LECTURE NOTE

Quadratic Equation
The general form of quadratic equation is given as 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0, where 𝑎 ≠
0. The value of 𝑥 satisfying the equation is called roots of the equation.
Methods of solving Quadratic Equation
• Factorization method
• Completing the square method
• Formular method
• Graphical method
Factorization method
Examples:
1) 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 + 6 = 0
𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 + 6 = 0
𝑥(𝑥 + 2) + 3(𝑥 + 2) = 0
(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 + 3) = 0
𝑥 + 2 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 3 = 0
𝑥 = −2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −3
𝑥 = −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 3
2) 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0
3𝑥(𝑥 + 1) + 1(𝑥 + 1) = 0
(3𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 + 1) = 0
3𝑥 + 1 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 + 1 = 0
1
𝑥 = − 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1
1
𝑥 = − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1
3

1
3) 𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 21 = 0
𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 3𝑥 − 21 = 0
𝑥(𝑥 − 7) + 3(𝑥 − 7) = 0
(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 − 7) = 0
𝑥 + 3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 7 = 0
𝑥 = −3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 7
𝑥 = −3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 7
4) 14𝑥 2 + 19𝑥 − 3 = 0
14𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 21𝑥 − 3 = 0
2𝑥(7𝑥 − 1) + 3(7𝑥 − 1) = 0
(2𝑥 + 3)(7𝑥 − 1) = 0
2𝑥 + 3 = 0 𝑜𝑟 7𝑥 − 1 = 0
3 1
𝑥 = − 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 7
1 1
𝑥 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑
2 7

Completing the square method

Example:
1) 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 = −1
Divide through by 3
4 1
𝑥2 + 3 𝑥 = − 3

Add half coefficient of 𝑥 to both side and square it

4 1 4 2 1 1 4 2
𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 + 2 (3) = − 3 + 2 (3)

2
 4 2 2 1 2 2
𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 + (3) = − 3 + (3)

2 2 1 4
(𝑥 + 3) = − 3 + 9

2 2 −3+4
(𝑥 + 3) = 9

2 2 1
(𝑥 + 3) = 9

Take square root of both side

2 1
𝑥 + = ±√
3 9

2 1
𝑥 = −3±3
2 1 2 1
𝑥 = − 3 + 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = − 3 − 3
1
𝑥 = − 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1
1
𝑥 = − 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1

Formular method
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 = −𝑐
Divide through by 𝑎
𝑏 𝑐
𝑥2 + 𝑎 𝑥 = − 𝑎

Add half coefficient of 𝑥 to both side and square it

𝑏 1 𝑏 2 𝑐 1 𝑏 2
𝑥 2 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 2 (𝑎) = − 𝑎 + 2 (𝑎)
4 𝑏2 𝑐 𝑏2
𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 + 4𝑎2 = − 𝑎 + 4𝑎2

𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐 +𝑏2
(𝑥 + 2𝑎) = 4𝑎2

3
 Take square root of both side

𝑏 −4𝑎𝑐 +𝑏2 √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐

𝑥 + 2𝑎 = ±√ =±
4𝑎2 2𝑎

𝑏 √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥 = − 2𝑎 ± 2𝑎

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= 2𝑎

Note that:
1) 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 is called discriminant
2) If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0; the equation has two real distinct roots
3) If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0; real roots
4) If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0; real and equal root
5) If 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0; complex roots

Example:
3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 1 = 0
𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 4, 𝑐 = 1
−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 −4 ± √42 − 4×3×1
𝑥= =
2𝑎 2×3

−4 ± √16 − 12
𝑥= 6

−4 ± √4
𝑥= 6
−4 ± 2
𝑥= 6
−4 + 2 −4−2
𝑥= 𝑜𝑟
6 6
−2 −6
𝑥= 𝑜𝑟
6 6
1
𝑥 = − 3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 1

4
Roots of quadratic equation
It is often useful to be able to obtain information about the roots of an equation
without actually solving it. For instance, if 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are the roots of the equation,
the value of 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 can be found without first finding the value of 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽, this
is done by finding the value of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽 and expressing 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 in terms
of 𝛼 + 𝛽 and 𝛼𝛽.
Suppose that 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are the root
𝑥 = 𝛼 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 𝛽
𝑥 − 𝛼 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 − 𝛽 = 0
(𝑥 − 𝛼)(𝑥 − 𝛽) = 0
𝑥 2 − 𝛼𝑥 − 𝛽𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0
𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0
Hence, if 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 are the roots of the equation, the equation can be written
𝑥 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠)𝑥 + (𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑠) = 0.
Now, if 𝛼 and 𝛽 are the roots of the equation
𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
𝑏 𝑐
𝑥2 + 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑎 = 0
𝑏 𝑐
𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 𝑎 and 𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎

Examples:
1) Write down an equation whose roots are 3, 4.
Solution:
𝛼 = 3, 𝛽 = 4 ; 𝛼 + 𝛽 = 7 and 𝛼𝛽 = 12
𝑥 2 − (𝑠𝑢𝑚)𝑥 + 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = 0
𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 12 = 0
2) The roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛽, find the value of
1 1
i) +𝛽 ii) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽2
𝛼

5
Solution:
2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 1 = 0
3 1
𝑥2 + 𝑥 + = 0
2 2
3 1
𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 2 and 𝛼𝛽 = 2
3
2
1 1 𝛼+ 𝛽 1 3 2
+𝛽= = − = − 2 × 1 = −3
𝛼 𝛼𝛽 2

𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 but recall that (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 2𝛼𝛽

𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽
3 2 1 9
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (− 2) − 2 × 2 = 4 − 1
5 1
𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 = = 1
4 4

3) The equation 5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1 = 0, let roots be 𝛼, 𝛽

1 1 1 1
a. 𝛼2 + 𝛽2 b. (𝛼 − 𝛽)2 c. 𝛼 3 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 3 d. 𝛼2 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽2

Solution:
5𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 1 = 0
4 1
𝑥2 − 𝑥 − = 0
5 5
4 1
𝛼 + 𝛽 = 5 and 𝛼𝛽 = − 5
1 1
a. +
𝛼2 𝛽2

1 1 𝛼 2 +𝛽2 (𝛼+𝛽)2 −2𝛼𝛽

+ 𝛽2 = =
𝛼2 𝛼 2 𝛽2 (𝛼𝛽)2

4 2 1 16 2
1 1 (5) −2(−5) +
25 5
+ 𝛽2 = 1 2
= 1
𝛼2 (−5) 25

1 1 26 25
+ 𝛽2 = 25 × = 26
𝛼2 1

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 b. (𝛼 − 𝛽)2
but 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽
then (𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 − 2𝛼𝛽
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽
4 2 1
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = ( ) − 4 (− )
5 5

16 4 16+20
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = 25 + 5 = √ 25

36
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = √25

6 1
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = 5 = 1 5

c. 𝛼 3 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 3 = 𝛼𝛽(𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 )
𝛼 3 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 3 = 𝛼𝛽((𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽)
1 4 2 1
= (− 5) ((5) − 2 (− 5))

1 16 2
= − 5 (25 + 5)
1 26 26
= − 5 (25) = − 125

1 1 𝛼+𝛽 4 1 2
d. + 𝛼𝛽2 = = 5 ÷ (− 5)
𝛼2 𝛽 𝛼 2 𝛽2
1 1 4
+ 𝛼𝛽2 = 5 × 25 = 20
𝛼2 𝛽

4) The roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 = 0 are 𝛼, 𝛽 find the

𝛼 𝛽
equation whose roots are 𝛽 , 𝛼 .

Solution:
𝛼 + 𝛽 = −3, 𝛼𝛽 = −4

7
 𝛼 𝛽 𝛼𝛽
Then the product of the new equation will be 𝛽 × 𝛼 = 𝛽𝛼 = 1

𝛼 𝛽 𝛼 2 +𝛽2 (𝛼+𝛽)2 −2𝛼𝛽

The sum will be 𝛽 + 𝛼 = =
𝛼𝛽 𝛼𝛽

𝛼 𝛽 (−3)2 −2(−4) 9+8 17

+𝛼 = = = −4
𝛽 −4 −4

𝛼 𝛽 1
+ 𝛼 = −4 4
𝛽

Then the new equation is

17
𝑥2 + ( )𝑥 + 1 = 0
4
4𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 + 4 = 0
5) The roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 are 𝛼 and 𝛼 − 1, find the
value of q.
Solution:
𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0
Sum of the root ⇒ 𝛼 + (𝛼 − 1) = −6
2𝛼 − 1 = −6
5
2𝛼 = −5 ⇒ 𝛼 = −
2
Product ⇒ 𝛼(𝛼 − 1) = 𝑞
𝛼2 − 𝛼 = 𝑞
5 2 5
(− ) − (− ) = 𝑞
2 2
35 3
𝑞= = 84
4

Exercises:
1) The roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 4 = 0 are 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽, find the value of:
1 1 𝛽 𝛼
a) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 b) + c) (𝛼 + 1)(𝛽 + 1) d) +
𝛼 𝛽 𝛼 𝛽

8
2) The roots of the equation 4𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 + 1 = 0 are 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽, find the value of:
1 1 1 1
a) + b) (𝛼 − 𝛽)2 c) 𝛼 3 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 3 d) +
𝛼2 𝛽2 𝛼2 𝛽 𝛼𝛽2

e) 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3
3) The roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 1 = 0 are 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽, find an equation
1 1 𝛼 𝛽
whose roots are: a) (𝛼 − 𝛽), (𝛽 − 𝛼) b) , c) ,
𝛼 𝛽 𝛽 𝛼

4) The roots of the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 8 = 0 are 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 + 2, find two

possible value of p.
5) The roots of the equation 𝑥 2 + 2𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 differ by 2, show that 𝑝 2 =
1 + 𝑞.
6) If the roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽, find an
expression in-terms of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 for a) 𝛼 2 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 2 b) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2
c) 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 d) 𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4
7) The roots of the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 are 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽, find the
equation whose roots are: a) −𝛼 , − 𝛽 b) 𝛼 − 𝛽, 𝛽 + 𝛼
c) 2𝛼 + 𝛽, 𝛼 + 2𝛽.

More examples
1) If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 2 = 0, find the value of:
1 1
a) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 b) 𝛼 − 𝛽 c) 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 d) 𝛼 + 𝛽

e) 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 f) 𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 g) 𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 h) 𝛼 4 − 𝛽 4
i) (𝛼 − 𝛽)2
Solution:
a) 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 ≠ (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 but (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 + 𝛽)
that is (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 2𝛼𝛽
making 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 subject of the formular

9
 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽
Recall that
𝑏 1 1
𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 𝑎 = − (− 2) = 2
𝑐 2
𝛼𝛽 = 𝑎 = − 2 = −1

1 2 1 9
⇒ 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (2) − 2(−1) = 4 + 2 = 4

b) 𝛼 − 𝛽 cannot be found directly, we use (𝛼 − 𝛽)2

(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 − 𝛽) = 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 − 2𝛼𝛽
But recall 𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽
⇒ (𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽 − 2𝛼𝛽
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 4𝛼𝛽
1 2 1 17
(𝛼 − 𝛽)2 = (2) − 4(−1) = 4 + 4 = 4

17 √17
𝛼 −𝛽 = √4 = 2

c) 𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 + 𝛽)
√17 1 √17
𝛼 2 − 𝛽2 = × =
2 2 4
1 1 𝛽+𝛼 1 1
d) +𝛽= = 2 ÷ −1 = − 2
𝛼 𝛼𝛽
1 1 1
+ 𝛽 = −2
𝛼

e) 𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)(𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 − 𝛼𝛽)
𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)((𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽 − 𝛼𝛽)
𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)((𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 3𝛼𝛽)
1 1 2
𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 = (2) ((2) − 3(−1))

10
 1 1 1 13
𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 = (2) (4 + 3) = (2) ( 4 )
13 5
𝛼 3 + 𝛽3 = = 18
8

f) 𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 + 𝛼𝛽)
𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)((𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽)
𝛼 3 − 𝛽 3 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)((𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 𝛼𝛽)
√17 1
𝛼 3 − 𝛽3 = ( ) ( + 1)
2 4

√17 5 5√17
𝛼 3 − 𝛽3 = ( )( ) =
2 4 8

5√17
𝛼 3 − 𝛽3 = 8

g) 𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 = (𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 )(𝛼 + 𝛽) − 𝛼𝛽(𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 )
𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 = 𝛼 4 + 𝛼 3 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽 3 + 𝛽 4 − 𝛼 3 𝛽 3 − 𝛼𝛽 3
Therefore, 𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 = (𝛼 3 + 𝛽 3 )(𝛼 + 𝛽) − 𝛼𝛽(𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 )
13 1 9 13 9
𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 = ( 8 ) (2) + 1 (4) = 16 + 4
13+36 49
𝛼 4 + 𝛽4 = = 16
16

Or 𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 = (𝛼 + 𝛽)4 − 4𝛼𝛽(𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 ) − 6(𝛼𝛽)2

1 4 9 1+144−96 49
𝛼 4 + 𝛽 4 = (2) − 4(−1) (4) − 6(−1)2 = = 16
16

h) 𝛼 4 − 𝛽 4 = (𝛼 2 − 𝛽 2 )(𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 )
𝛼 4 − 𝛽 4 = (𝛼 − 𝛽)(𝛼 + 𝛽)((𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽)
1 √17 1 2
𝛼 4 − 𝛽 4 = (2) ( ) (( ) − 2(−1))
2 2

1 √17 1
𝛼 4 − 𝛽 4 = (2) ( ) ( + 2)
2 4

1 √17 9 9√17
𝛼 4 − 𝛽4 = ( ) ( )( ) =
2 2 4 16

11
2) If 𝛼 , 𝛽 are the roots of the equation 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1 = 0, construct a new
equation whose roots are:
1 1 1 1
a) 5𝛼 , 5𝛽 b) 𝛼 2 , 𝛽 2 c) 𝛼 , 𝛽 d) 𝛼 + 𝛽 , 𝛽 + 𝛼

Solution:
Recall that to form a quadratic equation, we used
𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼 𝛽 = 0
Given that 3𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 − 1 = 0
𝑎 = 3, 𝑏 = 5, 𝑐 = −1
𝑏 5
(𝛼 + 𝛽) = − = −
𝑎 3
𝑐 1
𝛼 𝛽 = 𝑎 = −3
5 25
a) Sum of the root 5𝛼 + 5𝛽 = 5(𝛼 + 𝛽) = 5 (− 3) = − 3
1 25
Product = (5𝛼)(5𝛽) = 25(𝛼𝛽) = 25 (− 3) = − 3

Hence, 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼 𝛽 = 0
25 25
𝑥 2 − (− )𝑥 − =0
3 3

3𝑥 2 + 25𝑥 − 25 = 0
b) 𝛼 2 , 𝛽 2 ⇒ (𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 ) = (𝛼 + 𝛽)2 − 2𝛼𝛽
5 2 1
𝛼 2 + 𝛽 2 = (− 3) − 2 (− 3)
25 2 31
𝛼 2 + 𝛽2 = +3=
9 9

1 2 1
𝛼 2 . 𝛽 2 = (𝛼𝛽)2 = (− 3) = 9
31 1
𝑥2 − 𝑥+9 =0
9

9𝑥 2 − 31𝑥 + 1 = 0

12
 1 1 𝛼+𝛽 5 1 5 3
c) +𝛽= = −3÷ −3 = −3 × −1 = 5
𝛼 𝛼𝛽
1 1
+𝛽 =5
𝛼
1
1 1 1 −1
(𝛼) (𝛽) = 𝛼𝛽 = = −3
3

𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 3 = 0
1 1
d) 𝛼 +𝛽,𝛽 +𝛼
1 1 1 1 𝛼+𝛽
(𝛼 + 𝛽) + ( 𝛽 + 𝛼) = 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛼 + 𝛽 = (𝛼 + 𝛽) + 𝛼𝛽

1 1 5 5 1 5 10
(𝛼 + 𝛽) + ( 𝛽 + 𝛼) = − 3 + (− 3 ÷ − 3) = − 3 + 5 = 3

1 1 10 1
(𝛼 + 𝛽) + ( 𝛽 + 𝛼) = = 33
3

1 1 𝛼 𝛽 1
(𝛼 + 𝛽) ( 𝛽 + 𝛼) = 𝛼𝛽 + 𝛼 + 𝛽 + 𝛼𝛽
1
1 1 1 −1
(𝛼 + 𝛽) ( 𝛽 + 𝛼) = − 3 + 1 + 1 + 3

1 1 1 4
(𝛼 + 𝛽) ( 𝛽 + 𝛼) = − 3 + 2 − 3 = − 3

Therefore, 𝑥 2 − (𝛼 + 𝛽)𝑥 + 𝛼𝛽 = 0
10 4
𝑥2 − 3
𝑥−3 =0

3𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 4 = 0
3) Show that if the equation 𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑥 + 1 = 0 and 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 have
common roots then (𝑏 − 1)2 = (𝑎 − 1)(1 − 𝑎𝑏).
Solution:
Let 𝑦 be the common roots
𝑦 2 + 𝑎𝑦 + 1 = 0 - - - (1)
𝑦2 + 𝑦 + 𝑏 = 0 - - - (2)
13
 Subtracting (1) from (2)
𝑎𝑦 − 𝑦 + 1 − 𝑏 = 0
𝑦(𝑎 − 1) + 1 − 𝑏 = 0
𝑦(𝑎 − 1) = 𝑏 − 1
𝑏−1
𝑦= - - - - (3)
𝑎−1

𝑎 ≠ 1, substituting eqn (3) into (1)

𝑏−1 2 𝑏−1
(𝑎−1) + 𝑎 (𝑎−1) + 1 = 0
(𝑏−1)2 +𝑎(𝑎−1)(𝑏−1)+(𝑎−1)2
=0
(𝑎−1)2

(𝑏−1)2 +𝑎(𝑎𝑏−𝑎−𝑏+1)+(𝑎2 −2𝑎+1)

=0
(𝑎−1)2

(𝑏 − 1)2 + 𝑎(𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎 − 𝑏 + 1) + (𝑎2 − 2𝑎 + 1) = 0

(𝑏 − 1)2 + 𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑏 + 𝑎 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑎 + 1 = 0
(𝑏 − 1)2 + 𝑎2 𝑏 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑎 + 1 = 0
(𝑏 − 1)2 + 𝑎𝑏(𝑎 − 1) − 1(𝑎 − 1) = 0
(𝑏 − 1)2 + (𝑎𝑏 − 1)(𝑎 − 1) = 0
Therefore, (𝑏 − 1)2 = −[(𝑎𝑏 − 1)(𝑎 − 1)]
(𝑏 − 1)2 = (1 − 𝑎𝑏)(𝑎 − 1)
Hence proved
4) One root of the equation 27𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 8 = 0 is known to be the square of
the other. Find b.
Solution:
Let the roots of the equation be 𝛼, 𝛼 2
𝑏
⇒ 𝛼 + 𝛼 2 = − 27
8 2
𝛼 . 𝛼 2 = 𝛼 3 = 27 = 3

14
 2 4 𝑏
Therefore, 3 + 9 = − 27
10 𝑏
= − 27
9

⇒ 𝑏 = −30
5) Find the value of 𝑝 for which the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑝(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 =
0), when 𝑝 ≠ 1 has equal root and the range of value for 𝑝 for which the
roots are distinct.
Solution:
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 = 𝑝(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 1 = 0)
𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 1 − 𝑝𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 − 𝑝 = 0
(1 − 𝑝)𝑥 2 − (1 + 𝑝)𝑥 + 1 − 𝑝 = 0
⇒ 𝑎 = 1 − 𝑝; 𝑏 = −(1 + 𝑝), 𝑐 = 1 − 𝑝
For the equation to have equal roots 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 = 0
(−(1 + 𝑝))2 − 4(1 − 𝑝)(1 − 𝑝) = 0
1 + 2𝑝 + 𝑝 2 − 4(1 − 2𝑝 + 𝑝 2 ) = 0
1 + 2𝑝 + 𝑝 2 − 4 + 8𝑝 − 4𝑝 2 = 0
−3𝑝 2 + 10𝑝 − 3 = 0
Multiply through by negative
3𝑝 2 − 10𝑝 + 3 = 0
3𝑝 2 − 9𝑝 − 𝑝 + 3 = 0
3𝑝(𝑝 − 3) − 1(𝑝 − 3) = 0
⇒ (3𝑝 − 1)(𝑝 − 3) = 0
1
⇒ 𝑝 = 3 𝑜𝑟 3

For distinct real roots 𝑏 2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0

(−(1 + 𝑝))2 − 4(1 − 𝑝)(1 − 𝑝) > 0
⇒ (3𝑝 − 1)(𝑝 − 3) > 0
15
 Either (𝑝 − 3) > 0 𝑜𝑟 (3𝑝 − 1) > 0
1
That is 𝑝 > 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 >
3
1
𝑝 < 3 𝑜𝑟 𝑝 < 3
1
But if 𝑝 > 3 and 𝑝 < 3 implies no solution.
1
Therefore, 𝑝 > 3 and 𝑝 < 3

6) One of the root of the equation 𝑥 2 − 𝑝𝑥 + 𝑞 = 0 is the square of the other.

Show that 𝑝 3 − 𝑞(3𝑝 + 1) − 𝑞 2 = 0.
Solution:
Let 𝛼 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛼 2 be the root
𝑏
⇒ 𝛼 + 𝛼2 = − 𝑎 = 𝑝
𝑐
𝛼 . 𝛼2 = 𝛼3 = 𝑎 = 𝑞

𝛼 + 𝛼2 = 𝑝 - - - - (1)
𝛼3 = 𝑞 - - - - (2)
From (1), 𝛼 = 𝑝 − 𝛼 2 - - - (3)
Substituting (3) into (2)
(𝑝 − 𝛼 2 )3 = 𝑞
(𝑝 − 𝛼 2 )(𝑝 − 𝛼 2 )(𝑝 − 𝛼 2 ) = 𝑞
(𝑝 − 𝛼 2 )(𝑝 2 − 2𝑝𝛼 2 + 𝛼 4 ) = 𝑞
𝑝 3 − 2𝑝 2 𝛼 2 + 𝛼 4 𝑝 − 𝛼 2 𝑝 2 + 2𝑝𝛼 4 − 𝛼 6 = 𝑞
𝑝 3 − 3𝑝 2 𝛼 2 + 3𝛼 4 𝑝 − (𝛼 3 )2 = 𝑞
But 𝛼 3 = 𝑞
𝑝 3 − 3𝑝 2 𝛼 2 + 3𝛼 4 𝑝 − 𝑞 2 = 𝑞
𝑝 3 − 3𝑝 2 𝛼 2 + 3𝛼 4 𝑝 − 𝑞 2 − 𝑞 = 0
𝑝 3 − 3𝑝𝛼 2 (𝑝 − 𝛼 2 ) − 𝑞 2 − 𝑞 = 0
16
 But 𝛼 = 𝑝 − 𝛼 2
𝑝 3 − 3𝑝𝛼 2 𝛼 − 𝑞 2 − 𝑞 = 0
𝑝 3 − 3𝑝𝛼 3 − 𝑞 2 − 𝑞 = 0
But 𝛼 3 = 𝑞
𝑝 3 − 3𝑝𝑞 − 𝑞 2 − 𝑞 = 0
𝑝 3 − 𝑞(3𝑝 + 1) − 𝑞 2 = 0
7) If one of the root of the equation 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 = 0 is five times the other,
find the relationship between 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟.
Solution:
Let the root be 𝛼, 5𝛼
Sum of the root are
𝑏 𝑞
⇒ 𝛼 + 5𝛼 = − 𝑎 = 6𝛼 = − 𝑝
𝑞
⇒ 𝛼 = − 6𝑝
𝑐 𝑟
Similarly, 𝛼. 5𝛼 = 5𝛼 2 = =
𝑎 𝑝
𝑟
5𝛼 2 = 𝑝
𝑞
But 𝛼 = − 6𝑝

𝑞 2 𝑟
5 (− 6𝑝) = 𝑝

5𝛼 2 𝑟
=𝑝
36𝑝2

5𝑞 2 𝑝 = 36𝑝 2 𝑟
5𝑞 2 = 36𝑝𝑟
8) If the roots of the equation 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 𝑟 = 0 are 𝛼 and 2𝛼 + 1 , show that
(𝑝 + 𝑞)(2𝑞 − 𝑝) = 9𝑝𝑟.

17
Solution:
𝑎 = 𝑝, 𝑏 = 𝑞, 𝑐 = 𝑟
𝑏
Sum of the root 𝛼 + 𝛽 = − 𝑎
𝑞
𝛼 + 2𝛼 + 1 = − 𝑝
𝑞
3𝛼 + 1 = − 𝑝
𝑞
⇒ 3𝛼 = − 𝑝 − 1
−𝑞−𝑝
3𝛼 =
𝑝

−(𝑝+𝑞)
⇒𝛼= - - - (1)
3𝑝

Product of the root

𝑟
𝛼𝛽 = 𝑝
𝑟
𝛼(2𝛼 + 1) = 𝑝
𝑟
⇒ 2𝛼 2 + 𝛼 = - - - (2)
𝑝

Substituting (1) into (2)

−(𝑝+𝑞) 2 −(𝑝+𝑞) 𝑟
2( ) +( )=𝑝
3𝑝 3𝑝

2(𝑝+𝑞)2 𝑝+𝑞 𝑟
− =𝑝
9𝑝2 3𝑝

2(𝑝+𝑞)2 −3𝑝(𝑝+𝑞) 𝑟
=𝑝
9𝑝2
𝑟
2(𝑝 + 𝑞)2 − 3𝑝(𝑝 + 𝑞) = 9𝑝 2 × 𝑝

2(𝑝 2 + 𝑞 2 + 2𝑝𝑞) − 3𝑝 2 − 3𝑝𝑞 = 9𝑝𝑟

2𝑝 2 + 2𝑞 2 + 4𝑝𝑞 − 3𝑝 2 − 3𝑝𝑞 = 9𝑝𝑟
2𝑞 2 + 𝑝𝑞 − 𝑝 2 = 9𝑝𝑟 is a quadratic equation
(2𝑞 − 𝑝)(𝑝 + 𝑞) = 9𝑝𝑟 hence the proved.
18
REMAINDER THEOREM
Let 𝑃(𝑥) be a polynomial of finite degree, let 𝑄(𝑥) be the quotient and R be the
Remainder, when 𝑃(𝑥) is divided by (𝑥 − 𝑎) then 𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑄(𝑥) + 𝑅.
Examples:
1. Divide 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6 by 𝑥 + 1
Solution:
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 6
𝑥+1 𝑥 3 + 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 6
𝑥3 + 𝑥2
𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 − 6
𝑥2 + 𝑥
−6𝑥 − 6
−6𝑥 − 6
Implies 𝑥 + 1 is 2 zero of the polynomial therefore
𝑃(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 6) + 𝑅
= (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 3)
As the remaining zeros.
2. If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 − 7𝑥 + 𝑏 is divisible by 𝑥 − 1 and 𝑥 − 2, find the value
of 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Solution:
𝑥−1 =0 ⇒𝑥 =1
𝑓(1) = 1 + 𝑎 − 7 + 𝑏 = 0
𝑎+𝑏 = 6 - - - - (1)
𝑥−2 =0 ⇒𝑥 =2
𝑓(1) = 8 + 4𝑎 − 14 + 𝑏 = 0
4𝑎 + 𝑏 = 6 - - - - (2)
19
 From (1) and (2)
𝑎 = 6−𝑏
4(6 − 𝑏) + 𝑏 = 6
24 − 4𝑏 + 𝑏 = 6
−3𝑏 = −18 ⇒ 𝑏 = 6
⇒𝑎=0
3. Solve the equation 5𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 + 6 = 0
Solution:
𝑥 + 1 is factor
𝑥 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −1
5𝑥 3 − 17𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 6
𝑥+1 5𝑥 4 − 12𝑥 3 − 6𝑥 2 + 17𝑥 + 6
5𝑥 4 + 5𝑥 3
−17𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2
−17𝑥 3 − 17𝑥 2
+11𝑥 2 + 17𝑥
11𝑥 2 + 11𝑥 + 6
6𝑥 + 6
6𝑥 + 6
0 0
4. If (𝑥 − 2) and (𝑥 + 1) are factors of 𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 1, find the value of
𝑝 and 𝑞, and hence factorize completely.
Solution:
Since 𝑥 + 1 is 2 factor implies 𝑥 = −1
𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 + 𝑝(−1)2 + 𝑞(−1) + 1 = 0

20
−1 + 𝑝 − 𝑞 + 1 = 0
𝑝=𝑞 - - - (1)
Also since 𝑥 − 2 is a factor implies 𝑥 = 2.
𝑓(2) = (2)3 + 𝑝(2)2 + 𝑞(2) + 1 = 0
8 + 4𝑝 + 2𝑞 + 1 = 0
4𝑝 + 2𝑞 = −9 - - (2)
From (1) since 𝑝 = 𝑞 (2) becomes
4𝑞 + 2𝑞 = −9
3
6𝑞 = −9 ⇒ 𝑞 = − 2

𝑥 3 + 𝑝𝑥 2 + 𝑞𝑥 + 1
3 3
𝑥 3 + (− )𝑥 2 + (− ) 𝑥 + 1
2 2

2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
𝑥−2 2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2
2𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2
𝑥 2 − 3𝑥
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥
−𝑥 + 2
−𝑥 + 2

2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 = 0
2𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0
2𝑥(𝑥 + 1) − 1(𝑥 + 1) = 0
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1) = 0

21
 ⇒ 2𝑥 = 1 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = −1
Therefore the complete factor are (2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 2).
5. Find the value of 𝑎 and b, if the expression 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 − 28𝑥 + 15 is
exactly divisible by (𝑥 + 3) and leaves a remainder of – 60 when divided
by (𝑥 − 3) and factorize completely.
Solution:
Since 𝑥 + 3 ⇒ 2 factor implies 𝑥 = −3
𝑓(−3) = 𝑎(−3)3 + 𝑏(−3)2 + 28(−3) + 15 = 0
−27𝑎 + 9𝑏 + 84 + 15 = 0
−27𝑎 + 9𝑏 + 99 = 0
−27𝑎 + 9𝑏 = −99
Divide through by 9
−3𝑎 + 𝑏 = −11 - - - (1)
Also since 𝑥 − 3 leave 2 remainder of −60
⇒ 𝑓(3) = 𝑎(3)3 + 𝑏(3)2 − 28(3) + 15 = −60
27𝑎 + 9𝑏 − 84 + 15 = −60
27𝑎 + 9𝑏 − 69 = −60
27𝑎 + 9𝑏 = −60 + 69
Divide through by 9
3𝑎 + 𝑏 = 1 - - - (2)
Substitute (3) into (2)
3𝑎 + (−11 + 3𝑎) = 1
3𝑎 + 3𝑎 − 11 = 1
6𝑎 = 12 ⇒ 𝑎 = 2
⇒ 3(𝑎) + 𝑏 = 1 ⇒ 𝑏 = −5
Therefore, 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 28𝑥 + 15
22
 Since 𝑥 + 3 is a factor, we use long division to obtained the quotient, then
we factorize
2𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 5
𝑥+3 2𝑥 3 − 5𝑥 2 − 28𝑥 + 15
2𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 2
−11𝑥 2 − 28𝑥
−11𝑥 2 − 33𝑥
5𝑥 + 15
5𝑥 + 15
Therefore,
(𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 5) = 0
But 2𝑥 2 − 11𝑥 + 5 = 0
2𝑥 2 − 10𝑥 − 𝑥 + 5 = 0
2𝑥(𝑥 − 5) − 1(𝑥 − 5) = 0
(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 5) = 0
1
The factor are (𝑥 + 3)(2𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 5), hence 𝑥 = −3, 2 , 5

6. A polynomial 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 3 has a factor (𝑥 − 3) and when

divided by 𝑥 − 2 leaves a remainder – 3, find 𝑎 and 𝑏 and hence factorize
completely.
Solution:
Since (𝑥 − 3) is a factor implies 𝑥 − 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 3
𝑓(3) = (3)3 + 𝑎(3)2 + 3𝑏 + 3 = 0
27 + 9𝑎 + 3𝑏 + 3 = 0
9𝑎 + 3𝑏 = −30 - - - - (1)
When divided by 𝑥 − 2, remainder is – 3
𝑓(2) = −3
23
 𝑓(2) = (2)3 + 𝑎(2)2 + 2𝑏 + 3 = −3
8 + 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 + 3 = −3
4𝑎 + 2𝑏 = −14 - - - - (2)
Solving (1) and (2)
9
3 −30
| || | ∆ = 18 − 12 = 6
4
2 −14
−30 3
∆𝑎 = | | = −126 − (−120) = −6
−14 2
9 −30
∆𝑏 = | | = −126 − (−120) = −6
4 −14
18
∆𝑎 = − =3
6
6
∆𝑏 = − 6 = −1

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3
𝑥2 − 1
𝑥−3 𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3
𝑥 3 − 3𝑥 2
−𝑥 + 3
−𝑥 + 3

(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 2 − 1)
(𝑥 − 3)(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 1)

24
Exercises
1) Obtain the quadratic equation whose roots are the reciprocal of those of
the equation 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0.
2) The expression 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 is divisible by 𝑥 − 1, has a remainder 2
when divided by 𝑥 + 1, and has remainder 8, when divided by 𝑥 − 2, find
the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐.
3) A polynomial 𝑝𝑥 3 + 𝑞𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 3 has a factor 𝑥 + 1 and when divided by
𝑥 − 4 leaves a remainder of 15, find 𝑓(𝑥) and with those value of 𝑝 and 𝑞
factorize completely.
4) If (𝑥 + 1) and (𝑥 + 2) are factors of the expression 𝑥 4 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏, find the
value of 𝑎 and b, with these value of 𝑎 and 𝑏 factorize completely.
5) The polynomial 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 − 3 has a remainder 3𝑥 + 9, when divided
by 𝑥 2 − 4. Find the value of 𝑎 and 𝑏, with these value of a and b factorize
the polynomial into linear factors. Hint: 𝑥 2 − 4 = (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2).
6) The polynomial 𝑝𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 𝑞 has remainder 19𝑥 − 11 when
divided by 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2, find the value of 𝑝 and 𝑞 with these value of 𝑝 and
𝑞 with these value of 𝑝 and 𝑞 factorize completely into linear factors.
Solution:
5) 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 − 3
𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 + 9, dividing by 𝑥 2 − 4
⇒ (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2); 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 − 2
𝑓(2) = (2)3 + 𝑎(2)2 + 𝑏(2) − 3 = 3(2) + 9
𝑓(2) = 8 + 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 − 3 = 6 + 9
= 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 = −8 + 3 + 15
𝑓(2) = 4𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 10 - - - - (1)
𝑓(−2) = (−2)3 + 𝑎(−2)2 + 𝑏(−2) − 3 = 3(−2) + 9
𝑓(−2) = −8 + 4𝑎 − 2𝑏 − 3 = −6 + 9
= 4𝑎 − 2𝑏 = 8 + 3 + 3

25
𝑓(−2) = 4𝑎 − 2𝑏 = 14 - - - - (2)
From (1) and (2)
4𝑎 + 2𝑏 = 10
4𝑎 − 2𝑏 = 14
8𝑎 = 24 ⇒𝑎 =3
From (1), 4(3) + 2𝑏 = 10
2𝑏 = 10 − 12 = −2
𝑏 = −1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3
𝑓(1) = (1)3 + 3(1)2 − (1) − 3 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 − 1 is a factor
Also, 𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 + 3(−1)2 − (−1) − 3 = 0
⇒ 𝑥 + 1 is a factor which implies (𝑥 2 − 1) = (𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3
𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3
𝑥−1 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 − 𝑥 − 3
𝑥3 − 𝑥2
4𝑥 2 − 𝑥
4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥
3𝑥 − 3
3𝑥 −3
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 + 3
(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 + 3)(𝑥 + 1)

26
Permutation and Combination
Permutation
Let 𝑛be a positive integer and 𝑟 a positive integer less than or equal to the
number of different arrangement of 𝑟 thing taken out of 𝑛 dissimilar things is
denoted by 𝑛𝑝𝑟 . Such arrangement is called permutation of 𝑛 things taken 𝑟 at
a time.

Recall that

𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2).. . (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)

Also, 0! = 1

𝑛!
𝑛𝐶𝑟 = (𝑛−𝑟)!𝑟!

Note:

In permutation, 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴

In combination, 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴

Examples:

1) Find the number of permutation of the letters of the word KASU?

Solution:

There are four different letters, K, A, S, U, hence the number of

permutation of the letter of the word is 4!.

4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24

2) Find the numbers of ways the first, second and third position can be taken
by 10 candidates in Maths competition assuming there is no tie.

27
 Solution:

The number of ways the first, second and third position can be taken is
equivalent to the permutation of 10 people taken 3 at a time.

10! 10! 10×9×8×7!

10𝑃3 = (10−3)! = =
7! 7!

10𝑃3 = 720

Cyclic Permutation

In cyclic permutation, we are concerned about arrangement of things about a

circular object. Suppose we wish to find the number of permutation of five
people around a circular table, since a round object has no beginning and no
end. We may fix one person and permute the remaining four round the one
person.

Similarly, the number of permutation of 𝑛 people around a circular object, is

obtained by fixing one person and permutating the remaining (𝑛 − 1) about the
fixed person. The number of ways of doing this 1 × (𝑛 − 1)! = (𝑛 − 1)! Ways.

Example:

1) In how many ways can 6 members of a board of director of 2 company be

seated round a circular table?

Solution:

This problem is similar to the finding number of cyclic permutation of 6

things round a circular object.

The number of ways the 6 members can be seated 1 × 5! = 120 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

2) Show that 𝑛 − 1𝑃𝑟 + 𝑛 − 1𝑃𝑟−1 = 𝑛𝑃𝑟

28
Proof:

𝑛!
Recall that 𝑛𝑃𝑟 = (𝑛−𝑟)!

(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑟(𝑛 − 1)!

+ = 𝑛𝑃𝑟
(𝑛 − 1 − 𝑟)! (𝑛 − 1 − 𝑟 + 1)!

First, we need to show that the left hand side is equal right hand side

(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑟(𝑛 − 1)!

+ = 𝑛𝑃𝑟
(𝑛 − 1 − 𝑟)! (𝑛 − 𝑟)!

(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑟(𝑛 − 1)!

+
(𝑛 − 1 − 𝑟)! (𝑛 − 𝑟)(𝑛 − 𝑟 − 1)!

(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑟
[1 + ]
(𝑛 − 1 − 𝑟)! (𝑛 − 𝑟)

(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑛 − 𝑟 + 𝑟
[ ]
(𝑛 − 1 − 𝑟)! (𝑛 − 𝑟)

(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑛
[ ]
(𝑛 − 1 − 𝑟)! (𝑛 − 𝑟)

Recall

𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)!

(𝑛 − 𝑟)! = (𝑛 − 𝑟)(𝑛 − 𝑟 − 1)!

(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑛 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)!

[ ]=
(𝑛 − 1 − 𝑟)! (𝑛 − 𝑟) (𝑛 − 𝑟)(𝑛 − 𝑟 − 1)!

𝑛!
= 𝑛𝑃𝑟
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!

Hence proved.

29
3) Show that 𝑛𝐶𝑟 + 𝑛𝐶𝑟−1 = 𝑛 + 1𝐶𝑟

Proof:

𝑛!
Recall that 𝑛𝐶𝑟 = (𝑛−𝑟)!𝑟!

We need to show that the LHS is equal to RHS

𝑛! 𝑛!
+ = 𝑛 + 1𝐶𝑟
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟! (𝑛 − (𝑟 − 1))! (𝑟 − 1)!

𝑛! 𝑛!
+ = 𝑛 + 1𝐶𝑟
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)! (𝑟 − 1)!

𝑛! 𝑛!
+ = 𝑛 + 1𝐶𝑟
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟(𝑟 − 1)! (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)! (𝑛 − 𝑟)! (𝑟 − 1)!

𝑛! 1 1
[ + ] = 𝑛 + 1𝐶𝑟
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! (𝑟 − 1)! 𝑟 (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)!

𝑛! 𝑛−𝑟+1+𝑟
[ ] = 𝑛 + 1𝐶𝑟
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! (𝑟 − 1)! 𝑟(𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)!

𝑛! 𝑛+1
[ ] = 𝑛 + 1𝐶𝑟
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! (𝑟 − 1)! 𝑟(𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)!

𝑛! (𝑛 + 1)
= 𝑛 + 1𝐶𝑟
𝑟(𝑟 − 1)! (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)(𝑛 − 𝑟)!

𝑛! (𝑛 + 1) = (𝑛 + 1)!

𝑟(𝑟 − 1)! = 𝑟!

(𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)(𝑛 − 𝑟)! = (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)!

Therefore,
30
 (𝑛 + 1)!
= 𝑛 + 1𝐶𝑟
𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)!

Hence proved

The Principle of Mathematical Induction

In our daily life, one must be using various kinds of reasoning depending on the
circumstances faced with that is if you are told your friend just had a child,
surely you would know that it is either a girl or a boy, in this case, you had
applied general principle to a particular case. This form of reasoning is an
example of DEDUCTIVE LOGIC.

Now, let us consider another situation when you look around, you find students
who you study consistently, do well in examination you may formulate, the
general rule (rightly or wrongly), that anyone who consistently will do well in
examination, in this case you will be formulating a general principle (or rule)
based in several particular instances, such reasoning in INDUCTIVE.

Mathematical induction is more precise form of this process, this precision is

required because a statement is accepted to be true mathematically only if it
can be shown to be true for each and every case that it refer to.

Let 𝑃(𝑛) be a statement involving a natural number 𝑛. If

a) It is true for 𝑛 = 1 that is 𝑃(1) is true; and

b) Assuming 𝐾 ≥ 1 and 𝑃(𝑘) to be true it can be proved that 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is true,
then 𝑃(𝑛) must be true for every natural number 𝑛.

Note that: condition (b) does not say that 𝑃(𝑘) is true. It says WHENEVER 𝑃(𝑘)
is true, then 𝑃(𝑘 + 1) is true.

31
Mathematical induction is a special method of proof used to prove statement
about all the natural numbers.

Example:

1) 𝑛3 − 𝑛 is always divisible by 42𝑛 − 1 is divisible by 3. Prove by using

mathematical induction. The sum of the first positive integer 1 + 2 + 3 +
𝑛(𝑛+1)
4+⋯ +𝑛 = .
2

Proof:

We first proof, that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1

1(1+1)
LHS, 𝑆1 = 1, RHS = =1
2

Inductively, we assume the result is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘

𝑘(𝑘+1)
⇒ 𝑆𝑘 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘 = - - - (1)
2

Now, we want to prove that the result is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

1(𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)
𝑆𝑘+1 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1) = - (2)
2

But from (1), (2) becomes

𝑘(𝑘+1)+(𝑘+1)
𝑆𝑘+1 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1) = 2

𝑘(𝑘+1)+(𝑘+1)
𝑆𝑘+1 = factorizing
2

𝑘 (𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)
(2 + 1) (𝑘 + 1) = n = 1, n = k
2

Then, the result is for n = k + 1

32
 𝑛
2) 12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1)2 = 3 (4𝑛2 − 1)

Proof:

We need to show that the LHS = RHS

For 𝑛 = 1
1
12 = 1; RHS = 3 (4(1)2 − 1) = 3/3 = 1

Now, for 𝑛 = 𝑘

𝑘
𝑆𝑘 = 12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑘 − 1)2 = 3 (4𝑘 2 − 1) - (1)

For 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

𝑆𝑘+1 = 12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑘 − 1)2 + (2(𝑘 + 1) − 1)2

(𝑘+1)
= (4(𝑘 + 1)2 − 1)
3

𝑆𝑘+1 = 12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑘 − 1)2 + (2𝑘 + 1)2

(𝑘+1)
= (4𝑘 2 + 8𝑘 + 3) - - - - (2)
3

Also for

𝑆𝑘+1 = 12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑘 − 1)2 + (2𝑘 + 1)2

(𝑘+1)
= (4𝑘 2 + 8𝑘 + 3) - - - - (2)
3

𝑆𝑘+1 = 12 + 32 + 52 + ⋯ + (2𝑘 − 1)2 + (2𝑘 + 1)2

𝑘(4𝑘 2 −1)
= + (2𝑘 + 1)2
3

4𝑘 3 −𝑘
= + 4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1
3

33
 4𝑘 3 −𝑘+12𝑘 2 +12𝑘+3
= 3

4𝑘 2 + 8𝑘 + 3
𝑘+1 4𝑘 3 + 12𝑘 2 + 11𝑘 + 3
4𝑘 3 + 4𝑘 2
8𝑘 2 + 11𝑘 + 3
8𝑘 2 + 8𝑘
3𝑘 + 3
3𝑘 +3
(𝑘+1)
= (4𝑘 2 + 8𝑘 + 3)
3

3) Verify for all 𝑛 ≥ 1, the sum of the squares of the first an positive integers
𝑛(2𝑛+1)(4𝑛+1)
is given by formular 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + (2𝑛)2 = 3

Proof:

For any integer 𝑛 > 1, the statement

𝑛(2𝑛 + 1)(4𝑛 + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + (2𝑛)2 =
3

For = 1 ⇒ 2(1) = 2

1(2(1) + 1)(4(1) + 1)
12 + 22 =
3

5 = 5 ⇒ LHS =RHS

It is true for 𝑛 = 1

Now, we assume it is also true for 𝑛 = 𝑘

34
 𝑘(2𝑘+1)(4𝑘+1)
12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + (2𝑘)2 = - (1)
3

Now, we assume the result is also for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

𝑆𝑘+1 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + (2(𝑘 + 1))2

(𝑘 + 1)(2(𝑘 + 1) + 1)(4(𝑘 + 1) + 1)
=
3

𝑆𝑘+1 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + (2(𝑘 + 1))2

(𝑘 + 1)(2(𝑘 + 1) + 1)(4(𝑘 + 1) + 1)
=
3
2
𝑆𝑘+1 = 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + (2(𝑘 + 1))

(𝑘+1)(2𝑘+3)(4𝑘+5)
= - - (2)
3

But from (2)

2
12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + (2(𝑘 + 1)) = 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + (2𝑘 + 2)2

= 12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + (2𝑘)2 + (2𝑘 + 1)2 + (2𝑘 + 2)2

From (1),

𝑘(2𝑘 + 1)(4𝑘 + 1)
+ (2𝑘 + 1)2 + (2𝑘 + 2)2
3

Taking the LCM

𝑘(8𝑘 2 + 6𝑘 + 1) + 3(4𝑘 2 + 4𝑘 + 1) + 3(4𝑘 2 + 8𝑘 + 4)

3

8𝑘 3 + 6𝑘 2 + 𝑘 + 12𝑘 2 + 12𝑘 + 3 + 12𝑘 2 + 24𝑘 + 12

3

35
 8𝑘 3 +30𝑘 2+37𝑘+15
- - (3)
3

Compare the RHS of (2) and RHS of (3)

Therefore,

𝑛(2𝑛+1)(4𝑛+1)
;𝑛= 𝑘
3

8𝑘 3 + 30𝑘 2 + 37𝑘 + 15
⇒ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1
3

4) Prove using mathematical induction that for all 𝑛 ≥ 1

𝑛(3𝑛 − 1)
1 + 4 + 7 + ⋯ + (3𝑛 − 2) =
2

Proof:

We first proof that the LHS = RHS

When 𝑛 = 1

1(3 − 1)
1= =1
2

Let’s assume it is also true for 𝑛 = 𝑘

𝑘(3𝑘−1)
1 + 4 + 7 + ⋯ + (3𝑘 − 2) = - - (1)
2

If the result is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 then it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, where 𝑛 is a

positive integer.

(𝑘 + 1)(3(𝑘 + 1) − 1)
1 + 4 + 7 + ⋯ + (3(𝑘 + 1) − 2) =
2
(𝑘+1)(3𝑘+2)
𝑆𝑘+1 = 1 + 4 + 7 + ⋯ + (3𝑘 + 1) = - (2)
2

36
 Now compare the LHS of (1) and move one step forward in RHS of (2)

𝑆𝑘+1 = 1 + 4 + 7 + ⋯ + (3𝑘 + 1)

= 1 + 4 + 7 + ⋯ + (3𝑘 − 2) + (3𝑘 + 1) - - (3)

𝑘(3𝑘 − 1)
= + (3𝑘 + 1)
2

Taking LCM

𝑘(3𝑘 − 1) + 2(3𝑘 + 1)
2

3𝑘 2 − 𝑘 + 6𝑘 + 2
=
2

3𝑘 2 + 5𝑘 + 2
=
2

(𝑘+1)(3𝑘+2)
= - - (4)
2

Which means the result hold for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1.

5) Prove by method of induction that

𝑛
1 𝑛
∑ =
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 𝑛 + 1
𝑟=1

Proof:

We proof for 𝑛 = 1
𝑛
1 1 1 1
∑ = + + +⋯
𝑟(𝑟 + 1) 1 . 2 2 . 3 3 . 4
𝑟=1

37
 1 𝑛
=
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 𝑛 + 1

Now when 𝑛 = 1
1 1
LHS = 1 . 2 = 2

1 1
RHS = 1+1 = 2

Hence the equation is true for 𝑛 = 1

Now, let assume, it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘

1 𝑘
∑𝑘𝑟=1 = 𝑘+1 - (1)
𝑟(𝑟+1)

Now replacing 𝑘 by 𝑘 + 1, we have

1 1
∑𝑘+1
𝑟=1 = + - (2)
𝑟(𝑟+1) (𝑘+1)(𝑘+2)

But for (1), (2) become

𝑘+1
𝑘 1
∑= +
(𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
𝑟=1

𝑘(𝑘 + 2) + (𝑘 + 1) + 1
=
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)

𝑘 2 + 2𝑘 + 1 (𝑘 + 1)2
= =
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)

𝑘+1
=
𝑘+2

Therefore, the equation is true for 𝑘 + 1

38
 1 1 1
6) Using mathematical induction or otherwise, show that + 3 .5 + 5 .7 +
1 .3
1 𝑛
⋯ + (2𝑛−1)(2𝑛+1) = 2𝑛+1; Evaluate also sum to infinity

∞
1
∑
(2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
𝑛=1

Proof:

We start when 𝑛 = 1
1 1
Therefore the LHS = (2𝑛−1)(2𝑛+1) = 3

1 1
RHS = 2(1) + 1 = 3

Then the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘

1 1 1 1 𝑘
𝑆𝑘 = 1 .3 + 3 .5 + 5 .7 + ⋯ + (2𝑘−1)(2𝑘+1) = 2𝑘+1 - (1)

Let assume the result is also true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1

1 1 1 1 𝑘+1
𝑆𝑘 + 1 = 1 .3 + 3 .5 + 5 .7 + ⋯ + (2(𝑘+1)−1)(2(𝑘+1)+1) = 2(𝑘+1)+1

1 1 1 1 𝑘+1
𝑆𝑘+1 = 1 .3 + 3 .5 + 5 .7 + ⋯ + (2𝑘+1)(2𝑘+3) = 2𝑘+3 - (2)

Now, LHS of (2)

1
𝑆𝑘+1 = 𝑆𝑘 +
(2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 3)

RHS of (2)

𝑘+1
𝑆𝑘+1 ==
2𝑘 + 3

39
 𝑘
But right of (2), recall 𝑆𝑘 = 2𝑘 + 1

𝑘 1
𝑆𝑘+1 = +
2𝑘 + 1 (2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 3)

Taking the LCM

𝑘(2𝑘 + 3) + 1
𝑆𝑘+1 =
(2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 3)

2𝑘 2 + 3𝑘 + 1
𝑆𝑘+1 =
(2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 3)

(2𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 1) 𝑘+1

𝑆𝑘+1 = =
(2𝑘 + 1)(2𝑘 + 3) (2𝑘 + 3)

40
Binomial Theorem

Now to expand

(𝑥 + 𝑦)0 = 1

(𝑥 + 𝑦)1 = 𝑥 + 𝑦

(𝑥 + 𝑦)2 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥𝑦

(𝑥 + 𝑦)3 = 𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 3𝑥 2 𝑦 + 3𝑥𝑦 2

Therefore, we shall obtain the formular, for the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 , where 𝑛
is a positive integer.

The coefficient of 𝑥 and 𝑦 can be displayed in an array as

1 1

1 2 1

1 3 3 1

1 4 6 4 1

1 5 10 10 5 1

1 6 15 20 15 6 1

Two significant feature of a Pascal’s triangle are:

a) Each line of coefficient is symmetrical

b) Each line of coefficient can be obtained from the line of coefficient

immediately preceding it.

41
Note: In each expression, there are:

i) 𝑛 + 1 terms
ii) In each of the terms involved in the expanding the power of 𝑥 and 𝑦
put together is equal to 𝑛.
iii) The sum of the binomial coefficient in the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 is 2𝑛
that is 𝐶0 + 𝑛𝐶1 + 𝑛𝐶2 + 𝑛𝐶2 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝐶𝑛 .
iv) While the power of 𝑥 is in decreasing order the power of 𝑦 is in
increasing order.

Examples:

1) Expand (𝑥 + 𝑦)5 in descending power of 𝑥.

Solution:
There will be six terms
The coefficient obtain for Pascal triangle are 1, 5, 10, 10, 5, 1
There the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑦)5 in descending power of 𝑥.
𝑥 5 + 5𝑥 4 𝑦 + 10𝑥 3 𝑦 2 + 10𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 5𝑥𝑦 4 + 𝑦 5
2) Expand (2𝑥 + 𝑦)3 in descending power of 𝑥.
Solution:
There will be four term.
(2𝑥 + 𝑦)3 = (2𝑥)3 + 3(2𝑥)2 𝑦 + 3(2𝑥)𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3
(2𝑥 + 𝑦)3 = 8𝑥 3 + 12𝑥 2 𝑦 + 6𝑥𝑦 2 + 𝑦 3
3) Expand (𝑥 − 𝑦)5 .
Solution:
(𝑥 − 𝑦)5 = 𝑥 5 + 5(𝑥 4 (−𝑦)) + 10(𝑥 3 (−𝑦)2 ) + 10(𝑥 2 (−𝑦)3 ) +
5(𝑥(−𝑦)4 ) + (−𝑦)5
(𝑥 − 𝑦)5 = 𝑥 5 − 5𝑥 4 𝑦 + 10𝑥 3 𝑦 2 − 10𝑥 2 𝑦 3 + 5𝑥𝑦 4 − 𝑦 5

42
 𝑛! (𝑛−𝑟+1)(𝑛−𝑟)!
Recall that 𝑛𝐶𝑟 = (𝑛−𝑟)!𝑟! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛−𝑟)!𝑟!

𝑛! 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)(𝑛 − 𝑟)!

=
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟!
𝑛! 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)
=
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟! 𝑟!
Hence,
𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦 + 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 𝑛−3 𝑦 3 + ⋯ +
2! 3!
𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)…(𝑛−𝑟+1)
𝑟!
𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 + 𝑦 𝑛

Note: It can be show that the binominal expansion formular hold for
positive, negative integer or any rational value of 𝑛 provided there is a
restriction on the value of 𝑥 and 𝑦 in the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 .

Examples:

i) Using the binomial theorem, expand (1 + 2𝑥)5 , simplifying all the terms.

ii) Use your expansion to calculate the values of (1.02)5 to six significant
figure.

iii) If the first three terms of the expansion of (1 + 𝑝𝑥)𝑛 in ascending power
of 𝑥 are 1 + 20𝑥 + 160𝑥 2 . Find the values of 𝑛 and 𝑝. Note: 0! = 1

Solutions:

𝑛!
i) Recall that 𝑛𝐶𝑟 = (𝑛−𝑟)!𝑟!

Now,

(1 + 2𝑥)5 = 1 + 5𝐶1 (2𝑥) + 5𝐶2 (2𝑥)2 + 5𝐶3 (2𝑥)3 + 5𝐶4 (2𝑥)4 +

5𝐶5 (2𝑥)5

43
 5 .4 5 .4.3 5 . 4 .3 .2
(1 + 2𝑥)5 = 1 + 5(2𝑥) + 1 .2 4𝑥 2 + 1 .2 .3 8𝑥 3 + 1 .2 . 16𝑥 4
+ 32𝑥 5
3 .4

(1 + 2𝑥)5 = 1 + 10𝑥 + 40𝑥 2 + 80𝑥 3 + 80𝑥 4 + 32𝑥 5

ii) (1.02)5 = (1 + 0.02)5

2𝑥 = 0.02

𝑥 = 0.01

Hence,

(1.02)5 = 1 + 10(0.01) + 40(0.01)2 + 80(0.01)3 + 80(0.01)4 +

32(0.01)5

= 1 + 0.1 + 0.004 + 0.00008 + 0.0000008 + 0.0000000032

= 1.10408 (6 sf)

iii) (1 + 𝑝𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 20𝑥 + 160𝑥 2

(1 + 𝑝𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝐶1 (𝑝𝑥) + 𝑛𝐶2 (𝑝𝑥)2 + ⋯

(1 + 𝑝𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 20𝑥 + 160𝑥 2

𝑛! 𝑛!
(1 + 𝑝𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + (𝑛−1)!1! 𝑝𝑥 + (𝑛−2)!2! 𝑝 2 𝑥 2 + ⋯

𝑛(𝑛−1)! 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)! 2 2
(1 + 𝑝𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + (𝑛−1)!1! 𝑝𝑥 + (𝑛−2)!2!
𝑝 𝑥 +⋯

𝑛(𝑛−1)
(1 + 𝑝𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑝𝑥 + 𝑝2𝑥 2 + ⋯
2

By equating coefficients

𝑛𝑝 = 20 - - - - (1)

𝑛(𝑛−1)𝑝2
= 160 - - - - (2)
2

44
 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)𝑝 2 = 320

(𝑛2 − 𝑛)𝑝 2 = 320

𝑛2 𝑝 2 − 𝑛𝑝 2 = 320

From (1), (2) becomes

(20)2 − (20)𝑝 = 320

400 − 20𝑝 = 320

−20𝑝 = 320 − 400

−20𝑝 = −80
20 20
𝑝 = 4, ⇒ 𝑛 = = =5
𝑝 4

Exercises (Assignment)

1) Expand the following using pascal triangle.

1 5
i. (𝑎 + 𝑏)6 ii. (𝑥 + 𝑦)3 iii. (2𝑥 + 5𝑦)4 iv. (1 − 𝑧)4 v. (𝑥 − 𝑥)

vi. (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )5

2) Write down the expansion of (2 + 𝑥)5 in ascending power of 𝑥 taking the

first three terms of the expansion put 𝑥 = 0.001 and find the value of
(2.001)5 to 5 s. f.
1
3) Write down the expansion of (1 + 4 𝑥)6 simplifying all terms. Use the

expansion to evaluate (1.0025)6 correct to 5 s. f.

45
Examples:

1) Expand (1 + 𝑥)6 in ascending power of x, using binomial theorem.

Solution:

6
6(1)5 𝑥 6 × 5(1)4 𝑥 2 6 × 5 × 4(1)3 𝑥 3
6
(1 + 𝑥) = 1 + + +
1! 2! 3!
6 × 5 × 4 × 3(1)2 𝑥 4 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 𝑥 5
+ + + 𝑥6
4! 5!

(1 + 𝑥)6 = 1 + 6𝑥 + 15𝑥 2 + 20𝑥 3 + 15𝑥 4 + 6𝑥 5 + 𝑥 6

2) Expand (1 − 𝑥)−7 .

Solution:
1
(1 − 𝑥)−7 = (1−𝑥)7

The coefficient of (1 − 𝑥)7 are 1, 7, 21, 35, 35, 21, 7, 1

(1 − 𝑥)−7 = 1 − 7𝑥 + 21𝑥 2 − 35𝑥 3 + 35𝑥 4 − 21𝑥 5 + 7𝑥 6 − 𝑥 7

3) Find by using the Binomial expansion the expression whose coefficient of

first term is 32, second term is 240, third term 720 respectively.

Solution:

Put (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 be the expansion by Binomial theorem

(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛𝐶1 (𝑥)𝑛−1 𝑦 + 𝑛𝐶2 (𝑥)𝑛−2 𝑦 2 + ⋯

𝑛! 𝑛!
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + (𝑛−1)!1! (𝑥)𝑛−1 𝑦 + (𝑛−2)!2! (𝑥)𝑛−2 𝑦 2

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)!

(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + (𝑥)𝑛−1 𝑦 + (𝑥)𝑛−2 𝑦 2
(𝑛 − 1)! 1! (𝑛 − 2)! 2!

46
 𝑛(𝑛−1)
(𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑛(𝑥)𝑛−1 𝑦 + (𝑥)𝑛−2 𝑦 2
2

Since the coefficient of the first, second and third term is given by 32, 240,
720

⇒ 𝑥 𝑛 = 32 - - - (1)

𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦 = 240 - - - (2)

𝑛(𝑛−1)
𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 = 720 - - (3)
2

Multiplying (1) and (3)

But (3): (𝑛2 − 𝑛)𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 = 720 × 2

(𝑛2 − 𝑛)𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 = 1440

𝑥 𝑛 (𝑛2 − 𝑛)𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 = 1440 × 32

(𝑥 𝑛 𝑛2 − 𝑥 𝑛 𝑛)𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 = 46080

𝑥 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 𝑛 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2 = 46080

𝑥 2𝑛−2 𝑛2 𝑦 2 − 𝑥 2𝑛−2 𝑛𝑦 2 = 46080 - (4)

Now square equation (2)

(𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦)(𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑦) = 240 × 240

𝑛2 𝑥 2𝑛−2 𝑦 2 = 57600 - - (5)

Now divide equation (4) by (5)

𝑛2 𝑥 2𝑛−2 𝑦 2 𝑛𝑥 2𝑛−2 𝑦 2 46080

− =
𝑛2 𝑥 2𝑛−2 𝑦 2 𝑛2 𝑥 2𝑛−2 𝑦 2 57600

47
 1
1− = 0.8
𝑛
𝑛−1
⇒ = 0.8
𝑛

𝑛 − 1 = 0.8𝑛

−1 = 0.8𝑛 − 𝑛

−1 = −0.2𝑛

𝑛=5

Since 𝑛 = 5,

𝑥=2

𝑦=3

(2 + 3)5 = (1)5 + 5(2)4 (5)

4. Expand (1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )3

Solution:

(1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )3 = (1 + (𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ))3

Now, the coefficient of expansion is 1, 3, 3, 1

(1 + (𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ))3 = 1 + 3(𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ) + 3(𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )2 + (𝑥 + 𝑥 2 )3

(1 + (𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ))3 = 1 + 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 3(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 ) + 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 4 +
3𝑥 5 + 𝑥 6

(1 + (𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ))3 = 1 + 3𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 4 + 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 5 + 𝑥 6

(1 + (𝑥 + 𝑥 2 ))3 = 1 + 3𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 3 + 6𝑥 4 + 3𝑥 5 + 𝑥 6

48
5. Find the values of 𝑎 if the coefficient of 𝑥 2 in the expansion of
(1 + 𝑎𝑥)4 (2 − 𝑥)3 is 6.

Solution:

(1 + 𝑎𝑥)4 = 1 + 4(𝑎𝑥) + 6(𝑎𝑥)2 + 4(𝑎𝑥)3 + (𝑎𝑥)4

(1 + 𝑎𝑥)4 = 1 + 4𝑎𝑥 + 6𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 4𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑎4 𝑥 2

Also,

(2 − 𝑥)3 = 23 + 3 . 22 (−𝑥) + 3 . 2(−𝑥)2 + (−𝑥)3

(2 − 𝑥)3 = 8 − 12𝑥 + 6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3

Therefore, the coefficient of 𝑥 2 in the expansion of (1 + 𝑎𝑥)4 (2 − 𝑥)3 is

the coefficient of 𝑥 2 in

(1 + 𝑎𝑥)4 (2 − 𝑥)3 = (1 + 4𝑎𝑥 + 6𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 4𝑎3 𝑥 3 + 𝑎4 𝑥 2 )(8 − 12𝑥 +

6𝑥 2 − 𝑥 3 )

48𝑎2 𝑥 2 − 48𝑎𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 2

These are the only terms that contain 𝑥 2

48𝑎2 − 48𝑎 + 6 = 6

48𝑎2 − 48𝑎 = 0

Divide through by 48

𝑎2 − 𝑎 = 0

𝑎(𝑎 − 1) = 0

𝑎 = 0 or 𝑎 = 1

49
6. Show that if 𝑥 is so small that 𝑥 3 and higher powers of 𝑥 can be neglected
(1+2𝑥)3/2 −4(1+𝑥)1/2
then = −3 + 𝑥 + 5𝑥 2 .
1 + 𝑥2

Solution:

3 1
3 ( ) ( ) (2𝑥)2
(1 + 2𝑥)3/2 = 1 + ( ) (2𝑥) + 2 2
2 2!

3
(1 + 2𝑥)3/2 = 1 + 3𝑥 + 𝑥 2
2

As far as term in 𝑥 2

1 1
1 (2) (− 2) 𝑥 2
(1 + 𝑥)1/2 = 1 +( )𝑥 +
2 2!

1 1
(1 + 𝑥)1/2 = 1 + 𝑥 − 𝑥 2
2 8

(1 + 𝑥 2 )−1 = 1 − 𝑥 2

Therefore,

(1+2𝑥)3/2 −4(1+𝑥)1/2 3 1 1
= [(1 − 𝑥 2 ) {(1 + 3𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 ) − 4 (1 + 2 𝑥 − 8 𝑥 2 )}]
1 + 𝑥2

4
𝑥2 2
7. Expand ( 2 − 𝑥)

Solution:

4 4 3 2
𝑥2 2 𝑥2 𝑥2 2 𝑥2 2 2
( 2 − 𝑥) = ( 2 ) + 4𝐶1 ( 2 ) (− 𝑥) + 4𝐶2 ( 2 ) (− 𝑥) +
3
𝑥2 2 2 4
4𝐶3 ( 2 ) (− 𝑥) + 4𝐶4 (− 𝑥)

50
 4
𝑥2 2 𝑥8 𝑥6 2 𝑥4 4 𝑥2 8
( 2 − 𝑥) = ( 16 ) + 4 ( 8 ) (− 𝑥) − 6 ( 2 ) ( 𝑥 2 ) + 4 ( 2 ) (− )+
𝑥3
16
( 𝑥4)

4
𝑥2 2 𝑥8 16 16
( − ) = − 𝑥5 + 6 𝑥2 − + 4
2 𝑥 16 𝑥 𝑥

Exercise:

1) Expand (1.04)5 by the Binomial theorem, find its value to two decimal
places.

1 6
2) Expand (𝑥 − 𝑥)

General Term

The term 𝑛𝐶𝑟 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 in Binomial theorem is called the general term or (𝑟 + 1)𝑡ℎ
term. It is denoted by 𝑇𝑟+1

Note: The general term is use to find out specific term or the required
coefficient of the term in the Binomial expansion.

Examples:

1 1/2
1. Find the eighth term in the expansion of (2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 2 ) .

Solution:

𝑇𝑟+1 = 𝑛𝐶𝑟 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟

1
Where, 𝑛 = 12, 𝑟 = 7, 𝑥 = 2𝑥 2 , 𝑦 = − 𝑥 2

51
 Therefore,

2 12−7
1 7
𝑇7+1 = 12𝐶7 (2𝑥 ) (− 2 )
𝑥

12! 2 5
1 7
𝑇8 = (2𝑥 ) (− 2 )
(12 − 7)! 7! 𝑥

12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7! 1
𝑇8 = (2)5 (𝑥 2 )5 (− 14 )
5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 7! 𝑥

95040 1
𝑇8 = 32𝑥 10 (− 14 )
120 𝑥

792 × 32𝑥 10 25344

𝑇8 = − =
𝑥 14 𝑥4

−25344
𝑇8 =
𝑥4

2𝑦 10
2. Find the coefficient of 𝑥 8 in (𝑥 2 + ) .
𝑥

Solution:

2𝑦 10
The (r + 1)th term in the expansion of (𝑥 2 + ) is 𝑛𝐶𝑟 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟
𝑥

Therefore,

2 10−𝑟
2𝑦 𝑟
𝑇𝑟+1 = 10𝐶𝑟 (𝑥 ) ( )
𝑥

𝑇𝑟+1 = 10𝐶𝑟 𝑥 20−2𝑟 2𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 𝑥 −𝑟

𝑇𝑟+1 = 10𝐶𝑟 2𝑟 𝑦 𝑟 𝑥 20−3𝑟

Thus, for the coefficient term in 𝑥 8

52
 𝑥 20−3𝑟 = 𝑥 8

20 − 3𝑟 = 8 ⇒ 𝑟 = 4

Therefore,

10!
10𝐶4 24 𝑦 4 = × 16𝑦 4
6! 4!

10 × 9 × 8 × 7 × 6!
10𝐶4 24 𝑦 4 = × 16𝑦 4 = 210 × 16𝑦 4
6! 4 × 3 × 2

10𝐶4 24 𝑦 4 = 3360𝑦 4

Middle term in the expansion of (𝒙 + 𝒚)𝒏

𝑛 𝑡ℎ
Case I: If 𝑛 is even, then (𝑛 + 1) will be odd, so ( + 1) term will be the only
2

one middle term in the expression.

Case I: If 𝑛 is odd, then (𝑛 + 1) will be even, in this case there will not be a single
𝑛+1 𝑡ℎ 𝑛+3 𝑡ℎ
middle term, but ( ) and ( ) term will be the two middle term in the
2 2

expression.

Note: The coefficient of both middle term are the same.

For even,
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛𝐶𝑛 𝑥 𝑛− 2 𝑦 2 as the middle term
2

Then for the odd,

𝑛 + 1 𝑡ℎ 𝑛−1 𝑛−1
( ) , 𝑇𝑛+1 = 𝑛𝐶𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛− 2 𝑦 2
2 2 2

53
 𝑛 + 3 𝑡ℎ 𝑛+1 𝑛+1
( ) , 𝑇𝑛+3 = 𝑛𝐶𝑛+1 𝑥 𝑛−2 𝑦 2
2 2 2

Examples:

14
𝑥2
1) Find the middle term of (1 − ) .
2

Solution:

𝑛 = 14 ⇒ there will be 15th term

𝑛
That is (2 + 1) is the middle term

14
( 2 + 1) that is 8th term

𝑇𝑟+1 = 𝑛𝐶𝑟 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟

7
𝑥2
𝑇8 = 14𝐶7 (1)14−7 (− )
2

14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 9 × 8 × 7!7 𝑥 14
𝑇8 = (− )
7! 7! 128

3432𝑥 14 858𝑥 14
𝑇8 = − =−
128 16

2) Find the middle term in the expansion (𝑥 + 𝑦)13 .

Solution:

In this case, there are two middle terms that is 𝑇7 , 𝑇8

Now,

𝑇𝑟+1 = 𝑛𝐶𝑟 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟

54
 𝑟 = 6, 𝑛 = 13

𝑇6+1 = 13𝐶6 𝑥 13−6 𝑦 6

13×12×11×10×9×8×7!
𝑇7 = 𝑥 7 𝑦 6 = 1716𝑥 7 𝑦 6
7!6!

𝑇7 = 1716𝑥 7 𝑦 6

Second term,

𝑟 = 7, 𝑛 = 13

𝑇7+1 = 13𝐶7 𝑥 13−7 𝑦 7

13×12×11×10×9×8×7!
𝑇8 = 𝑥 6 𝑦 7 = 1716𝑥 6 𝑦 7
7!6!

𝑇8 = 1716𝑥 6 𝑦 7

3) Find the coefficient of 𝑥 19 in (2𝑥 3 − 3𝑥)9 .

Solution:

𝑇𝑟+1 = 𝑛𝐶𝑟 𝑥 𝑛−𝑟 𝑦 𝑟

𝑛 = 9, 𝑥 = 2𝑥 3 , 𝑦 = −3𝑥

𝑇𝑟+1 = 9𝐶𝑟 (2𝑥 3 )9−𝑟 (−3𝑥)𝑟

𝑇𝑟+1 = 9𝐶𝑟 29−𝑟 𝑥 27−3𝑟 (−3𝑟 𝑥 𝑟 )

𝑇𝑟+1 = 9𝐶𝑟 29−𝑟 (−3𝑟 )𝑥 27−2𝑟

But 𝑥 27−2𝑟 = 𝑥 19

27 − 2𝑟 = 19

−2𝑟 = 19 − 27 = −8

55
 ⇒𝑟 =4

𝑇4+1 = 9𝐶4 29−4 (−34 )𝑥 27−2(4)

𝑇4+1 = 9𝐶4 29−4 (−34 )𝑥 27−8

𝑇5 = 9𝐶4 25 (−34 )𝑥 19

We have already found out the expansion of (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 , where 𝑛 is positive

integer. We now give the expansion of (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 where 𝑛 can be negative integer
or any rational number.

Consider,

𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ ∞ - (1)
2! 3!

If 𝑛 has a value other than the positive integer the expansion will not terminate
and the requirement −1 < 𝑥 < 1 is absolutely important.

Although the expansion does not terminate in this case, it is necessary that
|𝑥| < 1 to make (1) valid, (1) is called Binomial series, which is valid only when
𝑥 is numerically less than unity.

Note: The first term in the expression must be unity, for example, when 𝑛 is not
𝑦 𝑛
positive integer, to expand (𝑥 + 𝑦)𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 (1 + 𝑥 ) , then apply the binomial
𝑦
series, where |𝑥 | < 1.

56
Examples:
1
1) Obtain the first five term in the expansion of (1 + 𝑥) . Hence evaluate 2

√1.03 to five significant figures.

Solution:
1
In this case 𝑛 = 2

Therefore by Binomial series

𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2) 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)(𝑛−3)

(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + 𝑥4
2! 3! 4!

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 ( −1) ( −1)(2−2) ( −1)(2−2)(2−3)
1/2 2 3
(1 + 𝑥) = 1+2𝑥 + 2 2
𝑥 + 2 2
𝑥 + 2 2
𝑥4
2 6 24

1 1 1 1 3 1 1 3 5
1 (−2) (−2)(−2) (−2)(−2)(−2)
1/2 2 3
(1 + 𝑥) = 1+2𝑥 + 2
𝑥 + 2
𝑥 + 2
𝑥4
2 6 24

1 1 1 3 1 15 1
(1 + 𝑥)1/2 = 1 + 2 𝑥 + (− 4) (2) 𝑥 2 + (8) (6) 𝑥 3 + (− 16) (24) 𝑥 4

1 1 1 5
(1 + 𝑥)1/2 = 1 + 2 𝑥 − 8 𝑥 2 + 16 𝑥 3 − 128 𝑥 4

Now,

(1 + 𝑥)1/2 = √1.03 = (1 + 0.03)1/2

⇒ 𝑥 = 0.03 when certainly between −1 and 1

1 1 1 5
√1.03 = 1 + 2 (0.03) − 8 (0.03)2 + 16 (0.03)3 − 128 (0.03)4

1 1 1
√1.03 = 1 + 2 (0.03) − 8 (0.0009) + 16 (0.000027) + ⋯

But since we only required the result to four decimal place, we need to
act only the first three terms, therefore

57
 √1.03 = 1 + 0.015 − 0.0001125 + 0.0000017 + ⋯

√1.03 = 1.0149 correct to 5 s.f

1 1 1 𝑥 −1
2) Expand (2 + 𝑥)−1 = 2 + 𝑥 = 𝑥 = 2 (1 + 2) compare with (1 + 𝑥)
2(1+2)

1 𝑥 −1 1 𝑥 (−1)(−1−1) 𝑥 2 (−1)(−1−1)(−1−2) 𝑥 3
(1 + 2) = 2 [1 + (−1) 2 + (2 ) + (3 ) + ⋯ ]
2 2! 3!

𝑥
Provided |2| < 1

1 1 1 1 1
(2 + 𝑥)−1 = 2 − 4 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 2 − 8 𝑥 3 + 32 𝑥 4 + ⋯ Provided |𝑥| < 2

1
3) Expand 1 − 𝑥

Solution:
1 −1
= (1 − 𝑥)
1−𝑥

𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
(1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯
2! 3!

(−1)((−1)−1) (−1)((−1)−1)((−1)−2)
(1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + (−1)(−𝑥) + (−𝑥)2 + (−𝑥)3 + ⋯
2! 3!

(1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 4 + ⋯
3−𝑥
4) Expand (1− 2𝑥)(1 + 𝑥2 ) in ascending power of 𝑥 as far as the term in 𝑥 3 .

Solution:
3−𝑥
We first resolve (1− 2𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2) into partial fraction

3−𝑥 𝐴 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐶
= 1−2𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )
(1− 2𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2 )

58
3 − 𝑥 = 𝐴(1 + 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐵𝑥(1 − 2𝑥) + 𝐶(1 − 2𝑥)

3 − 𝑥 = 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐵𝑥 − 2𝐵𝑥 2 + 𝐶 − 2𝐶𝑥

By comparing the coefficient,

𝐴+𝐶 =3 - - - (1)

𝐵 − 2𝐶 = −1 - - - (2)

𝐴 − 2𝐵 = 0 - - - (3)

From (3), 𝐴 = 2𝐵, substituting into (1)

2𝐵 + 𝐶 = 3 ⇒ 𝐶 = 3 − 2𝐵

Substitute into (2), 𝐵 − 2(3 − 2𝐵) = −1

𝐵 − 6 + 4𝐵 = −1

5B – 6 = −1 ⇒ 𝐵 = 1, 𝐴 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 = 1

Therefore,
3−𝑥 2 𝑥+1
= 1−2𝑥 + (1 + 𝑥 2 )
(1− 2𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2 )

3−𝑥
= 2 (1 − 2𝑥)−1 + (𝑥 + 1) (1 + 𝑥 2 )−1
(1− 2𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2 )

3−𝑥
= 2(1 + 2𝑥 + 4 𝑥 2 + 8 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (𝑥 + 1)(1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 4 −
(1− 2𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2 )

𝑥6 + 𝑥8 + ⋯ )
3−𝑥
= (2 + 4𝑥 + 8 𝑥 2 + 16 𝑥 3 + ⋯ ) + (𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 + ⋯ )
(1− 2𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2 )

3−𝑥
= 3 + 5𝑥 + 7 𝑥 2 + 15 𝑥 3 + ⋯
(1− 2𝑥)(1 + 𝑥 2 )

This expression is valid only if both −2𝑥 and 𝑥 2 lie between −1 and 1
59
 1 1
−1 < 2𝑥 < 1 if − 2 < 𝑥 < 2

−1 < 𝑥 2 < 1 if −1 < 𝑥 < 1

Recall that 𝑍 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, where 𝑥 is the real part and 𝑦 is the imaginary part.

In polar form, 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) .

Definition:

The modulus or absolute value denoted by |𝑧| or 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑧 of a complex number

𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is its distance from the origin and is denoted by

|𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

Note that 𝑧 . 𝑧̅ = (𝑥 + 𝑦)(𝑥 − 𝑦) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2

Examples:

1) Find the 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑧 of the following:

a. 𝑧 = 4 + 2𝑖 b. 𝑧 = 3 − 𝑖 c. 𝑧 = 6 + 8𝑖

Solution:

a. 𝑧 = 4 + 2𝑖

|𝑧| = √42 + 22 = √16 + 4 = √20 = 2√5

b. 𝑧 = 3 − 𝑖

|𝑧| = √32 + (−1)2 = √9 + 1 = √10 = √10

c. 𝑧 = 6 + 8𝑖

60
 |𝑧| = √62 + 82 = √36 + 64 = √100 = 10
𝑦 𝑦
Now, since 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃) and 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , tan 𝜃 = 𝑥 ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 𝑥

Then, the angle 𝜃 is called the Argument or amplitude of 𝑧 and we write 𝜃 =

arg 𝑧 and measure in radians.

Note: arg 𝑧 is not unique any two argument of 𝑧 differs by integer multiply of
2𝜋.

61
SEQUENCE AND SERIES

A sequence is an ordered list of terms in which each can be obtained from the
previous term by a simple rule or logic.

Examples:

i) 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, …

ii) 31, 26, 21, 16, 11, …

iii) 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, ….

In (i), 𝑇1 = 5

𝑇2 = 5 + 4 = 9

𝑇3 = 5 + (4 × 2) = 13

𝑇4 = 5 + (4 × 3) = 17

… …..

𝑇𝑛 = 5 + 4 × (𝑛 − 1)

𝑇𝑛 = 5 + 4𝑛 − 4 = 1 + 4𝑛

In (ii), 𝑇1 = 31

𝑇2 = 31 − (5𝑥1) = 26

𝑇3 = 31 − (5 × 2) = 21

𝑇4 = 31 − (5 × 3) = 16

… …..

𝑇𝑛 = 31 − 5 × (𝑛 − 1)

62
 𝑇𝑛 = 31 − 5𝑛 + 5 = 36 − 5𝑛

Note: The difference between a term and the term immediately preceding, it is
always a constant. This constant number is called the common difference. The
𝑛𝑡ℎ term of a linear sequence have a first term 𝑎, and common difference 𝑑, we
wish to find the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term 𝑇𝑛 of the linear sequence.

𝑇1 = 𝑎

𝑇2 − 𝑇1 = 𝑑

𝑇2 = 𝑎 + 𝑑

𝑇3 = 𝑇2 + 𝑑 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑

𝑇4 = 𝑎 + 3𝑑

…. ….

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

Hence, the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of a linear sequence whose first term is a 2 nd common
difference is 𝑑 is given by the formula

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

Examples:

1) Find the 40th term of the linear sequence 6, 11, 16, …

Solution:

𝑎 = 6, 𝑑 = 11 − 6 = 5, 𝑛 = 40

𝑇𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

𝑇40 = 6 + (40 − 1)5

63
 𝑇40 = 6 + 195 = 201

2) The 4th term of an AP is 15 and 9th term is 35, find the fifteenth term.

Solution:

𝑇4 = 𝑎 + 3𝑑 = 15

𝑇9 = 𝑎 + 8𝑑 = 35

𝑎=3

−5𝑑 = −20

𝑑=4

𝑇15 = 𝑎 + 14𝑑

𝑇15 = 3 + 14 × 4

𝑇15 = 59

3) If 8, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 and 20 are arithmetic progression. Find 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧

Solution:

𝑇1 = 𝑎 = 8

𝑇5 = 𝑎 + 4𝑑 = 20

𝑇5 = 8 + 4𝑑 = 20

4𝑑 = 20 − 8

4𝑑 = 12

𝑑=3

𝑇2 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 8 + 3 = 𝑥

64
 𝑇2 = 𝑥 = 11

𝑇3 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑 = 8 + 2(3) = 𝑦

𝑇3 = 𝑦 = 14

𝑇4 = 𝑎 + 3𝑑 = 8 + 3(3) = 𝑧

𝑇4 = 𝑧 = 17

Note: The 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of a sequence can be determined from the sum of the first
𝑛𝑡ℎ term. Suppose 𝑆𝑛 denote the sum of the first n terms of a sequence whose
𝑛𝑡ℎ term is 𝑇𝑛 , then

𝑆𝑛̅ = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + ⋯ + 𝑇𝑛 - - - (1)

̅
𝑆𝑛−1 = 𝑇1 + 𝑇2 + 𝑇3 + ⋯ + 𝑇𝑛−1 - - - (2)

Subtracting (2) from (1), we have

𝑆𝑛̅ − 𝑆𝑛−1
̅ = 𝑆𝑛̅

⇒ 𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆𝑛̅ − 𝑆𝑛−1
̅

If the term of a sequence are considered as sum, for example 2 + 6 + 8 + ⋯

then the expression is called series. Where there is a limit to the sequence, the
summation gives a finite series. +1, +2, +3.

If there is no limit to the sequence, the summation results is an infinite series.

Example is +1, +2, +3, ….

Example: Find the sequence whose sum of n term is 2𝑛(𝑛 + 1)

Solution:

Let 𝑇𝑛 denote the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of the required sequence

65
𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑛(𝑛 + 1

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑆𝑛̅ − 𝑆𝑛−1
̅

𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑛(𝑛 + 1) − 2(𝑛 − 1)[(𝑛 − 1) + 1]

𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑛(𝑛 + 1) − 2(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛)

𝑆𝑛 = 2𝑛2 + 2𝑛 − 2𝑛2 + 2𝑛

𝑆𝑛 = 4𝑛

Hence the sequence is 2, 4, 6

Sum of A. P

If the first term of an A. P is 𝑎 and the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term is L, we can find the sum of the
𝑛𝑡ℎ term of the sequence as follows:

Let the sum of the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term be 𝑆𝑛 and the common difference be 𝑑.

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + (𝑎 + 𝑑) + (𝑎 + 2𝑑) + ⋯ + (𝐿 − 𝑑) + 𝐿 - (1)

𝑆𝑛 = 𝐿 + (𝐿 − 𝑑) + (𝐿 − 2𝑑) + ⋯ + (𝑎 + 𝑑) + 𝑎 - (2)

Adding equation (1) and (2), we have

𝑆𝑛 + 𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝐿) + (𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝐿 − 𝑑) + (𝑎 + 2𝑑 + 𝐿 − 2𝑑) + (𝐿 − 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 𝑑)
+ (𝑎 + 𝐿)

2𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝐿) + (𝑎 + 𝐿) + ⋯ + (𝑎 + 𝐿)

2𝑆𝑛 = 𝑛(𝑎 + 𝐿)
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 (𝑎 + 𝐿)

But 𝐿 = 𝑛𝑡ℎ

66
𝐿 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

𝐿 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 (𝑎 + 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑)

𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [𝑎 + 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]
2

Thus, the sum of the first term (𝑆𝑛 ) of an A. P is given by

𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑] or 𝑆𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝐿)
2 2

Examples:

1) Find the sum of the first twenty terms of the linear sequence 1, 5, 9, …

Solution:

𝑎 = 1, 𝑑 = 4, 𝑛 = 20
20
𝑆20 = [2(1) + (20 − 1)4]
2

𝑆20 = 10 × 78

𝑆20 = 780

2) Find the sum of the A. P 1, 3, 5, …, 101.

Solution:

𝑎 = 1, 𝑑 = 2, 𝐿 = 101

𝐿 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

101 = 1 + (𝑛 − 1)2

101 = 1 + 2𝑛 − 2

67
 101 = 2𝑛 − 1

102 = 2𝑛

𝑛 = 51
51
𝑆51 = (1 + 101)
2

51
𝑆51 = (102) = 51 × 51 = 2601
2

𝑆51 = 2601

3) The 4th term of an A. P is 18 and the common difference is −5, find the
sum of the first twenty terms.

Solution:

4th term = 18, 𝑑 = −5

𝑇4 = 𝑎 + 3𝑑 = 18

𝑇4 = 𝑎 + 3(−5) = 18 ⇒ 𝑎 − 15 = 18

𝑎 = 33
20
𝑆20 = [2(33) + (20 − 1)(−5)]
2

𝑆20 = 10(66 + (−95))

𝑆20 = 10(−29)

𝑆20 = −290

Arithmetic Mean

The Arithmetic mean of two numbers 𝑝 and 𝑟 is a number 𝑞 between 𝑝 and 𝑟

such that 𝑝, 𝑞 and 𝑟 are in arithmetical progression.
68
Thus if 𝑝, 𝑞 and r are in arithmetic progression then 𝑑 = 𝑞 − 𝑝

𝑑 =𝑟−𝑞

⇒𝑞−𝑝 =𝑟−𝑞

Examples:

1) Find the arithmetic mean of 4 and 18.

Solution:

Let the arithmetic mean be 𝑝, then 4, 𝑝, 18 are in progression

4+18
𝑝= = 11
2

2) Insert three arithmetic mean between 19 and 35.

Solution:

Let the arithmetic mean be 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟 then 19, 𝑝, 𝑞, 𝑟, 35 are in progression

𝑇1 = 𝑎 = 19

𝑇5 = 𝑎 + 4𝑑 = 35

19 + 4𝑑 = 35

4𝑑 = 35 − 19 = 16

𝑑=4

𝑇2 = 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 19 + 4 = 23

𝑇3 = 19 + 4(2) = 27

𝑇4 = 19 + 4(3) = 31

𝑝 = 23, 𝑞 = 27, 𝑟 = 31
69
Geometric Progression

When a sequence is generated by multiplying number (called the common

ratio) to get the succeeding term, the sequence is geometric progression (G. P).

𝒏𝒕𝒉 term of a G. P

Suppose the first term of a G. P is 𝑎 and the common ratio is 𝑟, we can obtain
the 𝑛𝑡ℎ term as follows:

1st term = 𝑎

2nd term = 𝑎𝑟

3rd term = 𝑎𝑟 2

…..

𝑛𝑡ℎ term = 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1

Examples:

i) The first term of a G. P is 6, if its common ratio is 2, find the 6th term.

Solution:

𝑎 = 6, 𝑟 = 2

𝑇6 = 𝑎𝑟 6−1

𝑇6 = (6)(2)5 = 192

70
ii) The common ratio of a G. P is 2, if the fifth term is greater than the 1st term
by 45, find the fifth term?

Solution:

𝑟=2

But 𝑇5 = 𝑎𝑟 4 = (𝑎)(2)4 = 𝑎 + 45

16𝑎 = 𝑎 + 45

15𝑎 = 45 ⇒ 𝑎 = 3

𝑇5 = 3 + 45 = 48

3, 6, 12, 24, 48

Sum of G.P

If the first term of a G. P is 𝑎 and the common ratio is 𝑟, we can find the sum of
the first 𝑛𝑡ℎ term of the G, P as follows:

𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 - (1)

Multiply equation (1) by 𝑟

𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 + 𝑎𝑟 4 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛 - - (2)

Subtracting (2) from (1), we have

𝑆𝑛 − 𝑟𝑆𝑛 = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 − 𝑎𝑟 2 + ⋯

𝑆𝑛 (1 − 𝑟) = 𝑎(1 − 𝑟) + 𝑎𝑟(1 − 𝑟) + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑟 𝑛−1 (1 − 𝑟)

On subtracting, all terms cancel except the first and last term,

𝑆𝑛 (1 − 𝑟) = 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑟 𝑛

71
 𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = (1−𝑟)
for 𝑟 < 1

𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 −1)
𝑆𝑛 = (𝑟−1)
for 𝑟 > 1

If |𝑟| < 1 and 𝑛 tend to infinity, then 𝑟 𝑛 → 0 𝑎𝑠 𝑛 → ∞

The sum of the 𝑛 terms as 𝑛 approaches infinity is called sum to infinity of the
series and is designated as
𝑎
𝑆∞ = 1−𝑟

Examples:

a) The third term of a G. P is 63 and the fifth term is 567, find the sum of the
first six term of the progression?

Solution:

𝑇3 = 𝑎𝑟 2 = 63

𝑇5 = 𝑎𝑟 4 = 567

𝑎𝑟 4 567
=
𝑎𝑟 2 63

𝑟2 = 9 ⇒ 𝑟 = 3

𝑎(3)2 = 63

9𝑎 = 63

𝑎 = 7, 𝑛 = 6

𝑎(𝑟 𝑛 −1) 7(36 −1)

𝑆𝑛 = (𝑟−1)
= (6−1)

7(729−1)
𝑆6 = = 2548
2

72
b) Find the sum of the first 6 terms of the exponential sequence 18, 6, 2, …

Solution:

𝑇1 = 𝑎 = 18

𝑇2 = 𝑎𝑟 = 6

18𝑟 = 6
6 1
𝑟 = 18 = 3

𝑎(1−𝑟 𝑛 )
𝑆𝑛 = (1−𝑟)

1 6
18(1−(3) )
𝑆6 = 1
(1− )
3

728
𝑆6 = 27

Exercises

a) If the 16th term of an A. P is 3 times the 4 th term, prove that the 23rd term
is 5 times the 3rd term.

Solution:

𝑇16 = 3𝑇4

𝑎 + 15𝑑 = 3(𝑎 + 3𝑑)

𝑎 + 15𝑑 = 3𝑎 + 9𝑑)

𝑎 − 3𝑎 = 9𝑑 − 15𝑑

−2𝑎 = −6𝑑 ⇒ 2𝑎 = 6𝑑

𝑎 = 3𝑑 - - - - (1)
73
 Therefore,

𝑇3 = 𝑎 + 2𝑑 from (1)

𝑇3 = 3𝑑 + 2𝑑 = 5𝑑

𝑇23 = 𝑎 + 22𝑑 = 25𝑑

5(5𝑑) = 5𝑇3

Hence prove.

b) Find three numbers in arithmetic progression whose sum is 21, and

whose product is 315.

Solution:

Let the numbers be 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑, 𝑎 + 2𝑑 implies

𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 2𝑑 = 21

3𝑎 + 3𝑑 = 21 - - - (1)

(𝑎)(𝑎 + 𝑑)(𝑎 + 2𝑑) = 315

(𝑎2 + 𝑎𝑑)(𝑎 + 2𝑑) = 315

𝑎3 + 2𝑎2 𝑑 + 𝑎2 𝑑 + 2𝑎𝑑2 = 315

𝑎3 + 3𝑎2 𝑑 + 2𝑎𝑑2 = 315 - (2)

From (1)

21−3𝑑
𝑎= - - - - (3)
3

Substituting (3) into (2)

74
 21−3𝑑 3 21−3𝑑 2 21−3𝑑
( ) +3( ) 𝑑 + 2( ) 𝑑2 = 315
3 3 3

But recall 1, 3, 3, 1

(21 − 3𝑑)3 = (21)3 + 3(21)2 (−3𝑑) + 3(21)(−3𝑑)2 + (−3𝑑)3

(21 − 3𝑑)3 = 9261 − 3969𝑑 + 567𝑑2 − 27𝑑3

(21 − 3𝑑)2 = (21 − 3𝑑)(21 − 3𝑑)

(21 − 3𝑑)2 = 441 − 126𝑑 + 9𝑑2

9261−3969𝑑+567𝑑 2 −27𝑑 3 3(441−126𝑑+9𝑑 2 )𝑑 2(21−3𝑑)

+ + 𝑑2 = 315 - (4)
27 9 3

Multiply (4) by 27

9261−3969𝑑+567𝑑 2 −27𝑑 3 3(441−126𝑑+9𝑑 2 )𝑑 2(21−3𝑑)

27 ( ) + 27 ( ) + 27 ( 𝑑2 ) =
27 9 3

27(315)

9261 − 3969𝑑 + 567𝑑2 − 27𝑑3 + 3969𝑑 − 1134𝑑2 + 81𝑑3 + 378 𝑑2 −

54𝑑3 = 8505

81𝑑3 − 81𝑑3 + 567𝑑2 + 378𝑑2 − 1134𝑑2 − 3969𝑑 + 3969𝑑 = 8505 − 9261

−189𝑑2 = 8505 − 9261

−189𝑑2 = −756

756
𝑑2 = =4
189

⇒𝑑 =±2

Substituting ± 2 in (1) to obtain 𝑎

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 For +2,

3𝑎 + 3(2) = 21

3𝑎 = 21 − 6 = 15

𝑎=5

For −2,

3𝑎 + 3(−2) = 3𝑎 − 6 = 21

3𝑎 = 21 + 6 = 27

𝑎=9

Therefore, if 𝑎 = 5 ⇒ 𝑑 = 2

That is 5, 7, 9; so 5 + 7 + 9= 21, 5 × 7 × 9= 315

Therefore, if 𝑎 = 9 ⇒ 𝑑 = −2

That is 9, 7, 5; so 9 + 7 + 5= 21, 9 × 7 × 5 = 315

Another method

Let the number be 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑

Then, 𝑎 − 𝑑 + 𝑎 + 𝑎 + 𝑑 = 21

3𝑎 = 21

𝑎=7

𝑎(𝑎 − 𝑑)(𝑎 + 𝑑) = 𝑎(𝑎2 − 𝑑2 ) = 315

7(49 − 𝑑2 ) = 315

343 − 7𝑑2 = 315

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 −7𝑑2 = 315 − 343 = −28

−7𝑑2 = −28

𝑑2 = 4

𝑑 = ±2

And the required numbers are 5, 7, 9

Note: The three quantities 𝑎 − 𝑑, 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑 progression and 𝑎 is the arithmetic

mean of the other two.

Examples:

a) The first two terms of an arithmetic series are −2 and 3, how many terms
are needed for the sum to be equal 306?

Solution:

The first two terms are 𝑎, 𝑎 + 𝑑 are −2 and 3, so that 𝑎 = −2

𝑎 + 𝑑 = 3 ⇒ −2 + 𝑑 = 3

𝑑=5
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑]

𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 [2(−2) + (𝑛 − 1)(5)]

𝑛 𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 [−4 + 5𝑛 − 5] = 2 [5𝑛 − 9] = 306

5𝑛2 − 9𝑛 = 612

5𝑛2 − 9𝑛 − 612 = 0
51
𝑛 = 12, 𝑛 = − 5

77
b) The second, fourth and eight term of an A. P are in G.P and the sum of the
third and fifth term is 20, find the first four term of the progression.

Solution:

𝑇2 = 𝑎 + 𝑑

𝑇4 = 𝑎 + 3𝑑

𝑇8 = 𝑎 + 7𝑑

Therefore,
𝑇2 + 𝑇4 + 𝑇8 = 20

2𝑎 + 6𝑑 = 20 - - - - (1)

But since 𝑇2 , 𝑇4 , 𝑇8 are in G.P, by assumption

(𝑎 + 𝑑)(𝑎 + 7𝑑) = (𝑎 + 3𝑑)2

𝑎2 + 7𝑎𝑑 + 𝑎𝑑 + 7𝑑2 = 𝑎2 + 6𝑎𝑑 + 9𝑑2

𝑎2 + 8𝑎𝑑 + 7𝑑2 = 𝑎2 + 6𝑎𝑑 + 9𝑑2

𝑎2 + 8𝑎𝑑 + 7𝑑2 − 𝑎2 − 6𝑎𝑑 + 9𝑑2 = 0

2𝑎2 − 2𝑑2 = 0

2𝑎2 = 2𝑑2

𝑎=𝑑 - - - - - - (2)

Therefore, put (2) into (1)

2𝑎 + 6𝑑 = 20

2𝑑 + 6𝑑 = 20

78
 20 5
8𝑑 = 20 ⇒ 𝑑 = =2
8

5 17
Therefore, they are 2 , 5, , 10
2

c) Find the sum of numbers between 200 and 400 which are divisible by 7.

Solution:

Since 4 is left as remainder on division of 200 by 7, the least number

greater than 200 divisible by 7 is 203, again, if we divide 400 by 7, 1 is left
as remainder.

This implies that the greatest number less 400 which is divisible by 7 is
399

⇒ 203, 210, 217, …. , 399

𝑎 = 203, 𝑑 = 7, 𝐿 = 399

Let 𝑛 be the total number of terms in the series,

Recall that 𝐿 = 𝑎 + (𝑛 − 1)𝑑

399 = 203 + (𝑛 − 1)7

399 = 203 + 7𝑛 − 7

399 = 196 + 7𝑛

203 = 7𝑛

𝑛 = 29

Hence,
𝑛
𝑆𝑛 = 2 (𝑎 + 𝑙)

79
 29
𝑆29 = (203 + 399)
2

29
𝑆29 = (602) = 29(301) = 8729
2

𝑆29 = 8729

Exercise

In a geometrical progression, the sum of the second and third term is 6, and the
sum of the third and fourth term is −12, find the first term and the common
ratio.

Solution:

𝑇2 = 𝑎𝑟

𝑇3 = 𝑎𝑟 2

⇒ 𝑎𝑟 + 𝑎𝑟 2 = 6 - - - - (1)

⇒ 𝑎𝑟 2 + 𝑎𝑟 3 = −12 - - - - (2)

Factorizing the both equation

𝑎𝑟(1 + 𝑟) = 6

𝑎𝑟 2 (1 + 𝑟) = −2

Divide by 𝑎𝑟

𝑎𝑟(1 + 𝑟) = 6

𝑎𝑟 2 (1 + 𝑟) = −2
1 1
=−
𝑟 2

⇒ 2 = −𝑟; 𝑟 = −2

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Subtracting in (2)

𝑎(−2) + 𝑎(−2)2 = 6

−2𝑎 + 4𝑎 = 6

⇒ 2𝑎 = 6

𝑎=3

81