range: Several kilometers in rural areas

• Characteristics: Low power, low bandwidth, long range

• Applications: Smart cities, agricultural monitoring, utility metering

Microwave Communication

• Frequency: Higher frequency bands (typically 1-30 GHz)

• Applications: Point-to-point links, backhaul for cellular networks

• Characteristics: Line-of-sight transmission, high bandwidth potential

Infrared Communication

• Range: Very short, typically same room

• Applications: TV remote controls, data transfer between devices

• Characteristics: Line-of-sight required, can't penetrate walls, secure due to

containment

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 2. Discuss Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex

Simplex

• Communication occurs in one direction only

• Transmitter can only send, receiver can only receive

• Examples: Radio broadcasts, television broadcasts, pagers

• Efficient for broadcasting but lacks interactive capability

Half-Duplex

• Communication occurs in both directions, but not simultaneously

• Each device must take turns transmitting and receiving

• Examples: Walkie-talkies, CB radios

• More interactive than simplex but has transmission delays

Full-Duplex

• Communication occurs in both directions simultaneously

• Devices can transmit and receive at the same time

• Examples: Mobile phones, video calls

• Provides real-time interaction and higher efficiency

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 3. Explain the 1G, 2G, 2.5G and 3G Mobile Communications or Compare all
Mobile generations.

Mobile Communication Generations

1G (First Generation)

• Introduced in the 1980s

• Analog technology for voice calls only

• Used AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone Service) standard

• Limited capacity and poor security

• Call quality often degraded with distance and interference

2G (Second Generation)

• Introduced in the 1990s

• Digital technology replacing analog

• Added text messaging (SMS) and basic data services

• Major standards: GSM, CDMA

• Improved capacity, call quality, and security

2.5G

• Transitional technology between 2G and 3G

• Enhanced data rates with GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)

• Introduced packet-switching alongside circuit-switching

• Enabled basic internet browsing and multimedia messaging (MMS)

• Typical speeds: 56-114 Kbps

3G (Third Generation)

• Introduced in early 2000s

• Significantly higher data transmission rates

• Enabled mobile internet access, video calls, mobile TV

• Major standards: UMTS, CDMA2000

• Typical speeds: 384 Kbps to 2 Mbps

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 4. Explain LAN,MAN,WAN and WLAN

LAN (Local Area Network)

• Covers a small geographic area (building or campus)

• High data transfer rates (typically 100 Mbps to 10 Gbps)

• Used in homes, offices, schools

• Examples: Ethernet networks, small office networks

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

• Covers a city or large campus

• Connects multiple LANs within a metropolitan region

• Typical coverage: 5-50 km

• Examples: City networks, university campus networks

• Often uses fiber optic technology

WAN (Wide Area Network)

• Spans large geographic areas (countries or continents)

• Connects multiple LANs and MANs

• Lower data rates compared to LANs

• Example: The Internet

• Uses various communication technologies (fiber, satellite, etc.)

WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

• Wireless version of LAN that uses radio waves

• Most commonly uses Wi-Fi technology

• Coverage typically 100-300 feet

• Eliminates need for physical cables

• Common in homes, offices, public hotspots

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 5. What is Wireless LAN? Discuss it with advantages and disadvantages.

A Wireless LAN is a network that connects computers and devices wirelessly within a limited
area using radio waves, typically following IEEE 802.11 standards (Wi-Fi).

Advantages

• Mobility and flexibility for users

• Reduced installation costs (no cables required)

• Easy to expand network coverage

• Simple to set up in locations where wiring is difficult

• Supports seamless roaming within coverage area

Disadvantages

• Lower security compared to wired networks (signal can be intercepted)

• More susceptible to interference from other devices

• Lower reliability and connection stability

• Typically slower speeds than wired connections

• Limited range compared to wired networks

• Signal degradation through walls and obstacles

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 6. Explain Bluetooth and it’s Working.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard for exchanging data between fixed
and mobile devices over short distances using UHF radio waves (2.4 GHz).

Working of Bluetooth
1. Frequency Hopping: Uses frequency-hopping spread spectrum to avoid interference

2. Piconet Structure: Forms small networks called piconets with one master and up to 7
active slave devices

3. Device Discovery: Devices scan for other Bluetooth devices in range

4. Pairing Process: Establishes secure connection between devices using PIN or

passkey

5. Data Transfer: Once paired, devices can exchange data using various profiles

6. Power Classes: Different power classes offer various range capabilities (typically 1-
100 meters)

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 7. Explain Personal Area Network

Personal Area Network (PAN)

A Personal Area Network is a network arrangement that connects devices centered around an
individual's workspace, typically within a range of 10 meters.

Key Features of PANs

• Very short range (typically under 10 meters)

• Connect personal devices (phones, laptops, headsets, etc.)

• Usually wireless (Bluetooth, NFC, Zigbee, etc.)

• Can sometimes use the human body as a transmission medium (Body Area Networks)

• Low power consumption

• Ad-hoc connectivity (devices connect as needed)

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 8. Write Difference between LAN and MAN.

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 9. What is Handoff?

Handoff (or handover) is the process of transferring an active cellular call or data session
from one cell or base station to another without disconnecting the call or session.

Key Aspects of Handoff

• Essential for mobility in cellular networks

• Triggered when signal strength falls below threshold

• Can be controlled by the network (network-controlled) or mobile device (mobile-
assisted)
• Types include hard handoff (break-before-make) and soft handoff (make-before-
break)

• Factors considered include signal strength, quality, distance, and traffic load
• Critical for maintaining call quality and preventing dropped calls

• More complex in newer networks that support voice and data simultaneously

Handoff mechanisms have evolved significantly with each generation of mobile networks to
provide smoother transitions and better quality of service during movement.

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 UNIT- 02

1. Explain Global system for mobile communication.

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communication) is a digital cellular technology used for
transmitting mobile voice and data services. First deployed in Finland in 1991, it became the
foundation of modern cellular networks worldwide.

Key Characteristics

GSM introduced several important innovations:

• Digital Technology: Unlike earlier analog systems, GSM was fully digital, improving
call quality and security

• Standardization: Created a unified international standard allowing for international

roaming

• SIM Cards: Introduced subscriber identity modules to store user data and
authenticate network access

• SMS Messaging: Pioneered text messaging capabilities between mobile devices

Architecture

GSM networks consist of four main components:

1. Mobile Station (MS): The handset and SIM card

2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS): Handles radio-related functions between mobile
devices and network
3. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS): Manages call connections and subscriber data

4. Operation Support Subsystem (OSS): Monitors and maintains overall network

performance
Technical Specifications

GSM initially operated primarily on the 900 MHz and 1800 MHz frequency bands in Europe
and Asia, and 850 MHz and 1900 MHz in North America. It employed Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA) technology, which divides each frequency channel into time slots
to allow multiple calls on a single channel.

Evolution

While GSM laid the groundwork for mobile communications, it has evolved through several
generations:
• GSM (2G): Basic digital voice and limited data
 • GPRS (2.5G): Added packet-switching for data

• EDGE (2.75G): Enhanced data rates

• UMTS/HSPA (3G): Significantly faster data transmission

• LTE (4G) and 5G: Modern high-speed networks that built upon GSM's foundation
GSM's global standardization approach revolutionized telecommunications by enabling
worldwide connectivity and establishing the foundation for today's mobile ecosystem.

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 2. Draw and discuss GSM architecture.

1. Mobile Station (MS)

• Mobile Equipment (ME): The physical mobile device (phone)

• Subscriber Identity Module (SIM): A removable smart card containing subscriber

information, authentication keys, and phone book

• Connects to the network via the Um radio interface

2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

• Base Transceiver Station (BTS): Handles radio communication with mobile stations
via antennas
• Base Station Controller (BSC): Manages multiple BTSs, handles radio channel
allocation, and controls handovers between BTSs
• Transcoding and Rate Adaptation Unit (TRAU): Converts between different
speech encoding formats and handles data rate adaptation

3. Network Switching Subsystem (NSS)

• Mobile Switching Center (MSC): The central component that connects calls
between mobile users and with external networks
 • Visitor Location Register (VLR): Temporary database storing information about
subscribers currently in its service area

• Home Location Register (HLR): Permanent database containing subscriber

information and current location

• Authentication Center (AuC): Provides authentication parameters and encryption

keys for security

• Equipment Identity Register (EIR): Database containing device information (IMEI

numbers) to prevent stolen phone usage

• Gateway MSC (GMSC): Special MSC that connects to external networks like PSTN

4. Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

• Operation and Maintenance Center (OMC): Monitors and controls the network
elements for maintenance, configuration, and performance monitoring

Key Interfaces

• Um: Radio interface between MS and BTS (air interface)

• Abis: Interface between BTS and BSC

• A: Interface between BSC and MSC

• C: Interface between MSC and HLR

• D: Interface between HLR and VLR

• F: Interface between MSC and EIR

GSM Operating Process

1. Registration and Authentication:

o When powered on, the mobile station contacts the nearest BTS

o The network authenticates the subscriber using information from the SIM card

o Location information is updated in the HLR/VLR databases

2. Call Setup (Mobile Originated):

o MS requests a channel from the BTS

o BSC allocates resources and forwards call setup to MSC

o MSC validates the request and establishes the connection

3. Call Termination (Mobile Terminated):

o GMSC queries HLR for subscriber location

o Call is routed to appropriate MSC
 o MSC instructs the BSC to allocate resources

o BSC directs the BTS to page the mobile station

4. Handover Process:

o When a mobile user moves between cells, a handover occurs

o BSC measures signal quality and decides when to initiate handover

o Resources are allocated in the target cell before releasing resources in the old
cell

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 3. Explain the different types of cells and their characteristics.

GSM networks employ different cell types based on coverage needs and traffic density:

1. Macrocells
o Largest cell type (1-20 km radius)

o Provides coverage in rural areas or along highways

o Uses high-powered BTS antennas typically mounted on towers

o Lower frequency bands (800/900 MHz)

o Handles high-speed mobility users

2. Microcells

o Medium-sized cells (100m-1km radius)

o Used in urban areas with moderate traffic density
o Antennas mounted below rooftop level (street lamps, building walls)

o Higher frequency bands (1800/1900 MHz)

o Better for pedestrians and slow-moving users

3. Picocells

o Small cells (10-100m radius)

o Used indoors or areas with high user density

o Low power consumption

o Provides focused coverage in office buildings, shopping malls

o Higher capacity in small areas

4. Femtocells

o Very small cells (10-50m radius)

o Consumer-deployed in homes or small offices

o Connects to operator's network via broadband

o Improves indoor coverage

o Typically supports 4-8 simultaneous users

5. Umbrella Cells
o Overlays smaller cells in a hierarchical structure
 o Handles fast-moving users to reduce handoff frequency

o Provides continuous coverage when moving between smaller cells

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 4. Explain GSM authentication and security.

GSM employs several security mechanisms to protect communications and prevent

unauthorized access:

Authentication Process

1. Challenge-Response Mechanism:

o Network sends a random 128-bit number (RAND) to mobile station

o SIM card uses the A3 algorithm with RAND and secret key Ki to generate
signed response (SRES)

o Network performs same calculation and compares SRES values

o Authentication succeeds if values match

2. Encryption:
o Uses A8 algorithm to generate session key (Kc) from Ki and RAND

o A5 algorithm encrypts voice and data traffic using Kc

o Different versions (A5/1, A5/2, A5/3) with varying security levels

3. TMSI Assignment:

o Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity assigned to protect real identity

o Periodically changed to prevent tracking

Security Features
• SIM Card Security: Physical protection of authentication keys

• Subscriber Authentication: Prevents impersonation

• Radio Interface Encryption: Protects over-the-air communication

• Equipment Identification: IMEI verification against EIR database

• User Anonymity: TMSI usage instead of IMSI when possible

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 5. Write a short note on GSM addresses and identifiers.

GSM uses various identifiers to uniquely identify network elements and subscribers:

Subscriber Identifiers
1. International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

o Globally unique identifier stored in SIM card

o Format: MCC (3 digits) + MNC (2-3 digits) + MSIN (up to 10 digits)

o Example: 310150123456789 (USA-AT&T-Subscriber Number)

o Rarely transmitted to protect subscriber privacy

2. Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

o Temporary identifier assigned by VLR

o Used instead of IMSI for enhanced privacy
o Valid only within a location area

o 4 bytes in length

3. Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)

o The actual phone number visible to users

o Format: Country Code + National Destination Code + Subscriber Number

o Example: +1-212-555-1234

Equipment Identifiers
1. International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)

o Unique identifier for mobile devices

o Format: TAC (8 digits) + Serial Number (6 digits) + Check Digit (1 digit)

o Used to identify stolen or unauthorized devices

o Cannot be easily altered

2. International Mobile Equipment Identity and Software Version (IMEISV)

o IMEI plus 2-digit Software Version Number (SVN)

o Tracks software version of mobile equipment

Network Identifiers
1. Mobile Country Code (MCC)
 o Three-digit code identifying country

o Example: 310 (USA), 234 (UK)

2. Mobile Network Code (MNC)

o Two or three-digit code identifying network operator

o Example: 150 (AT&T in USA), 15 (Vodafone in UK)

3. Location Area Identity (LAI)

o Identifies a location area within a network

o Format: MCC + MNC + LAC (Location Area Code)

o Used for paging and location management

4. Cell Global Identity (CGI)

o Uniquely identifies a cell

o Format: MCC + MNC + LAC + CI (Cell Identity)
o Used for precise location tracking and handover

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 6. What are HLR and VLR? Describe its functions in Call Routing and Roaming.
OR Explain GSM call routing.

Home Location Register (HLR)

• Centralized database containing subscriber information

• Stores permanent data like:

o IMSI
o MSISDN (phone number)

o Subscribed services

o Authentication keys

o Current VLR address

• One HLR per network operator (may be distributed physically)

• Always involved in call setup to locate subscribers

Visitor Location Register (VLR)

• Temporary database associated with one or more MSCs

• Contains information about subscribers currently in its service area

• Stores:

o IMSI, TMSI, MSISDN

o Current location area

o Subscriber status (busy, free, etc.)

o Temporary authentication data

• Reduces queries to HLR for visiting subscribers

• Information removed when subscriber leaves the area

GSM Call Routing Process

Mobile Originating Call (Call Origination)

1. MS sends call request to serving MSC via BTS/BSC

2. MSC consults its VLR to authenticate subscriber

3. VLR verifies subscriber has permission to make calls

4. MSC allocates resources and establishes connection:
 o For calls to PSTN: Routes through GMSC

o For calls to another GSM subscriber: Queries HLR for routing information

Mobile Terminating Call (Call Routing to Mobile)

1. Incoming call arrives at GMSC

2. GMSC queries HLR for routing information about called subscriber

3. HLR requests roaming number (MSRN) from VLR where subscriber is registered

4. VLR assigns MSRN and returns it to HLR

5. HLR forwards MSRN to GMSC

6. GMSC routes call to the MSC indicated by MSRN

7. MSC queries its VLR for subscriber location (specific cell)

8. MSC initiates paging to locate subscriber within the location area

9. Call is established when subscriber responds to paging
Roaming Scenario

1. When MS enters a new network:

o Registers with local VLR

o VLR informs visitor's HLR about new location

o HLR updates location information and sends subscriber data to new VLR

o HLR cancels registration at previous VLR

2. For incoming calls while roaming:

o Call routing follows same process as mobile terminating call

o Additional signaling between home and visited networks occurs

o International gateway handles cross-border routing

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 7. Explain BTS, HLR, VLR and EIR or Define Call routing in GSM.

GSM Network Components and Call Routing

GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) uses several key database components to
manage subscriber information and call routing:

Key Network Databases

HLR (Home Location Register)

• Central database containing subscriber information

• Stores subscriber identity, service profiles, and current location

• Permanent repository for a subscriber's data within their home network

• Contains IMSI (International Mobile Subscriber Identity) and MSISDN (mobile

number)

VLR (Visitor Location Register)

• Temporary database for subscribers currently in a particular service area

• Contains subset of HLR information needed for local call handling

• Reduces need to constantly query the HLR for roaming subscribers

• Updates when subscribers enter a new service area

EIR (Equipment Identity Register)

• Database of mobile equipment identities (IMEI numbers)

• Used to block stolen devices or unapproved equipment

• Contains white list (approved devices), black list (blocked devices), and gray list
(monitored devices)

BTS (Base Transceiver Station)

• The radio equipment (towers and antennas) connecting mobile devices to the network

• Handles radio communication with mobile stations

• Multiple BTSs are controlled by a Base Station Controller (BSC)

Call Routing in GSM

When a call is initiated in a GSM network, it follows these steps:

1. Call Origination: Mobile station sends request through nearest BTS

2. Location Verification: Network checks VLR to confirm subscriber location
 3. Authentication: Subscriber is authenticated using information from HLR

4. Equipment Verification: EIR validates the device is permitted on network

5. Channel Assignment: Network assigns voice channel for the call

6. Call Setup: Connection established between calling and receiving parties

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 8. How can "Call Originate" be implemented within a GSM call routing scenario?

Technical Implementation Steps

1. Channel Request
o Mobile Station (MS) sends a Channel Request message on the Random Access
Channel (RACH)

o Request includes reason code indicating call establishment

2. Immediate Assignment

o Base Station Controller (BSC) allocates a dedicated control channel (SDCCH)

o BSC sends Immediate Assignment message on the Access Grant Channel

(AGCH)

o MS tunes to assigned SDCCH

3. Service Request & Authentication

o MS sends CM Service Request on SDCCH

o Network authenticates subscriber via Authentication Request/Response

procedure

o Authentication uses subscriber data from HLR/VLR and involves

cryptographic challenge-response

4. Ciphering

o Network enables encryption by sending Ciphering Mode Command

o All subsequent communications are encrypted

5. Setup Message

o MS sends Setup message containing:

▪ Called party number

▪ Bearer capability (voice, data, etc.)

▪ Optional supplementary service information

6. Call Proceed

o MSC validates the setup request

o Network sends Call Proceeding message to MS

o Network begins resources allocation (traffic channel)
 7. Assignment

o BSC allocates Traffic Channel (TCH)

o Assignment Command sent to MS

o MS tunes to assigned TCH and confirms with Assignment Complete

8. Alerting & Connect

o Network routes call to destination via SS7 signaling

o Network sends Alerting message when receiving end is ringing

o When called party answers, Connect message is sent to MS

o MS acknowledges with Connect Acknowledge

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 9. Why is hexagonal cell shape preferred in cellular architecture?

Hexagonal cells are preferred in cellular architecture for several reasons:

1. Optimal Coverage: Hexagons tessellate (fit together without gaps) and provide more
uniform coverage than other shapes

2. Efficiency: Approximates circular coverage pattern while eliminating gaps

3. Reduced Interference: Maximizes distance between co-channel cells

4. Fewer Handovers: Larger coverage area compared to triangles or squares for the
same distance from center to vertex
5. Signal Strength Uniformity: More consistent signal strength at cell boundaries

6. Simplified Planning: Regular pattern simplifies network planning and frequency

allocation
7. Cost Efficiency: Requires fewer base stations than triangular cells for the same
coverage area
While actual radio coverage is irregular due to terrain and obstacles, the hexagonal model
provides an ideal theoretical framework for network planning.

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 10. What is Interface? explain the PLMN interface.

An interface in GSM is a standardized connection point between two network elements that
defines protocols, signaling, and data formats. The Public Land Mobile Network (PLMN)
uses several key interfaces:

Major PLMN Interfaces

1. Um Interface

o Between Mobile Station (MS) and BTS

o Air interface for radio communication

o Uses TDMA/FDMA access methods

o Handles voice, data, and signaling

2. Abis Interface

o Between BTS and BSC

o Standardized to allow multi-vendor equipment

o Carries traffic and control information

o Uses 16 kbps channels for voice and signaling

3. A Interface

o Between BSC and MSC

o Handles mobility management and call control

o Carries user traffic and signaling

o Based on SS7 protocols

4. B Interface

o Between MSC and VLR

o Usually internal software interface

o Exchanges subscriber data for authentication and call handling

5. C Interface

o Between MSC and HLR

o Used for retrieval of routing information

o Queries subscriber data and location

6. D Interface
 o Between HLR and VLR

o Exchanges subscriber data during location updates

o Updates subscriber status information

7. E Interface
o Between MSCs

o Coordinates handovers between different MSCs

o Manages inter-MSC subscriber movement

8. F Interface

o Between MSC and EIR

o Verifies equipment status

o Checks if device is stolen or unauthorized

9. G Interface
o Between VLRs

o Transfers subscriber data between VLRs during location area changes

10. H Interface

o Between HLR and AUC

o Exchanges authentication data

o Usually integrated in same physical equipment

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 11. List the different identifiers of GSM and explain all of them. OR Discuss the
GSM identifiers and addresses in detail.

GSM Identifiers and Addresses

GSM networks use various identifiers to uniquely identify subscribers, equipment, and
network elements. These identifiers serve crucial functions in authentication, routing, billing,
and network management. Here's a comprehensive explanation of all GSM identifiers:

Subscriber Identifiers

1. International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI)

• Purpose: Primary identifier that uniquely identifies a subscriber globally

• Storage: Securely stored in the SIM card

• Format: 15 digits maximum, structured as:

o Mobile Country Code (MCC): 3 digits

o Mobile Network Code (MNC): 2-3 digits

o Mobile Subscriber Identification Number (MSIN): 9-10 digits

• Example: 310150123456789 (USA-AT&T-Subscriber)

• Usage: Used for authentication but rarely transmitted over the air for security reasons

• Privacy: Considered sensitive information and protected by the network

2. Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (TMSI)

• Purpose: Temporary identifier that protects subscriber's real identity

• Assignment: Allocated by the VLR when a mobile enters its area

• Characteristics:

o 4 bytes (32 bits) in length

o Valid only within a location area

o Regularly changed during updates or after a predefined time

• Usage: Used instead of IMSI in most communications to enhance privacy

• Storage: Stored in both the VLR and mobile station

3. Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number (MSISDN)

• Purpose: The actual telephone number of the subscriber

• Format: Up to 15 digits structured as:
 o Country Code (CC): 1-3 digits

o National Destination Code (NDC): variable length

o Subscriber Number (SN): variable length

• Example: +1-212-555-1234
• Usage: Used for billing, call routing to the subscriber

• Storage: Stored in HLR and accessible by VLR when needed

4. Mobile Station Roaming Number (MSRN)

• Purpose: Temporary number used for routing calls to a roaming subscriber

• Assignment: Allocated by the VLR when a call is to be delivered

• Format: Similar to MSISDN but temporary

• Usage: Used only during call setup, not visible to subscribers

• Characteristics: Valid for the duration of a single call
Equipment Identifiers

5. International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI)

• Purpose: Uniquely identifies mobile equipment (handset) globally

• Format: 15 digits structured as:

o Type Approval Code (TAC): 8 digits (manufacturer and model)

o Serial Number (SNR): 6 digits

o Check Digit: 1 digit

• Example: 490154203237518

• Usage: Used to identify stolen or unauthorized devices

• Verification: Checked against EIR database during network access

• Access: Can be displayed by entering *#06# on most phones

6. International Mobile Equipment Identity and Software Version (IMEISV)

• Purpose: Extended version of IMEI that includes software version

• Format: 16 digits:
o IMEI: 15 digits

o Software Version Number (SVN): 2 digits

• Usage: Helps operators track device software versions
 • Importance: Useful for troubleshooting and software update management

Network and Location Identifiers

7. Mobile Country Code (MCC)

• Purpose: Identifies the country of the subscriber's home network

• Format: 3 digits

• Examples: 310 (USA), 234 (UK), 404 (India)

• Assignment: Assigned by ITU-T

• Usage: Part of IMSI and used in network identification

8. Mobile Network Code (MNC)

• Purpose: Identifies the home network of the subscriber

• Format: 2-3 digits

• Examples: 150 (AT&T in USA), 15 (Vodafone in UK)
• Assignment: Assigned by national regulatory authorities

• Usage: Part of IMSI and used for network identification

9. Location Area Identity (LAI)

• Purpose: Identifies a specific location area within a network

• Format: Combination of:

o MCC: 3 digits

o MNC: 2-3 digits

o Location Area Code (LAC): 16 bits (2 bytes)

• Usage: Used for paging and location management

• Characteristics: Each MSC/VLR typically controls multiple location areas

10. Cell Global Identity (CGI)

• Purpose: Uniquely identifies a specific cell within a network

• Format: Combination of:

o LAI (MCC+MNC+LAC)
o Cell Identity (CI): 16 bits

• Usage: Used for precise location identification and handover management

• Importance: Fundamental for cellular network operation and mobility management
11. Base Station Identity Code (BSIC)

• Purpose: Identifies a base station within a network

• Format: 6 bits divided into:

o Network Color Code (NCC): 3 bits

o Base Station Color Code (BCC): 3 bits

• Usage: Helps mobile stations distinguish between cells using the same frequency

• Importance: Critical for reducing interference in frequency reuse scenarios

12. Routing Area Identity (RAI)

• Purpose: Identifies a routing area for GPRS services

• Format: Combination of:

o LAI (MCC+MNC+LAC)
o Routing Area Code (RAC): 8 bits
• Usage: Used for packet data routing and mobility management

• Characteristics: Similar to LAI but for packet-switched domain

Authentication Identifiers

13. Authentication Key (Ki)

• Purpose: Secret key used for authentication and encryption

• Format: 128-bit value

• Storage: Securely stored in SIM card and AuC, never transmitted

• Usage: Used with authentication algorithms to generate session keys

• Security: Core element of GSM security framework

14. Signed Response (SRES)

• Purpose: Authentication response value

• Format: 32-bit value

• Generation: Created by applying A3 algorithm to RAND and Ki

• Usage: Used in challenge-response authentication process

• Verification: Network compares mobile-generated SRES with its own calculation

15. Ciphering Key (Kc)

• Purpose: Session key used for encrypting communications
 • Format: 64-bit value

• Generation: Created by applying A8 algorithm to RAND and Ki

• Usage: Input to A5 algorithm for encrypting/decrypting data

• Lifetime: Valid for one session or until new authentication occurs

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 UNIT- 03

1. What kind of changes need in GSM to Convert it into GPRS to explain that?
Explain application of GPRS?

To convert GSM (a circuit-switched network) to GPRS (a packet-switched network), several

key components need to be added to the existing GSM infrastructure:

1. New Network Nodes:

o SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node): Manages data sessions, handles

mobility, and authenticates users

o GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node): Connects the mobile network to

external packet data networks like the internet

o PCU (Packet Control Unit): Added to the Base Station Subsystem to handle
packet data traffic

2. Protocol Stack Changes:

o Implementation of packet-oriented protocols

o Introduction of GPRS Tunneling Protocol (GTP)

o Addition of IP-based core network

3. Software Upgrades:

o Existing GSM components (BTS, BSC, MSC) require software upgrades

o HLR needs additional data fields for packet service subscriptions

4. Interfaces:

o New interfaces (Gb, Gn, Gi) must be implemented

o Existing GSM interfaces require modifications

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 2. Explain Circuit Switching and Packet Switching

Circuit Switching (GSM):

• Dedicated physical path established for entire call duration

• Resources reserved regardless of activity

• Fixed bandwidth allocation

• Constant connection quality

• Typically billed by connection time

• Optimized for voice calls

Packet Switching (GPRS):

• Data divided into packets that take independent routes

• Resources shared among multiple users
• Dynamic bandwidth allocation

• Variable connection quality based on network load

• Typically billed by data volume

• Optimized for bursty data applications

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 3. What is GPRS? How is billing and charging done in GPRS?

GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) is a packet-oriented mobile data standard that enables
mobile devices to access packet data networks like the internet. It's often described as a "2.5G"
technology, bridging the gap between 2G (GSM) and 3G systems.

Key characteristics:

• Data rates typically 56-114 kbps (theoretical maximum ~171.2 kbps)

• Always-on connectivity

• Support for IP-based services

• Allows simultaneous voice and data usage

• Charged based on volume of data transferred rather than connection time

GPRS Billing and Charging

GPRS introduced a fundamental shift in mobile billing:

1. Volume-Based Charging:

o Billing based on the amount of data transferred (kilobytes/megabytes)

o Different from GSM's time-based charging

2. Charging Models:

o Pay-per-use: Pay for exact data consumed

o Tiered packages: Different rates for different usage levels

o Flat-rate: Unlimited data for fixed fee (often with "fair usage" policy)

3. Technical Implementation:

o SGSN collects usage data (CDRs - Call Detail Records)

o GGSN tracks traffic volumes through Gx interface

o Charging Gateway Function (CGF) processes records for billing system

4. Quality of Service (QoS):

o Different charging rates based on QoS class

o Premium services charged at higher rates

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 4. Define the following terms regarding wireless communication: (1) Base
Transceiver Station (2) Mobile Switching Center (3) Base station

Base Transceiver Station (BTS):

• The radio equipment that communicates directly with mobile devices

• Contains transceivers, antennas, signal processing equipment

• Handles modulation/demodulation of radio signals

• Manages radio resource allocation within its cell

Mobile Switching Center (MSC):

• The central component of circuit-switched network

• Routes voice calls between mobile and fixed networks

• Handles call setup, teardown, and charging

• Manages mobility and handovers between different BSCs

• Works with VLR to track subscriber location

Base Station:

• Complete set of radio transmission equipment at one location

• Typically includes the BTS and BSC (Base Station Controller)

• BSC manages radio resources for multiple BTSs

• Controls power levels, frequency assignments, and handovers

___________________________________________________________________________
 5. Explain the concept of frequency reuse in cellular systems.

Frequency reuse is a fundamental concept in cellular systems that allows efficient use of limited
radio spectrum:

1. Basic Principle:

o Available frequency spectrum is divided into channels

o Same frequency channels are reused in different cells that are sufficiently distant
o Minimizes interference while maximizing spectrum efficiency

2. Reuse Pattern:

o Cells are grouped into clusters

o Each cell in a cluster uses a different set of frequencies

o The cluster pattern repeats throughout the coverage area

o Common patterns include 3, 4, 7, 12, or 21-cell clusters

3. Reuse Distance:
o Minimum distance between cells using same frequencies

o Determined by cluster size (N): D = R × √(3N)

o Where R is the cell radius

4. Trade-offs:

o Smaller clusters (more reuse) = higher capacity but more interference

o Larger clusters = less interference but lower capacity

___________________________________________________________________________
 6. Define: Cluster, Hand off, Co-channel cells

Cluster:

• A group of cells that collectively use the complete set of available frequencies
• No frequency is reused within a cluster

• Defined by cluster size N (typically 4, 7, or 12)

Handoff (Handover):

• Process of transferring a call from one cell to another

• Occurs when a mobile moves between cells

• Types:

o Hard handover: "break-before-make" connection

o Soft handover: "make-before-break" connection (CDMA systems)
o Inter-BSC handover: Between cells managed by different BSCs

o Inter-MSC handover: Between cells managed by different MSCs

Co-channel Cells:

• Cells that use the same frequency set

• Must be separated by sufficient distance to minimize interference

• Co-channel interference is a primary factor limiting system capacity

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 7. Discuss different applications of GPRS.

Internet Access:

• Web browsing (albeit slow by modern standards)

• Email access

• Instant messaging

Enterprise Applications:

• Field service automation

• Fleet management

• Telemetry and remote monitoring

• Point-of-sale terminals
Location-Based Services:
• Navigation assistance

• Asset tracking

• Proximity-based notifications

Multimedia Messaging:

• Enhanced MMS with larger attachments

• Content downloading

M2M Communication:
• Smart meters

• Vending machines

• Security systems

• Remote sensors

___________________________________________________________________________
 8. Discuss GPRS network Services.

Point-to-Point (PTP) Services:

• Connection-oriented (PTP-CONS)
• Connectionless (PTP-CLNS)

• Support for both IPv4 and IPv6

Point-to-Multipoint (PTM) Services:

• Multicast (PTM-M)

• Group calls (PTM-G)

QoS Classes:

• Service precedence (priority levels)

• Delay class (real-time vs. non-real-time)
• Reliability class (error rates)

• Throughput class (peak data rates)

SMS over GPRS:

• More efficient delivery of SMS messages

• Higher capacity than traditional GSM SMS

___________________________________________________________________________
 9. Explain Billing and Charging in GPRS.

GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) introduced a fundamental shift in mobile billing models
compared to traditional GSM systems. The billing architecture and mechanisms are specifically
designed for packet data services.

Core Billing Principles

1. Volume-Based vs. Time-Based

o Traditional GSM: Charged by connection time (minutes)

o GPRS: Charged by volume of data transferred (kilobytes/megabytes)

o This reflects the always-on nature of packet data services

2. Charging Data Records (CDRs)

o Generated by network elements (primarily SGSN and GGSN)

o Contain detailed information about data sessions:

▪ Subscriber identity (IMSI)

▪ Access Point Name (APN) used

▪ Data volume (uplink and downlink)

▪ Quality of Service (QoS) parameters

▪ Session duration

▪ IP addresses assigned

▪ Location information

3. Network Elements in Charging

o SGSN (Serving GPRS Support Node): Creates S-CDRs for mobility

management

o GGSN (Gateway GPRS Support Node): Creates G-CDRs for data volume

o CGF (Charging Gateway Function): Collects, validates, and formats CDRs

o Billing System: Processes CDRs and generates invoices

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 10. Draw a neat sketch of GSM architecture and state the functions of the following:
BSC, MSC, VLR, HLR, AUC.

GPRS Network Architecture Explanation

GPRS (General Packet Radio Service) extends the GSM architecture to provide packet-
switched data services. The diagram above illustrates the complete GPRS network architecture
with its key components.

Main Components

1. Mobile Station (MS)

o The user device (mobile phone) that connects to the GPRS network

o Contains both the physical device and the SIM card with subscriber information

o Communicates with the network through the Um air interface

2. Base Station Subsystem (BSS)

o Base Transceiver Station (BTS): Manages the radio interface with the MS

o Base Station Controller (BSC): Controls multiple BTSs and manages radio
resources

o Connected internally via the Abis interface

o Acts as the bridge between mobile devices and the core networks

3. GSM Core Network (Circuit-Switched)

o Mobile Switching Center (MSC): Manages circuit-switched connections and

call routing

o Home Location Register (HLR): Database storing subscriber information

o Visitor Location Register (VLR): Temporary database for visiting subscribers

o Connected to BSS via the A interface

o Handles voice calls and traditional GSM services

4. GPRS Core Network (Packet-Switched)

o Serving GPRS Support Node (SGSN):

▪ Delivers data packets to/from mobile stations in its service area

▪ Handles authentication, session management, and mobility management

▪ Tracks location of mobile stations and maintains logical links

▪ Connected to BSS via the Gb interface
 o Gateway GPRS Support Node (GGSN):

▪ Gateway between GPRS network and external packet data networks

▪ Acts as a router to external networks

▪ Assigns IP addresses to mobile stations

▪ Connected to SGSN via the Gn interface

▪ Connected to external packet networks via the Gi interface

5. External Networks

o PSTN/ISDN: Traditional telephone networks (connected to MSC)

o Internet/PDNs: Packet Data Networks (connected to GGSN)

Key Interfaces

• Um: Radio interface between MS and BTS

• Abis: Interface between BTS and BSC
• A: Interface between BSC and MSC (circuit-switched path)

• Gb: Interface between BSC and SGSN (packet-switched path)

• Gn: Interface between SGSN and GGSN

• Gi: Interface between GGSN and external packet data networks

 UNIT- 04

1. Explain multiple Access Strategies.

Multiple Access Strategies

Multiple access strategies are communication techniques that enable multiple users or devices
to share the same communication medium (like radio spectrum) simultaneously. These
strategies are fundamental to modern telecommunications networks, allowing efficient use of
limited resources.

Core Concept

The basic challenge multiple access strategies address is how to divide a limited
communication resource among many users without significant interference or loss of data.
Think of it like organizing a conversation in a crowded room - you need rules for who can
speak when and how to prevent everyone talking over each other.

Primary Multiple Access Strategies

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

FDMA divides the available bandwidth into separate frequency channels. Each user gets
assigned their own frequency band, allowing simultaneous transmission without interference.
It's like having different radio stations on different frequencies - they can all broadcast at the
same time because they use different parts of the spectrum.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

TDMA divides access by time slots. Users take turns using the full bandwidth for short
periods. This is similar to people in a meeting taking turns to speak - only one person talks at
a time, but everyone gets their chance in rotation.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

CDMA allows multiple users to transmit simultaneously across the entire frequency
spectrum. Each user's data is encoded with a unique signature (code), enabling receivers to
distinguish between different transmissions. This resembles multiple conversations in
different languages occurring simultaneously - if you know the language, you can focus on
just that conversation despite the background noise.

Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

SDMA uses directional antennas to focus signals in specific directions, allowing the same
frequencies to be reused in different spatial locations. This is like having separate
conversations in different corners of a room.
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 2. What is multiple access technique? List the different types of multiple access
schemes

Multiple access techniques allow multiple users or devices to share the same communication
channel simultaneously. These techniques are crucial for efficiently utilizing limited spectrum
resources in wireless communications.

Types of Multiple Access Schemes

1. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

2. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

3. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

4. Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)

5. Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access (OFDMA)

6. Non-Orthogonal Multiple Access (NOMA)

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 3. Explain TDMA,CDMA,FDMA.

FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)

FDMA divides the available frequency spectrum into non-overlapping frequency bands. Each
user is assigned a dedicated frequency band for the entire communication duration.

Key characteristics:
• Continuous transmission in a dedicated frequency band

• Requires guard bands between channels to prevent interference

• Simple implementation but less efficient spectrum utilization

• Used in analog cellular systems like AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)

• Each channel can carry one voice or data conversation

TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)

TDMA divides the channel access by time. Multiple users share the same frequency channel
but transmit in different time slots.

Key characteristics:
• Users take turns transmitting in assigned time slots

• Requires precise synchronization

• More complex than FDMA but offers better efficiency

• Used in digital cellular systems like GSM

• Time slots repeat in a cyclical pattern

• Needs guard times between slots to prevent overlap

CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)

CDMA allows multiple users to transmit simultaneously on the same frequency band by
assigning each user a unique code.

Key characteristics:
• All users transmit simultaneously across the entire spectrum

• Uses spread spectrum technology

• Each user's data is encoded with a unique spreading code

• Higher resistance to interference and jamming
 • Better security due to signal spreading

• Soft handoff capability between cells

• Used in 3G mobile systems

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 4. Compare FDMA with CDMA technique. OR Write Difference between FDMA
and CDMA.

___________________________________________________________________________
 5. Write the difference between FDMA and TDMA.

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 6. Write the difference between TDMA and CDMA.

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